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Evidence-Based Teaching in Higher Education: Application to Counselor Education

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Title: Evidence-Based Teaching in Higher Education: Application to Counselor Education
Language: English
Authors: Malott, Krista M., Hall, K. Hridaya, Sheely-Moore, Angela
Source: Counselor Education and Supervision. Dec 2014 53(4):294-305.
Availability: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2014
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Evaluative
Information Analyses
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Higher Education, Teaching Methods, Counselor Training, Best Practices, College Programs, Educational Environment, Learning Experience, Intentional Learning, Instructional Effectiveness, Doctoral Programs, Teacher Evaluation
DOI: 10.1002/j.1556-6978.2014.00064.x
ISSN: 0011-0035
Abstract: The authors examined best practices in university-level teaching, as premised on the evidence-based teaching (EBT) literature found in fields external to counselor education. Findings were reported in relation to 3 areas: developing an effective learning environment, structuring intentional learning experiences, and assessing teaching effectiveness. Implications regarding the training of doctoral-level counselor educators using EBT practices are discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2014
Accession Number: EJ1046590
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0099709839;cev01dec.14;2018Jun28.13:59;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0099709839-1">Evidence-Based Teaching in Higher Education: Application to Counselor Education. </title> <p>The authors examined best practices in university‐level teaching, as premised on the evidence‐based teaching (EBT) literature found in fields external to counselor education. Findings were reported in relation to 3 areas: developing an effective learning environment, structuring intentional learning experiences, and assessing teaching effectiveness. Implications regarding the training of doctoral‐level counselor educators using EBT practices are discussed.</p> <p>evidence‐based teaching; counselor education; pedagogy; student–instructor relationship</p> <p>Teaching is deemed an important role for faculty members in higher education (Bentley & Kyvik, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref1">12</reflink>] ; Robinson & Hope, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref2">46</reflink>] ), particularly for counselor educators who report high teaching loads (Magnuson, Norem, & Lonneman‐Doroff, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref3">35</reflink>] ) and more time spent on teaching than on scholarship or service activities (Davis, Levitt, McGlothlin, & Hill, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref4">18</reflink>] ). Despite this critical emphasis on instruction in the daily activities of faculty members, there is a reported lack of variety in pedagogical training experiences for doctoral students in their preparation as future faculty members (Magnuson, Shaw, Tubin, & Norem, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref5">36</reflink>] ). In fact, experts have expressed concern about the quality of counselor education preparation training in relation to teaching (Barrio Minton, Myers, & Morganfield, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref6">9</reflink>] ; Barrio Minton, Wachter‐Morris, & Yaites, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref7">10</reflink>] ). Echoing such concern, counselor educators in their 1st year of full‐time employment have identified teaching as an area of great challenge (Magnuson et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref8">36</reflink>] ).</p> <p>To assist new faculty members in their role as educators, many institutions provide orientation programs to “acquaint them with institutional mission, policies, procedures, and culture” (Diaz et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref9">20</reflink>] , p. 50), including issues pertaining to teaching. However, Diaz et al. ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref10">20</reflink>] ) questioned the utility of such “crash course” (p. 50) models, because of their limited scope in content and the restricted time allotted for instructional‐specific training. Hence, despite the implementation of new faculty orientation programs, the likelihood remains that many new faculty members feel unprepared in best pedagogical practices.</p> <p>Efforts to educate oneself on teaching via the counseling education literature are equally problematic. In a content analysis of 230 peer‐reviewed counseling articles focused on teaching and learning between 2001 and 2010, Barrio Minton et al. ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref11">10</reflink>] ) found a dearth of instructional research and scholarship citing pedagogical methods. According to Barrio Minton and colleagues, articles about teaching in core areas such as assessment, career development, and research and program evaluation were virtually nonexistent; there was a larger emphasis on multicultural instruction and clinically oriented courses (e.g., skills and group work). There was a noticeable absence of articles regarding the preparation of doctoral‐level candidates in instructional methods and theories. For the majority of research addressing instruction, directives focused on course content and specific techniques and were more often grounded in competency documents or clinical resources rather than in learning theories or higher education research (Barrio Minton et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref12">10</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Consequently, no resource exists in the field that draws from the rich body of evidenced‐based practices in teaching in higher education. Groccia and Buskist ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref13">26</reflink>] ) synthesized definitions of evidence‐based teaching (EBT) from the fields of nursing, social work, medicine, and psychology and defined it as “the conscientious, explicit, and judicious integration of best available research on teaching technique and expertise within the context of student, teacher, department, college, university, and community characteristics” (p. 8). To expand knowledge of effective instructional practice in counselor education, we conducted a literature review of university‐level EBT practices. Because of limited space, we used Bain's ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref14">7</reflink>] ) seminal work on what the “best” university instructors do to identify three categories for exploration: (a) creating effective learning environments, (b) structuring intentional learning experiences, and (c) assessing teaching effectiveness.