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Making the Dream Real: Montana's Indian Education for All Initiative Thrives in a National Climate of Anti-Ethnic Studies

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Title: Making the Dream Real: Montana's Indian Education for All Initiative Thrives in a National Climate of Anti-Ethnic Studies
Language: English
Authors: Carjuzaa, Jioanna, Baldwin, Anna E, Munson, Michael
Source: Multicultural Perspectives. 2015 17(4):198-206.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 9
Publication Date: 2015
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Evaluative
Descriptors: American Indian Education, American Indian Studies, Ethnic Studies, State Action, State Policy, Program Descriptions, Program Development, Program Effectiveness, Role of Education, Educational Objectives, Models, Achievement Gap, Best Practices, Educational Cooperation, Racial Bias, Racial Discrimination
Geographic Terms: Arizona, Montana
DOI: 10.1080/15210960.2015.1088303
ISSN: 1521-0960
Abstract: The espoused foundation of U.S. society, "E pluribus unum" (out of many, one), is based on the belief that this nation should simultaneously support pluralism and promote unity. The road to making this ideal a reality, however, has not always been smooth. The ever-widening achievement gap highlights how this discordance plays out in our education system. Ethnic studies came about to counterbalance the predominance of Euro-American perspectives in our textbooks and curricula and address the inaccuracies, myths, and misconceptions surrounding other groups. Efforts to create a better and more just America were recently tested, however, when an Arizona law prohibiting school districts from offering courses taught from a specific racial/ethnic perspective targeted the Mexican-American Studies Program in Tucson schools. In contrast, Montana's educators who embrace the Indian Education for All initiative and teach all students about Montana's first inhabitants is thriving. In this article, we summarize the research on ethnic studies; track the inception, opposition, and abolition of the ethnic studies program in Tucson; and describe how Montana legislators, state education agencies, tribal members, and classroom teachers have collaborated and successfully promoted the unprecedented reform effort known as Indian Education for All in this anti-ethnic studies national climate.
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 39
Entry Date: 2015
Accession Number: EJ1082567
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0111115427;7mr01oct.15;2019Feb26.13:12;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0111115427-1">Making the Dream Real: Montana's Indian Education for All Initiative Thrives in a National Climate of Anti-Ethnic Studies. </title> <sbt id="AN0111115427-2">Introduction</sbt> <p>The espoused foundation of U.S. society, E pluribus unum (out of many, one), is based on the belief that this nation should simultaneously support pluralism and promote unity. The road to making this ideal a reality, however, has not always been smooth. The ever-widening achievement gap highlights how this discordance plays out in our education system. Ethnic studies came about to counterbalance the predominance of Euro-American perspectives in our textbooks and curricula and address the inaccuracies, myths, and misconceptions surrounding other groups. Efforts to create a better and more just America were recently tested, however, when an Arizona law prohibiting school districts from offering courses taught from a specific racial/ethnic perspective targeted the Mexican-American Studies Program in Tucson schools. In contrast, Montana's educators who embrace the Indian Education for All initiative and teach all students about Montana's first inhabitants is thriving. In this article, we summarize the research on ethnic studies; track the inception, opposition, and abolition of the ethnic studies program in Tucson; and describe how Montana legislators, state education agencies, tribal members, and classroom teachers have collaborated and successfully promoted the unprecedented reform effort known as Indian Education for All in this anti-ethnic studies national climate.</p> <p>When Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his "I have a dream" speech in 1963, it was a pivotal point in the history of the United States (Preston, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref1">25</reflink>]). During the 50-year anniversary festivities of this iconic address, we were reminded of how the Civil Rights movement helped redefine this country. Although much has changed in the last half-century, we still face numerous challenges. As King eloquently reminded us, the espoused foundation of U.S. society, E pluribus unum (out of many, one) is based on the belief that this nation should simultaneously support pluralism and promote unity. On the road to eradicating social injustices and educational inequities we have come across many bumps, roadblocks, and detours. For the past 25 years, the National Association for Multicultural Education (NAME) has paved the way by celebrating diversity as a national strength, embracing cultural pluralism, and promoting comprehensive inclusion. Still, in the United States today, there are many institutions where unfair, racist policies and practices prevail, but it is most unsettling in the education system, which is touted as the great equalizer. It was Horace Mann who dreamed of schooling's potential and back in 1848 proclaimed "Education then, beyond all other devices of human origin, is the great equalizer of the conditions of men, the balance-wheel of the social machinery" (qtd. in Alexander & Alexander, 2012, p. 35). Although some would declare Mann's motto a myth, in a 2011 graduation address, U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan boasted, "In America, education is still the great equalizer" (Duncan, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref2">14</reflink>], para. 1).