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Control and Alcohol-Problem Recognition among College Students

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Title: Control and Alcohol-Problem Recognition among College Students
Language: English
Authors: Simons, Raluca M., Hahn, Austin M., Simons, Jeffrey S., Gaster, Sam
Source: Journal of American College Health. 2015 63(6):373-379.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 7
Publication Date: 2015
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Predictor Variables, Alcohol Abuse, College Students, Student Attitudes, Expectation, Interaction, Locus of Control, Rural Schools, Student Surveys, Gender Differences, Drinking, Self Concept, Statistical Analysis, Regression (Statistics)
DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2015.1042879
ISSN: 0744-8481
Abstract: Objective: This study examined negative control (ie, perceived lack of control over life outcomes) and need for control as predictors of alcohol-problem recognition, evaluations (good/bad), and expectancies (likely/unlikely) among college students. The study also explored the interaction between the need for control and alcohol consumption in alcohol-related outcomes. Participants: Participants were a convenience sample of 500 college students from a rural Midwest university. Data were collected during the 2009-2010 academic year. Methods: Participants completed a survey assessing control and alcohol-problem recognition, evaluations, and expectancies. Results: Negative control demonstrated a significant positive association with alcohol-problem recognition, evaluations, and expectancies after controlling for gender and alcohol consumption. Need for control did not have a main effect. However, the interaction was significant in that the association between need for control and negative evaluation of alcohol problems was strongest among participants with the highest levels of alcohol consumption. Conclusions: These results demonstrate that individuals' differences in sense of control are associated with alcohol-problem recognition, evaluations, and expectancies in young adults.
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 53
Entry Date: 2015
Accession Number: EJ1071658
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0108865942;acl01aug.15;2019Mar27.12:39;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0108865942-1">Control and Alcohol-Problem Recognition Among College Students. </title> <p>Objective: This study examined negative control (ie, perceived lack of control over life outcomes) and need for control as predictors of alcohol-problem recognition, evaluations (good/bad), and expectancies (likely/unlikely) among college students. The study also explored the interaction between the need for control and alcohol consumption in alcohol-related outcomes. Participants: Participants were a convenience sample of 500 college students from a rural Midwest university. Data were collected during the 2009–2010 academic year. Methods: Participants completed a survey assessing control and alcohol-problem recognit-ion, evaluations, and expectancies. Results: Negative control demonstrated a significant positive association with alcohol-problem recognition, evaluations, and expectancies after controlling for gender and alcohol consumption. Need for control did not have a main effect. However, the interaction was significant in that the association between need for control and negative evaluation of alcohol problems was strongest among participants with the highest levels of alcohol consumption. Conclusions: These results demonstrate that individuals' differences in sense of control are associated with alcohol-problem recognition, evaluations, and expectancies in young adults.</p> <p>Keywords: alcohol, need for control, negative control, problem recognition</p> <p>The majority of college students report drinking alcohol in the last month,[[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>]] while almost half of all college students report engaging in recent heavy episodic drinking.[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref2">3</reflink>] Similarly, according to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), over 60% of college students currently drink alcohol and almost 40% are categorized as binge drinkers.[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref3">2</reflink>] Although not all college students who drink experience problems, many students experience problems that can be detrimental to their education, career, and life goals.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref4">1</reflink>] High levels of alcohol use in college students are associated with a wide variety of negative consequences, including accidents and injuries,[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref5">4</reflink>] sexual risk taking,[[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref6">5</reflink>]] and poor academic outcomes.[[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref7">1</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]] Although some students recognize existing alcohol problems and seek to change their drinking patterns, others continue to drink despite recurrent problems. Therefore, research is needed to identify factors that contribute to problem recognition among college students, especially those that are amendable to intervention strategies. Control may be one such variable that may be especially important to the recognition and evaluation of alcohol problems.</p> <p>People have a need to see the world as predictable and controllable[[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>]] and are motivated to maintain such control over outcomes.