</p> <p>EBT literature related to those three categories was identified through use of various databases, including PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, Sociological Abstracts, Education Research Complete, Google Scholar, Summons, and Academic Search Premier. Terms used for the search included higher education, evidenced‐based teaching, teaching effectiveness, instruction, pedagogy, and empirically supported teaching. Although space constraints prohibited the inclusion of all EBT practices, we describe many of the best practices and address implications regarding the training of doctoral‐level counselor educators.</p> <hd id="AN0099709839-2">EBT: Best Practices</hd> <hd id="AN0099709839-3">Creating Effective Learning Environments</hd> <p>For more than 30 years, researchers across academic levels and disciplines have linked the quality of the classroom environment to student learning (Dorman & Fraser, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref15">22</reflink>] ). Findings consistently indicate that certain instructor behaviors can create a motivating learning environment. Instructors' organization and clarity regarding learning intentions and goals have been cited as key contributors to effective learning environments (Hattie, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref16">30</reflink>] ; Lowman, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref17">34</reflink>] ; Pepe & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref18">44</reflink>] ). In addition, researchers have found that students' perception of instructor caring was essential in motivating learning (McCroskey, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref19">39</reflink>] ; Meyers, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref20">41</reflink>] ). Factors related to caring were defined uniquely in different studies; however, in general, shared factors included perceptions of the instructor as being respectful, interested, warm (Wilson, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref21">59</reflink>] ), and available for personal contact (Wilkie, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref22">58</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Other instructor variables and actions that have been linked to an improved learning environment include instructor humor, enthusiasm, creativity (Lowman, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref23">34</reflink>] ), and instructor immediacy (M. Allen, Witt, & Wheeless, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref24">2</reflink>] ). Instructor immediacy, involving verbal (e.g., using self‐disclosures, using “we” and “us” to build cohesion, complimenting students' performances) as well as nonverbal (e.g., eye gaze, smiles, head nods, forward lean) behaviors that build student–instructor rapport (Mehrabian, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref25">40</reflink>] ), has been directly correlated with motivation, perception of learning, attitude toward the course and instructor, and affective learning and indirectly related to cognitive learning (M. Allen et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref26">2</reflink>] ; Christensen & Menzel, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref27">17</reflink>] ; Wilson, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref28">59</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Instructors can establish rapport with students even before a semester begins, with welcoming e‐mails (Legg & Wilson, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref29">33</reflink>] ) and the use of a syllabus with friendly language (Harnish & Bridges, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref30">29</reflink>] ). Both strategies have been shown to have a positive impact on students' attitudes across the length of a course. Management of early impressions on learning also can include procedural tactics on the 1st day of class. For example, Wilson and Wilson ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref31">60</reflink>] ) found that reviewing the syllabus in a friendly manner—with smiles, no homework assignment, and early release—affected greater student motivation across the term and higher final exam scores compared with 1st‐day procedures that entailed staying the entire first class period, a homework assignment, and a review of the syllabus in a formal manner.</p> <hd id="AN0099709839-4">Structuring Intentional Learning Experiences</hd> <p>In addition to examining the quality of the classroom environment, researchers have asserted that instructors are more likely to promote optimal and intentional learning experiences when honoring the way students actually learn (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref32">3</reflink>] ; Bain, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref33">7</reflink>] ). Three main tenets emerged from the literature on structuring intentional learning experiences: working with students' prior knowledge, engaging in higher order cognitive processes, and stimulating active learning. We discuss these tenets below, combining higher order cognitive thinking and active learning into one subsection.</p> <p>Prior knowledge. The transmission model of learning in which students are open, passive containers ready to receive deposits of information from a more knowledgeable source has been challenged from early (Dewey, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref34">19</reflink>] ) to more recent (Buskist & Groccia, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref35">15</reflink>] ) works. In fact, even when students are presented with compelling facts supporting a certain construct, evidence suggests that their attachment to prior experiences and learned constructs may impede the full integration of new concepts and knowledge (Zietsman & Clement, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref36">61</reflink>] ). Hence, in determining instructional content and direction, educators should first assess and attend to students' prior learning related to course topics.