</p> <p>Efforts to create a better and more just nation were recently tested when a 2010 Arizona law prohibiting school districts from offering courses taught from a specific racial/ethnic perspective targeted the Mexican-American Studies (MAS) Program in Tucson schools. This resurgence of the "culture wars" of the 1960s has fueled many debates concerning the purpose of education and the nature of ethnic studies. It has also resurfaced the argument that "a threat to justice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere" (King, 1963/1994, pp. 2–3).</p> <p>In this article, we highlight the evolution of ethnic studies, track the inception, opposition and abolition of the ethnic studies program in Tucson, and in contrast, describe how Montana has successfully promoted the unprecedented reform effort known as Indian Education for All (IEFA), in this anti-ethnic studies national climate (Montana Legislative Services, 1999).</p> <p>Disclaimers: We recognize that the terms "America" and "American" are more expansive than the political entity of the United States. However, we have used the noun "America" and the adjective "American" to help describe the educational context in the United States. When we refer to "Americans," we are referring to inhabitants of the United States. We use these terms for clarity and do not intend offense or exclusion. In addition, although there are numerous terms to refer to the original inhabitants of what is now the United States, we have chosen to use the terms "American Indian," "Indian," and "Indigenous" interchangeably.</p> <p>Still, in the United States today, there are many institutions where unfair, racist policies and practices prevail, but it is most unsettling in the education system, which is touted as the great equalizer.</p> <hd id="AN0111115427-3">The Role and Purpose of Education</hd> <p>The primary role of education has consistently been disputed. Many of the same issues we currently face in our classrooms were controversial when the first schools were established by the Puritans in 1635. Even though many Americans assert that this nation was founded on the ideals of religious freedom, the earliest curriculum was not free from religious influence but rather it perpetuated the enforcement of conformity, a trend which persists today (Carjuzaa & Kellough, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref3">11</reflink>]).</p> <p>Public schooling was designed to assimilate the large influx of immigrants who came from different cultures and practiced different religions, establish social order, and mainstream children into a common school. The high schools of the 20th century, by promoting social harmony and emphasizing citizenry, continued to Americanize the great waves of newcomers by preparing them to participate in our democratic society and conform to the dominant culture. In the 21st century, our secondary schools strive to produce educated individuals, ready to participate in higher education and the workforce.</p> <p>According to the Center for Civics Education ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref4">12</reflink>]), education's purpose today is to ensure that individuals are able to participate in life as informed, responsible "American" citizens, who are "committed to the fundamental values and principles of American Constitutional democracy" (p. 9). These standards further state:</p> <p>Effective and responsible participation also is furthered by development of certain dispositions or traits of character that enhance the individual's capacity to participate in the political process and contribute to the healthy functioning of the political system and improvement of society. (p. 13)</p> <p>It is clear to see that, even though education's purpose has changed over time, one theme, to prepare citizens who possess a very specific set of traits, ideals, values, and skills—ones that prepare "Americans," according to "American ideals"—has remained constant.</p> <p>Upholding the mainstream perspective on race, democracy, and what it means to be an American, and presenting it as a neutral, absolute truth, constitutes educational whitewashing (Liu, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref5">24</reflink>]; Yu, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref6">38</reflink>]). Who holds the power to make curricular decisions regarding what should be taught and which voices should be silenced has to be heeded since to teach U.S. history and not include the experiences and perspectives of all ethnic groups (underrepresented groups as well as White ethnics) leaves us with an incomplete, distorted history (Banks, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref7">5</reflink>]; Banks & Chavez, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref8">6</reflink>]). Although ethnic studies curricula play an important role in building a truly inclusive democracy, there has been resistance to integrating ethnic studies in curriculum in higher education as well as at the elementary and secondary levels (Sleeter, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref9">32</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0111115427-4">Ethnic Studies</hd> <p>Ethnic studies falls under the larger "culture wars" umbrella where mainstream and minority worldviews collide when issues of race and power in the United States are examined (Nicol, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref10">29</reflink>]). Ethnic studies grew out of the political activism of the 1960s and 1970s as students questioned the Eurocentric nature of mainstream academic disciplines. Coursework promoted mainstream perspectives while ignoring how minority groups have struggled, survived, and thrived. Students who felt like their communities' histories and their cultural heritages were being ignored or glossed over took action.