[[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref10">15</reflink>]] Losing control results in psychological distress and arouses efforts to regain control. Accordingly, college students who have a high need for predictability and control could be particularly distressed by potential negative consequences that may result from drinking. Consequently, they may be less likely to experience alcohol problems, be better able to recognize alcohol problems that do occur, and be more likely to change their drinking behavior accordingly. This is consistent with the theory of planned behavior, such that individuals' attitudes towards a certain behavior and associated consequences predict subsequent intention and engagement in such behavior.[[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref11">19</reflink>]] Thus, individuals who are high in a need for control would anticipate the loss of control associated with excessive alcohol use and subsequently change their behavior to evaluate, recognize, and avoid alcohol-related problems. Previous research has explored the relationship between control and drinking and drug use,[[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref12">23</reflink>]] and among children of alcoholics.[[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref13">25</reflink>]] Recently, Claus et al[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref14">27</reflink>] examined behavioral control in individuals through the use of a Go/No-Go task and found that individuals with greater levels of alcohol use had reduced behavioral control. Indeed, extensive literature indicates significant associations between poor behavioral control and alcohol-related problems.[[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref15">28</reflink>]] The current study is unique, however, in that it is the first to examine negative control and the need for control in relation to alcohol-problem recognition and the risk of experiencing alcohol-related problems.</p> <p>Neglecting social responsibilities, engaging in detrimental impulsive behaviors, and experiencing memory loss are all alcohol-related problems that reflect a loss of control due to one's alcohol use. Individuals who have a high need for control may evaluate such consequences particularly negatively and quickly interpret their occurrence as indicative of an alcohol-related problem. Through this ongoing monitoring of behavior, these individuals may perceive such problems as unlikely and experience alcohol-related problems less frequently. On the other hand, individuals who have a low need for control may evaluate alcohol-related problems more positively. In fact, individuals who evaluate alcohol problems less negatively (or more positively) report experiencing such problems with greater frequency.[[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref16">33</reflink>]]</p> <p>This study examines negative control (ie, perceived lack of control) and need for control as predictors of evaluations and expectancies of alcohol-related problems (good/bad, likely/unlikely) and problem recognition. Comparable sets of hypotheses were conducted about evaluations and expectancies of problems among all the drinkers. For problem recognition, we are looking at a narrower group of high-risk drinkers (ie, binge drinkers), as they are more likely to incur alcohol-related problems. The following hypotheses were tested. First, lack of control will be positively associated with alcohol-problem recognition, evaluations, and expectancies. Secondly, need for control will be positively associated with problem evaluations, negatively associated with expectancies, and positively associated with problem recognition (ie, among individuals who drink at hazardous levels [ie, binge drinking], those with a high need for control will be more likely to recognize alcohol-related problems when they arise). Lastly, need for control and alcohol use will significantly interact to predict greater problem recognition, evaluations, and expectancies.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-2">METHODS</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0108865942-3">Participants and Procedures</hd> <p>An a priori power analysis was conducted using G*Power 3.1 (Heinrich-Heine Universität Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany), and it was determined that a sample of 500 would be sufficient to detect a small effect (<emph>f</emph><sups>2</sups> =.03, α =.05) with power of.80. Participants were 500 college students from a rural Midwest university, who were participating in research for partial fulfillment of undergraduate psychology course requirements. The sample was composed of undergraduate college students who were recruited through an online participant pool during the 2009–2010 academic year. All participants were enrolled in undergraduate level psychology courses. Only students between the ages of 18 and 25 were invited to participate. Individuals interested in participating were directed to an online consent form. After consenting, participants were given access to the questionnaire. Questionnaires were completed online and all responses were anonymous. Participants provided written informed consent and received course credit for their participation. The university Institutional Review Board approved all procedures.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-4">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0108865942-5">Alcohol Consumption</hd> <p>Participants' alcohol consumption was measured with the Modified Daily Drinking Questionnaire (DDQ-M).[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref17">36</reflink>] The DDQ-M uses a grid for the 7 days of the week. Participants entered the number of standard drinks (ie, 12 oz beer, 5 oz wine, or 1.5 oz hard liquor) consumed each day during an average week over the last 30 days. Typical weekly alcohol consumption is computed as the total number of standard drinks reported across the grid. The DDQ has demonstrated good reliability and validity.