</p> <p>In an extensive examination of university instructors across disciplines and throughout the United States, Bain ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref37">7</reflink>] ) suggested that assessment of students' prior knowledge, or what he called “mental models” (p. 27), can be achieved through initial surveys or discussions in the first few class sessions as well as through ongoing exploration of prior learning specific to each new topic introduced. After assessing students' mental models, instructors can then develop and present course assignments to include thought‐provoking questions or dilemmas to challenge assumptions or faulty learning while providing ongoing support to allow for failure and reconstruction of new models (Bain, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref38">7</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Finally, evidence suggests that students may particularly resist the incorporation of new information perceived as controversial or threatening to their worldviews (Hardisty, Johnson, & Weber, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref39">28</reflink>] ). In such instances, best practices indicate the need to remain empathetic to students' emotional attachments to existing schemas and to present facts with worldview‐affirming language or perspectives (Hardisty et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref40">28</reflink>] ). Hardisty et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref41">28</reflink>] ) used environmental concerns as an example of this, suggesting that individuals opposed to government intervention in environmental laws would be more amenable to restrictions if presented with a worldview‐affirming term such as carbon offset in lieu of the less affirming term of tax.</p> <p>Higher order thinking and active learning. From the early philosophical writings of Dewey ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref42">19</reflink>] ) to the more recent articulation and revision of Bloom's ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref43">13</reflink>] ) educational taxonomies (Anderson & Krathwohl, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref44">4</reflink>] ; Granello & Underfer‐Babalis, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref45">25</reflink>] ), educators have long espoused the importance of supporting deep or significant learning that requires higher order critical thinking and skills from their students (Ambrose et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref46">3</reflink>] ). EBT research adds to the dialogue by providing data that support improved learning outcomes from teaching that is feedback‐ and student‐centered, active, and critical in nature (Ambrose et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref47">3</reflink>] ; Beichner et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref48">11</reflink>] ; Groccia & Buskist, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref49">26</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Researchers have identified improved learning outcomes with the use of teaching strategies that deemphasize lecture‐based instruction and promote critical engagement through a collaborative and active learning community (Groccia & Buskist, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref50">26</reflink>] ). Bain ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref51">7</reflink>] ) identified that a common characteristic of the “greatest” university instructors was their promotion of a critical learning environment, whereby students were asked to apply higher order cognitive skills as listed in Bloom's ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref52">13</reflink>] ) taxonomy, such as compare, contrast, support, synthesize, summarize, and apply. In his qualitative study, Bain offered research‐based examples of how critical learning environments can be fostered, and learning therefore deepened, when teachers (a) pose intriguing questions, (b) are transparent about the significance of questions, (c) invite students to make and defend judgments based on evidence, and (d) require students to consider unanswered questions.</p> <p>One way instructors can evoke higher order cognitive processes is through thoughtful alignment of instructional strategies with learning taxonomies (Anderson & Krathwohl, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref53">4</reflink>] ; Bloom, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref54">13</reflink>] ). For example, instructors who are able to delineate learning experiences that require students to use lower order cognitive skills, such as remembering or understanding, and instructors who require higher order skills, such as comparing, applying, evaluating, analyzing, summarizing, and synthesizing (Bloom, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref55">13</reflink>] ), are able to intentionally fashion learning experiences that evoke higher order cognitive processes.</p> <p>A review of student outcomes suggests that students taught through more active strategies are more frequently engaged in higher order cognitive processes than students taught by traditional lecture (D. E. Allen, Donham, & Bernhardt, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref56">1</reflink>] ; Buskist & Groccia, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref57">15</reflink>] ; Wieman, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref58">55</reflink>] ). Examples of teaching strategies that engage students in higher order cognitions and active learning include problem‐based learning (D. E. Allen at al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref59">1</reflink>] ), team‐based learning (Michaelsen & Sweet, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref60">42</reflink>] ), and case study teaching (Herreid, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref61">31</reflink>] ). Problem‐based learning uses student groups to attend to multistage, complex, real‐world problems, whereby under the guidance of the instructor, students begin with identification of a problem's boundaries and scope, drawing from prior knowledge. They must also identify gaps in knowledge, to be researched outside of class, with such tasks shared among team members. Findings and proposed solutions are then presented to peers in the following class period (D. E. Allen at al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref62">1</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Team‐based learning is a strategy that uses group work to foster peer discussions, teaching, and feedback, all experiences that have been shown to facilitate greater student learning outcomes (Michaelsen & Sweet, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref63">42</reflink>] ). In this intervention, peers teach one another certain constructs with ongoing testing and peer feedback, to verify learning and areas in need of instructor clarification. The intervention culminates in the application of learned tenets to case studies or problem‐based learning.</p> <p>Case studies, which present scenarios to be resolved in the form of stories (Herreid, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref64">31</reflink>] ), have been shown to increase student learning and the use of higher order thinking skills (Rybarczyk, Baines, McVey, Thompson, & Wilkins, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref65">47</reflink>] ). Case work should be done in small student groups to allow students to teach and learn from one another (Herreid, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref66">31</reflink>] ), and groups ideally should be highly diverse to expose students to a wide range of perspectives and solutions. Bain ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref67">7</reflink>] ) asserted that students are more likely to engage in, and learn from, cases or problems that are controversial, complex, and highly relevant to students' lives or experiences. Hence, cases can be premised on current events, scaffolded upon students' prior knowledge, or designed to contradict prior learning that is faulty or one‐dimensional in nature.</p> <hd id="AN0099709839-5">Assessing Teaching Effectiveness</hd> <p>The literature points to the significant role of assessment in student learning (Ambrose et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref68">3</reflink>] ; Bain, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref69">7</reflink>] ). Specifically, experts suggest that assessments, when intentionally aligned with educational taxonomies, can help instructors in determining if they have facilitated student learning (Anderson & Krathwohl, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref70">4</reflink>] ). Ongoing and immediate instructor‐to‐student and student‐to‐student feedback and assessment embedded throughout a course can effectively support student learning (D. E. Allen et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref71">1</reflink>] ; Michaelsen & Sweet, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref72">42</reflink>] ; Saville & Zinn, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref73">48</reflink>] ), promoting outcomes such as increased test performance (Hake, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref74">27</reflink>] ) and attendance and engagement (Shankar & Roopa, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref75">49</reflink>] ). Furthermore, student‐to‐instructor feedback illuminates student learning and has been shown to increase the actual quality of instruction (Hattie, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref76">30</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Assessment of student learning outcomes can be formative or summative. Formative assessments are assessments that occur during instruction to improve student learning and give direction for alterations in instruction (Anderson & Krathwohl, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref77">4</reflink>] ). For example, an educator can review concepts with which students struggled in the class following an exam. Summative assessments, such as essays, quizzes, rubrics, and examinations, are used at the culmination of a learning unit to determine the degree of learning that has occurred by assigning grades to students (Anderson & Krathwohl, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref78">4</reflink>] ). Current best practice supports the use of both summative and formative assessments (Stiggins, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref79">52</reflink>] ), with formative assessment in particular linked to student achievement and engagement (Wiliam, Lee, Harrison, & Black, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref80">57</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Experts assert that assessments are most effective in influencing student learning when they are presented in a supportive manner (Banta, Lund, Black, & Oblander, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref81">8</reflink>] ); are embedded into regular classroom assignments (Hodges, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref82">32</reflink>] ); and reflect learning as integrated, multidimensional, and identified through performance across time (Astin et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref83">6</reflink>] ). Buskist and Groccia ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref84">15</reflink>] ) asserted that EBT accommodates every variety of student assessment and that the type and nature of assessment depend on the desired learning outcome, as guided by Bloom's ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref85">13</reflink>] ) taxonomy. For example, a multiple‐choice exam is the most common format to assess the cognitive skill of recognizing and recalling information. More advanced skills can be assessed with the use of case vignettes, whereby students have to discern case facts and readings to choose the best diagnosis (e.g., analyze and apply). Advanced cognitive abilities can also be assessed through essays or oral presentations, and self‐reflections are appropriate for critiquing and evaluating skills (Anderson & Krathwohl, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref86">4</reflink>] ).