[[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref18">37</reflink>]]</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-6">Alcohol Problems</hd> <p>The Rutgers's Alcohol Problem Index (RAPI)[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref19">35</reflink>] was used to assess participants' alcohol-related problems. The RAPI is a 23-item scale that assesses problems with alcohol over the course of the past month. This is an internally consistent scale (α >.85) and has shown expected relationships with alcohol use in previous research.[[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref20">39</reflink>]]</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-7">Binge Drinking</hd> <p>Participants reported the number of binge drinking episodes during the 30 days prior to assessment. Binge drinking was defined as 4 or more drinks for females and 5 or more drinks for males.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-8">Alcohol-Problem Evaluations and Expectancies</hd> <p>Participants' evaluations and expectancies toward alcohol-related problems were assessed by a 90-item scale developed by the first author.[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref21">33</reflink>] The scale includes an <emph>evaluation</emph> component (ie, assessing evaluation about how good or bad the problem is) and an <emph>expectancies</emph> component (ie, assessing beliefs about likelihood of occurrence) based on items from an established 50-item alcohol-related problems measure, The Drinker Inventory of Consequences (DrInC).[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref22">41</reflink>] Items are rated on 9-point semantic differential scales. For each specific problem on the DrInC, an attitudinal component (positive/negative) and expectancy component (likely/unlikely) was assessed. The 45-item problem evaluations (α =.98) and problem expectancies (α =.99) scales are internally consistent and demonstrated expected associations with alcohol use behavior in previous research.[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref23">33</reflink>]</p> <p>TABLE 1. Correlation Matrix for the Full Sample (N = 500)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Variable</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>10</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1. Gender</td><td char=".">1.00</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>2. Alcohol consumption</td><td char=".">.13<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0003" /></td><td char=".">1.00</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>3. 30-day use</td><td char=".">.10<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0002" /></td><td char=".">.83<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">1.00</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>4. Binge frequency</td><td char=".">.12<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0003" /></td><td char=".">.65<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.62<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">1.00</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>5. RAPI</td><td char=".">.19<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.51<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.51<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.53<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">1.00</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>6. Problem recognition</td><td char=".">.15<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0003" /></td><td char=".">.23<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.26<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.28<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.46<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">1.00</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>7. Problem evaluation</td><td char=".">.22<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.20<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.20<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.19<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.28<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.31<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">1.00</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>8. Problem expectation</td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">−.07</td><td char=".">−.05</td><td char=".">−.00</td><td char=".">.10<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0002" /></td><td char=".">.14<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0003" /></td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">1.00</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>9. Negative control</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">−.00</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.25<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.50<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.29<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">.16<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">1.00</td><td /></tr><tr><td>10. Need for control</td><td char=".">−.04</td><td char=".">−.03</td><td char=".">−.04</td><td char=".">−.06</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.10<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0002" /></td><td char=".">−.02</td><td char=".">−.01</td><td char=".">.23<xref ref-type="fn" rid="t1fn0004" /></td><td char=".">1.00</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>10001 <emph>Note</emph>. Gender (Men = 1, Women = 0). RAPI = Rutgers's Alcohol Problem Index; SOCRATES = The Stages of Change Readiness and Treatment Eagerness Scale—Recognition.