</p> <p>A related and essential component of assessment is feedback, defined as the process of communicating progress toward a goal (Wiggins, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref87">56</reflink>] ). Feedback can include instructor‐to‐student or student‐to‐student feedback (Petty, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref88">45</reflink>] ). Bain ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref89">7</reflink>] ) found that effective teachers applied a learning‐centered approach to feedback, in which they emphasized students' intellectual and personal development as opposed to the assignments and examination scores. Thus, grading can be used as a way to communicate with students rather than to rank or judge them. Indeed, Suskie ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref90">53</reflink>] ) cautioned that grades do not reflect all learning gains and, when used alone, do not provide meaningful information about which competencies have and have not been mastered.</p> <p>Student‐to‐student feedback, or peer evaluation, is also an effective means for students to receive formative and summative feedback about their performances (Michaelsen & Sweet, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref91">42</reflink>] ). Experts have found that when students are trained to give peer feedback, the experience can result in enhanced academic performance (Sluijsmans, Brand‐Gruwel, & Van Merrienboer, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref92">50</reflink>] ). Multiple peer markers are best to ensure accuracy (Bouzidi & Jaillet, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref93">14</reflink>] ), and instructors should elicit nonjudgmental forms of feedback, such as asking students to articulate what they appreciate about their peers and what they request from their peers (Petty, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref94">45</reflink>] ). Instructors can then compile the evaluations and report them anonymously to students.</p> <p>Finally, student‐to‐instructor feedback can be both valid and reliable (Dodeen, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref95">21</reflink>] ). An instructor can elicit feedback in myriad ways, such as through online and written comments, in individual meetings, or with focus groups (Stewart & Stewart, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref96">51</reflink>] ). Ongoing feedback (e.g., collected multiple times across the semester) has been shown to improve future teaching performance and facilitate professional growth (Maker, Lewis, & Donnelly, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref97">37</reflink>] ), providing guidance for instructors to enact pedagogical changes that ultimately support student learning (Getzlaf, Perry, Toffner, Lamarche, & Edwards, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref98">24</reflink>] ; Hattie, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref99">30</reflink>] ).</p> <hd id="AN0099709839-6">Application of Best Practices to Counselor Education</hd> <p>To create an effective learning environment in counselor education classrooms, instructors should start with the students rather than the discipline (Bain, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref100">7</reflink>] ). Counselor educators, in comparison with instructors from other disciplines, have an advantage in doing so, given that counselor education training focuses on counseling microskills and attunement in relationships. Initial efforts to build rapport in the classroom could include sending a welcoming e‐mail prior to the first class, creating a syllabus that exudes warmth and encourages students' interest and engagement, using inclusive pronouns (e.g., “our class”), demonstrating personal interest by chatting with students before and after class, calling on students by name, and rewarding constructive participation with affirming comments (e.g., “excellent question”) while responding invitationally to comments that are off‐target (e.g., “not quite, let's keep thinking about this”).</p> <p>In addition to developing and maintaining an effective learning climate, instructors could use an online survey to elicit students' prior knowledge of each subject matter from which they can scaffold new knowledge and use to design assignments that challenge faulty learning. For example, in a counseling techniques course, several students may have previously developed a model of counseling as “advice giver,” based on feedback from family members and friends. To challenge this schema, an instructor could ask students to role play a counseling session whereby they must first give advice, followed with one that applies active listening skills. The instructor can then elicit use of higher order cognitive skills by asking the students to compare and contrast the different counseling approaches, as well as defending final perspectives with evidence from empirical readings. To solidify new schema, instructors can ask students to complete a journal reflection that includes emotional and cognitive reactions to shifting prior assumptions regarding the counselor's role.</p> <p>To engage students in active learning, instructors can regularly incorporate case studies and problem‐based learning, forming small diverse groups that remain together throughout the semester to promote cohesion and increase comfort with peer teaching and feedback. The students can draw on higher order cognitive skills in assignments. For instance, in a career counseling course, one activity can require students to explore the utility of theoretical models in meeting the needs of underserved populations. Addressing the knowledge task, the first of Bloom's ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref101">13</reflink>] ) taxonomy tasks, students can acquire a basic knowledge of theories and best practices in the cross‐cultural adaptation of interventions. For the next task, comprehension, students can use team teaching as a class‐based activity to describe to their peers several ways one theory can be adapted to meet the needs of a population that is representative of their geographic region.