</item> <item>10002 <emph>p</emph> <.05;</item> <item>10003 <emph>p</emph> <.01;</item> <item>10004 <emph>p</emph> <.001.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0108865942-9">Alcohol-Problem Recognition</hd> <p>Participants' alcohol-problem recognition was evaluated using the 7-item Recognition factor from the Stages of Change Readiness and Treatment Eagerness Scale (SOCRATES).[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref24">42</reflink>] The SOCRATES is associated with concurrent measures of past and present alcohol use among college students.[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref25">42</reflink>] Internal consistency in this sample was excellent (α =.90).</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-10">Negative Control and Need for Control</hd> <p>Participants' negative control and need for control was measured using the Shapiro Control Inventory (SCI).[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref26">43</reflink>] The SCI is a multidimensional scale composed of 9 subscales. For this study, only the Desire for Control scale (ie, need for control; scale 9) and Negative Control scale were used. The items are rated on a 7-point scale anchored by 1 (<emph>never</emph>) and 7 (<emph>always</emph>). Participants are asked to choose the option that best describes them. These scales exhibit good internal consistency and test–retest reliability.[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref27">43</reflink>] In the current sample, the internal consistency for need for control and negative sense of control were α =.90 and α =.89, respectively.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-11">Data Handling, Preparation, and Analyses</hd> <p>All data handling and analyses were conducted using STATA 13 (StataCorp, College Station, Texas). Preliminary analyses were conducted to determine the ranges and distributions of variables. Outliers (<emph>z</emph> score of >3.29, ie, a likelihood of <emph>p</emph> <.001) were examined and reduced in value to 1 unit greater than the nearest nonoutlying value.[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref28">44</reflink>] Log transformations were used to correct for the positive skew of the alcohol use, need for control, and problem evaluation variables. Continuous variables were centered before forming the interactions.[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref29">45</reflink>] All reported correlations are pairwise bivariate correlations. Regression analyses, interaction testing, and interpretation were conducted following guidelines by Aiken and West.[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref30">45</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-12">RESULTS</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0108865942-13">Descriptive Statistics</hd> <p>Approximately 70% of the sample was women. The mean age was 20.09 (<emph>SD</emph> = 3.17). Ninety-three percent were white, 1% black, 1% Native American, 2% Asian/Pacific Islander, and 3% other races. Binge drinkers evaluated problems more positively compared to non-binge drinkers (<emph>M</emph> = 2. 41, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.07 vs <emph>M</emph> = 2.06, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.08; <emph>t</emph>[<reflink idref="bib461" id="ref31">461</reflink>] = −3.03, <emph>p</emph> =.003). However, binge and non-binge drinkers did not differ on need for control, sense of control, or expectancies (<emph>p</emph>s >.12). The more negative control people reported, the more alcohol-related problems they reported (<emph>r</emph> =.25, <emph>p</emph> <.001), the more likely they were to evaluate alcohol problems as "not so bad" (<emph>r</emph> =.30, <emph>p</emph> <.001), the more likely they expected problems to happen to them (<emph>r</emph> =.15, <emph>p</emph> <.001), and the more likely they were to say that they had a drinking problem (<emph>r</emph> =.50, <emph>p</emph> <.001). Need for control, however, was not significantly associated with problem evaluation or expectancies, but it was significantly related with problem recognition (<emph>r</emph> =.10, <emph>p</emph> <.04). A correlation matrix for the full sample is presented in Table 1.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-14">Regression Analysis for Evaluation of Alcohol Problems</hd> <p>This analysis was conducted on individuals who reported drinking in the past 30 days (<emph>n</emph> = 355). At Step 1, gender and alcohol consumption were added, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref32">2</reflink>, 372) = 16.90, <emph>p</emph> <.0001, <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.09. At Step 2, negative control (<emph>b</emph> = 0.13, <emph>p</emph> <.001) and need for control (<emph>b</emph> = −0.29, <emph>p</emph> =.06) were added, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref33">2</reflink>, 350) = 16.44, <emph>p</emph> <.0001, Δ<emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph> =.08. At Step 3, the interaction between use and need for control (<emph>b</emph> = −0.39, <emph>p</emph> =.013) was added, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref34">1</reflink>, 349) = 6.26, <emph>p</emph> =.013; full model, <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.18, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref35">5</reflink>, 349) = 15.39, <emph>p</emph> <.0001 (see Table 2). The interaction between alcohol consumption and need for control was significant, demonstrating that the relationship between need for control and problem evaluation was greatest at high levels of alcohol consumption (see Figure 1). The simple slope of problem evaluation on need for control at 1 <emph>SD</emph> above mean alcohol consumption was <emph>b</emph> = −0.50, <emph>p</emph> =.005, and was <emph>b</emph> = 0.21, <emph>p</emph> =.40 at 1 <emph>SD</emph> below the mean.</p> <p>Graph: FIGURE 1. Interaction between need for control and alcohol consumption in predicting problem evaluation.</p> <p>TABLE 2. Regression Analysis for Evaluation of Alcohol Problems</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Variable</td><td><italic>b</italic></td><td><italic>SE</italic></td><td>β</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>Δ<italic>R<sup>2</sup></italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Step 1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">.09</td></tr><tr><td> Gender</td><td char=".">0.19</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">0.19</td><td char=".">.000</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Alcohol  consumption</td><td char=".">0.10</td><td char=".">0.03</td><td char=".">0.20</td><td char=".">.000</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Step 2</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">.08</td></tr><tr><td> Gender</td><td char=".">0.16</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">0.16</td><td char=".">.002</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Alcohol  consumption</td><td char=".">0.11</td><td char=".">0.03</td><td char=".">0.21</td><td char=".">.000</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Negative  control</td><td char=".">0.13</td><td char=".">0.02</td><td char=".">0.29</td><td char=".">.000</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Need for  control</td><td char=".">−0.29</td><td char=".">0.15</td><td char=".">0.10</td><td char=".">.057</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Step 3</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">.01</td></tr><tr><td> Gender</td><td char=".">0.16</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">0.16</td><td char=".">.002</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Alcohol  consumption</td><td char=".">0.10</td><td char=".">0.03</td><td char=".">0.19</td><td char=".">.000</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Negative  control</td><td char=".">0.12</td><td char=".">0.02</td><td char=".">0.26</td><td char=".">.000</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Need for  control</td><td char=".">−0.14</td><td char=".">0.16</td><td char=".">−0.04</td><td char=".">.405</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Consumption ×  Need for Control</td><td char=".">−0.39</td><td char=".">0.16</td><td char=".">−0.13</td><td char=".">.013</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>20001 <emph>Note. N</emph> = 355. Step 1: <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref36">2</reflink>, 352) = 16.90, <emph>p</emph> <.0001; Step 2: <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref37">2</reflink>, 350) = 16.44, <emph>p</emph> <.0001; Step 3: <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref38">1</reflink>, 349) = 6.26, <emph>p</emph> <.013; Full model: <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.19, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref39">5</reflink>, 349) = 15.39, <emph>p</emph> <.0001. Gender coding: 1 = men, 0 = women.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-15">Regression Analysis for Expectancy of Alcohol Problems</hd> <p>This analysis was conducted on individuals who reported drinking in the past 30 days (<emph>n</emph> = 356). At Step 1, gender and weekly use were added, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref40">2</reflink>, 353) = 2.38, <emph>p</emph> =.094, <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.01. At Step 2, negative control (<emph>b</emph> = 0.42, <emph>p</emph> <.001) and need for control (<emph>b</emph> = −0.70, <emph>p</emph> =.355) were added, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref41">2</reflink>, 350) = 7.44, <emph>p</emph> <.001, Δ<emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph> =.04. At Step 3, the interaction between consumption and need for control (<emph>b</emph> = 0.13, <emph>p</emph> =.44) was added, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref42">1</reflink>, 349) = 0.59, <emph>p</emph> =.444; full model, <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.05, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref43">5</reflink>, 349) = 4.04, <emph>p</emph> <.0001 (see Table 3).</p> <p>TABLE 3. Regression Analysis for Expectancy of Alcohol Problems</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Variable</td><td><italic>b</italic></td><td><italic>SE</italic></td><td>β</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>Δ<italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Step 1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">.01</td></tr><tr><td> Gender</td><td char=".">0.09</td><td char=".">0.25</td><td char=".">0.02</td><td char=".">.709</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Alcohol  consumption</td><td char=".">0.26</td><td char=".">0.13</td><td char=".">0.11</td><td char=".">.044</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Step 2</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">.04</td></tr><tr><td> Gender</td><td char=".">−0.01</td><td char=".">0.25</td><td char=".">−0.00</td><td char=".">.971</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Alcohol  consumption</td><td char=".">0.28</td><td char=".">0.13</td><td char=".">0.12</td><td char=".">.029</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Negative  control</td><td char=".">0.42</td><td char=".">0.11</td><td char=".">−0.21</td><td char=".">.000</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Need for  control</td><td char=".">−0.70</td><td char=".">0.75</td><td char=".">−0.05</td><td char=".">.355</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Step 