</p> <p>To apply the task of application, an instructor can ask students to draw from theory and research to demonstrate to peers how their client population could possibly be affected through biased application of a theory. Corresponding with Bloom's ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref102">13</reflink>] ) analysis task, peers can then compare and contrast significant differences and similarities across their presentations (e.g., how were conclusions similar and different regarding effective adaptation of theories?). Next, the students can present a synthesis of material, bringing knowledge together in a new way, to propose a conclusion regarding the utility of career theory with underserved clientele. Finally, they can perform an evaluation of the assignment to assess the overall importance of conclusions and to defend the conclusions with theory and empirical evidence.</p> <p>In all courses, instructors can collect student feedback in writing or via anonymous online surveys at midterm and discuss that feedback, as well as any corresponding changes made to instructional strategies, in the next class session. They can also apply formative and summative assessment to determine and correct learning. Using team‐based teaching, prior to each course unit, instructors can ask students to complete a quiz to assess their comprehension of new material. The quiz can be repeated in teams during class, with the opportunity for team members to teach one another and to write “appeals” to answers marked as incorrect by the instructor. Additionally, after exams or major assignments, areas of confusion can be reviewed, accompanied by a case study or assignment to address faulty learning.</p> <p>Finally, to complement the quantitative student feedback collected by most universities at the end of the semester, instructors can disseminate their own student feedback form to elicit anonymous and qualitative responses. They can ask what helped students achieve the course goals (with the goals placed on that form as a reminder) and what instructors could do differently to increase student goal achievement. Instructors can draw from the thematic answers (rather than a single student opinion) to reshape future instruction in the subsequent semester.</p> <hd id="AN0099709839-7">Discussion</hd> <p>In this article, we sought to synthesize the literature on best practices across three areas (i.e., creating effective learning environments, structuring intentional learning experiences, and assessing student learning) to identify teaching strategies from the higher education literature that could enhance counselor education practices. We believe such practices are meaningful because they offer empirically supported guidelines for strategic intentionality in course design and teaching execution, something that has not existed in the counselor education literature. Understanding the why behind selected teaching environments, assignments, and assessments is an ethically advisable approach to teaching. Intentional teaching parallels best practices in counseling; that is, a counselor's clinical behaviors should be supported with some line of intentionality, preferably derived from an advanced, cognitively complex thought process and premised on research and theory (Norcross & Wampold, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref103">43</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Many of the identified best practices seemed to fit readily with the counseling profession (e.g., case studies, active learning), and it is likely that they are already being applied by many counselor educators at some level. Although counselor educators might include them in their educational philosophy and practices (e.g., student centered, active learning, experiential) or innately use strategies that align with these practices, research and instructional experts indicate that application of EBT tenets does not always ensure better learning, because there is always a risk of poorly executing such strategies (Andrews, Leonard, Colgrove, & Kalinowski, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref104">5</reflink>] ; Case, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref105">16</reflink>] ). Additionally, although effective teaching requires certain counselor‐based elements (e.g., warmth, positive regard, positive nonverbals), those characteristics alone are not sufficient for effective learning outcomes. Teaching is a discipline of its own, complex and with learned skills to be practiced and improved over time.</p> <p>Consequently, efforts must be made to better prepare and support counselor educators, ideally during their doctoral‐level training, so that they may successfully learn to apply practices that create effective contexts for learning to take place in their future settings (Barrio Minton et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref106">10</reflink>] ). To acquaint counselor educator doctoral students with EBT practices, counselor educators would ideally model such practices in those students' courses, with explicit dialogue about why certain instructional strategies were chosen and how to assess the impact of such strategies. In addition, counselor educators could assign a research study or a paper focused on contemporary EBT practices, to introduce pedagogical theory and practice with intentionality.</p> <p>There are many additional ways doctoral students can gain skills and knowledge in best teaching practices. The doctoral students can be asked to observe and critique instructors, in or outside the field, who are known for best practices in teaching. They can design syllabi and specific lesson plans premised on best practices, and they would ideally be given multiple opportunities to apply such practices through coteaching courses or practicing with one another in a course dedicated to pedagogical development. A handout detailing best practices could be developed and used by doctoral students to provide structured feedback to their peers. With any teaching opportunity during their training, the doctoral students would also ideally receive supervision from an instructional expert who may not necessarily be in the counseling field (Weidart, Roethel, & Gurung, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref107">54</reflink>] ). Finally, instructors in a pedagogy or research course could require students to design outcome studies to assess the impact of any teaching efforts, to increase the likelihood of engagement in such scholarship when students are fully employed as counselor educators.