3</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">.00</td></tr><tr><td> Gender</td><td char=".">−0.02</td><td char=".">0.25</td><td char=".">−0.00</td><td char=".">.933</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Alcohol  consumption</td><td char=".">−0.33</td><td char=".">0.80</td><td char=".">−0.14</td><td char=".">.685</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Negative  control</td><td char=".">0.44</td><td char=".">0.11</td><td char=".">−0.21</td><td char=".">.000</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Need for control</td><td char=".">−2.06</td><td char=".">1.93</td><td char=".">−0.15</td><td char=".">.287</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Consumption ×  Need for Control</td><td char=".">0.13</td><td char=".">0.17</td><td char=".">0.27</td><td char=".">.444</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>30001 <emph>Note. N</emph> = 355. Step 1: <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref44">2</reflink>, 353) = 2.38, <emph>p</emph> =.094; Step 2: <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref45">2</reflink>, 350) = 7.44, <emph>p</emph> <.001; Step 3: <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref46">1</reflink>, 349) = 0.59, <emph>p</emph> =.444; Full model: <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.05, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref47">5</reflink>, 349) = 4.04, <emph>p</emph> =.001. Gender coding: 1 = men, 0 = women.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-16">Regression Analysis for Problem Recognition</hd> <p>Individuals who reported binge drinking in the past month were included (<emph>n</emph> = 253). At Step 1, gender and alcohol problems were added, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref48">2</reflink>, 250) = 9.61, <emph>p</emph> <.0001, <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.07. At Step 2, negative control (<emph>b</emph> = 0.34, <emph>p</emph> <.001) and need for control (<emph>b</emph> = −0.31, <emph>p</emph> =.240) were added, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref49">2</reflink>, 248) = 36.65, <emph>p</emph> <.0001, Δ<emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph> =.21. At Step 3, the interaction between alcohol consumption and need for control (<emph>b</emph> = 0.04, <emph>p</emph> =.911) was added, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref50">1</reflink>, 247) = 0.01, <emph>p</emph> =.911; full model, <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.28, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref51">5</reflink>, 247) = 19.53, <emph>p</emph> <.0001 (see Table 4).</p> <p>TABLE 4. Regression Analysis for Alcohol-Problem Recognition</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Variable</td><td><italic>b</italic></td><td><italic>SE</italic></td><td>β</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>Δ<italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Step 1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">.07</td></tr><tr><td> Gender</td><td char=".">0.08</td><td char=".">0.10</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">.390</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Alcohol  consumption</td><td char=".">0.25</td><td char=".">0.07</td><td char=".">0.25</td><td char=".">.001</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Step 2</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">.11</td></tr><tr><td> Gender</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">0.08</td><td char=".">0.04</td><td char=".">.523</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Alcohol  consumption</td><td char=".">0.25</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">0.24</td><td char=".">.001</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Negative  control</td><td char=".">0.34</td><td char=".">0.04</td><td char=".">0.46</td><td char=".">.001</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Need for  control</td><td char=".">−0.31</td><td char=".">0.26</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">.240</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Step 3</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">.00</td></tr><tr><td> Gender</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">0.09</td><td char=".">0.04</td><td char=".">.528</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Alcohol  consumption</td><td char=".">0.25</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">0.24</td><td char=".">.001</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Negative  control</td><td char=".">0.34</td><td char=".">0.04</td><td char=".">0.47</td><td char=".">.001</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Need for  control</td><td char=".">−0.34</td><td char=".">0.37</td><td char=".">−0.07</td><td char=".">.360</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Consumption ×  Need for Control</td><td char=".">0.04</td><td char=".">0.35</td><td char=".">0.01</td><td char=".">.911</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>40001 <emph>Note. N</emph> = 253. Step 1: <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref52">2</reflink>, 250) = 9.61, <emph>p</emph> <.0001; Step 2: <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref53">2</reflink>, 248) = 36.65, <emph>p</emph> <.0001; Step 3: <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref54">1</reflink>, 247) = 0.01, <emph>p</emph> =.911; Full model: <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.28, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref55">5</reflink>, 247) = 19.53, <emph>p</emph> <.0001. Gender coding: 1 = men, 0 = women.