</p> <p>For current instructors seeking to increase the use of EBT practices, changes in teaching may prove particularly challenging for those who lack full job security (e.g., faculty adjuncts, junior faculty), because instructional changes take time and can involve mistakes that negatively affect student feedback scores at the beginning phases of change (Franklin, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref108">23</reflink>] ). Hence, it behooves counselor educators to execute changes in small increments over a longer course of time and to elicit students' ongoing feedback during such courses to allow for midcourse shifts as necessary (Malott, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref109">38</reflink>] ). Change could involve participation in peer coaching, observation of colleagues who effectively apply EBT practices, and support from faculty development programs (Andrews et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref110">5</reflink>] ). Some universities also offer faculty grants to attend instructional training programs, engage in on‐campus instructional development activities, or promote implementation and assessment of new and innovative teaching strategies.</p> <p>Finally, empirical efforts must be made to determine if the EBT practices reviewed in this article can affect similar learning within the field of counselor education as well as to understand what may be unique about counselor education instructional practices. For example, with regard to instructor efforts in creating effective learning environments, counselor educators might use qualitative inquiry to examine students' perceptions of what makes them feel respected and motivated to learn in their courses. To assess the impact of active learning, researchers could compare a course that uses learning intervention with a section of the course that uses a more traditional lecture format by examining for statistical differences in learning outcomes. Furthermore, a counselor educator could examine whether embedding formative assessments throughout the semester increases scores on summative assignments (i.e., assessing student learning) in comparison with past semesters when formative assessment was not used. Ideally, any study assessing outcomes of EBT practices would be linked to counseling skills and client outcomes. However, these suggestions take time and effort to implement. To be able to engage in these proposed shifts, the academic world must ultimately recognize and reward the value of teaching and teaching‐related scholarship.</p> <ref id="AN0099709839-8"> <title>References</title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref56" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext>Allen, D. E., Donham, R. S., & Bernhardt, S. A. ( 2011 ). Problem‐based learning. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 12, 21 – 29. doi: 10.1002/tl.465 </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref24" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext>Allen, M., Witt, P. 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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Methods%22">Teaching Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Counselor+Training%22">Counselor Training</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Best+Practices%22">Best Practices</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Programs%22">College Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Environment%22">Educational Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Learning+Experience%22">Learning Experience</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intentional+Learning%22">Intentional Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Instructional+Effectiveness%22">Instructional Effectiveness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Doctoral+Programs%22">Doctoral Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Evaluation%22">Teacher Evaluation</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1002/j.1556-6978.2014.00064.x
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0011-0035
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The authors examined best practices in university-level teaching, as premised on the evidence-based teaching (EBT) literature found in fields external to counselor education. Findings were reported in relation to 3 areas: developing an effective learning environment, structuring intentional learning experiences, and assessing teaching effectiveness. Implications regarding the training of doctoral-level counselor educators using EBT practices are discussed.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2014
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1046590
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1046590
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/j.1556-6978.2014.00064.x
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 294
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Higher Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teaching Methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Counselor Training
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Best Practices
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Environment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Learning Experience
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intentional Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Instructional Effectiveness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Doctoral Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Evaluation
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Evidence-Based Teaching in Higher Education: Application to Counselor Education
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Malott, Krista M.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Hall, K. Hridaya
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Sheely-Moore, Angela
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 12
              Type: published
              Y: 2014
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0011-0035
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 53
            – Type: issue
              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Counselor Education and Supervision
              Type: main
ResultId 1