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-17">COMMENT</hd> <p>The current study makes several unique contributions to research on the associations between one's sense of control and alcohol-problem evaluations and expectancies. First, previous research on negative control has documented its relationship with several alcohol-related outcomes, including alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems.[[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref56">31</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref57">46</reflink>]] In the current study, negative control was not significantly associated with alcohol consumption; however, there was a significant association between negative control and alcohol problems. These results indicate that individuals with low perceived self-control do not necessarily consume more alcohol than their counterparts, but that they experience a greater number of alcohol-related problems. The lack of a significant association between negative control and alcohol consumption within the current sample is contrary to previous research.[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref58">31</reflink>] However, the relationship between negative control and alcohol problems is well supported, both within this study and elsewhere.[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref59">47</reflink>] This study adds to the literature by assessing for factors that may explain this association (ie, need for control and alcohol-problem evaluations and expectancies).</p> <p>As hypothesized, negative control was positively associated with the evaluation of alcohol problems, as well as the expected likelihood of alcohol problems. Specifically, the greater the negative control reported, the more likely individuals were to evaluate alcohol problems as "not too bad" and expect problems to happen to them. However, need for control was not directly associated with either of these outcomes. Results revealed, though, a significant relationship between the need for control and alcohol-problem evaluations among persons with higher levels of alcohol consumption. This interaction indicates that persons high in need for control evaluate alcohol-related problems positively as they consume greater amounts of alcohol.</p> <p>The observed associations between one's sense of, and need for, control and alcohol-problem evaluations, expectations, and actual problems experienced highlights the need for continued research on the role of one's perceived self-control and need for control in relation to alcohol-related outcomes. This research is particularly important given costs of alcohol-related problems for both individuals and society. Social learning theory suggests that increasing an individual's sense of self-control may result in increased perceptions of control across other areas of life.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref60">15</reflink>] The findings of the current study are consistent with this and the theory of planned behavior,[[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref61">19</reflink>]] such that individuals' perceptions of control may act as a protective factor against experiencing alcohol-related problems. Moreover, research indicates that increasing one's overall self-control generalizes to other areas of their life,[[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref62">51</reflink>]] as does increasing one's sense of self-control.[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref63">53</reflink>] In light of findings from the current study, it is likely that interventions designed to prevent alcohol-related problems would benefit by targeting individuals' sense of control and their expectations and evaluation of alcohol-related problems. By including these components within intervention efforts, it is possible that alcohol-related problems may be better prevented.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-18">Limitations</hd> <p>Several limitations should be noted. The majority of the research sample was composed by Caucasian female undergraduates at a midwestern university. Additionally, the study was conducted at a university in a rural location. Thus, the generalizability of these data may be a limitation. However, this study adds to the relatively scarce data on rural college populations. Future studies should attempt to replicate these results among diverse urban populations, as well as those with a greater proportion of males.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-19">Conclusions</hd> <p>Alcohol-related problems such as neglecting social responsibilities, detrimental impulsive behaviors, and blackouts all reflect a loss of control over behavior as a result of alcohol use. Individuals who report a general lack of control over outcomes are more likely to say they have a drinking problem and evaluate alcohol-related problems more positively. Moreover, these individuals appear to view alcohol-related problems as likely to happen to them.</p> <p>The findings of the current study are relevant to prevention and interventions targeting alcohol problems among college students. Fostering a sense of self-control over life outcomes could improve college students' abilities to recognize and evaluate problems and consequences associated with their alcohol consumption. Moreover, individuals who consume greater amounts of alcohol may benefit the most from behavioral interventions promoting aimed at increasing one's sense of control over life outcomes (e.g., setting individualized achievable goals with high likelihood of success; reinforcing successful completion of small goals). Lastly, results also indicate that college students may significantly benefit from an intervention designed to increase their ability to identify alcohol-related problems and assess to potential impact of such consequences. These interventions could improve the health of college students and reduce costly alcohol-related problems.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-20">FUNDING</hd> <p>This research was supported by a grant from the Control Foundation to Raluca M. Simons.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-21">CONFLICT OF INTEREST DISCLOSURE</hd> <p>The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements, of the United States and received approval from the Institutional Review Board of the University of South Dakota.</p> <hd id="AN0108865942-22">NOTE</hd> <p>For comments and further information, address correspondence to Austin M. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Control and Alcohol-Problem Recognition among College Students
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Simons%2C+Raluca+M%2E%22">Simons, Raluca M.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hahn%2C+Austin+M%2E%22">Hahn, Austin M.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Simons%2C+Jeffrey+S%2E%22">Simons, Jeffrey S.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gaster%2C+Sam%22">Gaster, Sam</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+American+College+Health%22"><i>Journal of American College Health</i></searchLink>. 2015 63(6):373-379.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 7
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2015
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Predictor+Variables%22">Predictor Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Alcohol+Abuse%22">Alcohol Abuse</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Expectation%22">Expectation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interaction%22">Interaction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Locus+of+Control%22">Locus of Control</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Rural+Schools%22">Rural Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Surveys%22">Student Surveys</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Drinking%22">Drinking</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept%22">Self Concept</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Statistical+Analysis%22">Statistical Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Regression+%28Statistics%29%22">Regression (Statistics)</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/07448481.2015.1042879
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0744-8481
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Objective: This study examined negative control (ie, perceived lack of control over life outcomes) and need for control as predictors of alcohol-problem recognition, evaluations (good/bad), and expectancies (likely/unlikely) among college students. The study also explored the interaction between the need for control and alcohol consumption in alcohol-related outcomes. Participants: Participants were a convenience sample of 500 college students from a rural Midwest university. Data were collected during the 2009-2010 academic year. Methods: Participants completed a survey assessing control and alcohol-problem recognition, evaluations, and expectancies. Results: Negative control demonstrated a significant positive association with alcohol-problem recognition, evaluations, and expectancies after controlling for gender and alcohol consumption. Need for control did not have a main effect. However, the interaction was significant in that the association between need for control and negative evaluation of alcohol problems was strongest among participants with the highest levels of alcohol consumption. Conclusions: These results demonstrate that individuals' differences in sense of control are associated with alcohol-problem recognition, evaluations, and expectancies in young adults.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: Ref
  Label: Number of References
  Group: RefInfo
  Data: 53
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2015
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1071658
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1071658
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/07448481.2015.1042879
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 7
        StartPage: 373
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Predictor Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Alcohol Abuse
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Expectation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Interaction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Locus of Control
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Rural Schools
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Surveys
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Drinking
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Concept
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Statistical Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Regression (Statistics)
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Control and Alcohol-Problem Recognition among College Students
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Simons, Raluca M.
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            NameFull: Hahn, Austin M.
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            NameFull: Simons, Jeffrey S.
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            NameFull: Gaster, Sam
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              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2015
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0744-8481
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              Value: 63
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              Value: 6
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of American College Health
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