</p> <p>In December 1968, students at the University of California-Berkeley and San Francisco State College protested the marginalization of minority groups and demanded programs focused on African Americans, Latinos/as, American Indians, and Asian Americans. Consequently, courses, programs, and centers supporting ethnic studies emerged and were immediately challenged. Fifty years later, ethnic studies remains controversial whether we are talking about stand-alone electives or mainstream curricula which integrate multiculturalism across the curriculum (Wetschler, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref11">36</reflink>]).</p> <p>Ideological and pedagogical conflicts often arise between supporters and critics of ethnic studies. Critics claim that the "revolutionary message" of ethnic studies is divisive and anti-American and insist it promotes sedition, racial hatred, ethnic solidarity, and the overthrow of the U.S. government. According to Linda Chavez "Most ethnic studies programs in public schools are at best a waste of taxpayer money; at worst, they are radically and ethnically divisive indoctrination" (2010, para. 1).</p> <p>Supporters claim that ethnic studies embed students' cultural identities into the curriculum, build racial/ethnic pride, empower students, present a more inclusive history, embrace social justice pedagogy, and serve to decolonize the classroom. Banks ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref12">5</reflink>]) argued, "ethnic studies is an important component of U.S. history that is required to help students become effective and thoughtful citizens in a democratic nation and global world" (p. 467).</p> <p>When data on student achievement is aggregated, the enormous, persistent disparity of educational measures along racial lines becomes apparent. Our schools are more segregated today than during the pre-Civil Rights era...</p> <hd id="AN0111115427-5">The Achievement Gap</hd> <p>Although many minority students are afforded more educational opportunities today than in the past, their achievement lags behind that of their White and Asian American counterparts. When data on student achievement is aggregated, the enormous, persistent disparity of educational measures along racial lines becomes apparent. Our schools are more segregated today than during the pre-Civil Rights era (Rothstein, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref13">30</reflink>]). The ever-widening achievement gap is most noticeable in public schools in urban areas with large populations of minority students and on or near Indian reservations. It is in these schools that the greatest concentrations of poverty, highest dropout rates, and numerous academic challenges are experienced.</p> <p>In Arizona there is a large Latino/a population. The Tucson Unified School District (TUSD) serves over 32,500 Latino/a students (McGinnis & Palos, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref14">29</reflink>]). In Montana, American Indians constitute 6.5% of the total population and 13.7% of the K–12 student population, a percentage more than 10 times the national average (Montana Office of Public Instruction [OPI], 2014).</p> <p>The nationwide dropout rate for Mexican American and American Indian students is alarming (Montana OPI, 2014; McGinnis & Palos, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref15">29</reflink>]). Many Latino/a and American Indian students are not successful in their respective learning communities and a staggering 50% do not graduate high school. So why are these students apathetic, disengaged, and unsuccessful in our schools? Some would argue that we suffer from racial amnesia and ignore the reality that conflict and oppression still exist in our society and schools. Some believe the school system is discriminatory and frames the mainstream curriculum as "Euro-American studies." According to Sleeter ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref16">32</reflink>]), this dominance of Euro-American perspectives in our curricula leads many non-majority students to disengage from academic learning.</p> <hd id="AN0111115427-6">Two Model Ethnic Studies Programs</hd> <p>To address the inequities described here, the MAS Program in Tucson and IEFA in Montana inspire educators to become more culturally inclusive in their classrooms and communities. Ethnic studies came about to counterbalance the predominance of Euro-American perspectives in our textbooks and curricula and address the inaccuracies, myths, and misconceptions surrounding underrepresented groups. The curricula in these ethnic studies programs help students become engaged and hopeful since they see themselves reflected in the curriculum and develop an academic identity that coalesces with their ethnic identity. By seeing themselves represented in the collective history of the United States and in the description of our nation-state, students enrolled in ethnic studies begin to affirm and claim an American identity (Banks, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref17">5</reflink>]; Banks & Chavez, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref18">6</reflink>]).</p> <p>Ethnic studies programs fall into two main categories: (a) those designed to attract students who identify as part of the group under study and (b) those designed to apply to all students, regardless of minority or majority status. Programs in the first category, including MAS, are usually a part of a broader effort to improve the quality of education afforded to those students and are often used in conjunction with other dimensions such as culturally relevant pedagogy, teachers who are members of the group, and links to the community (Sleeter, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref19">32</reflink>], p. vii).</p> <p>Programs in the second category, such as IEFA, also advocate teaching in a culturally responsive manner while promoting curricula that include multiple perspectives. In contrast to the MAS Program, IEFA is inclusive of all non-Indian and Indian teachers and students.</p> <p>Preparing students to succeed academically while embracing their cultural identity is seen by proponents of ethnic studies and culturally responsive pedagogy as the ideal approach to address the academic divide (Acosta & Mir, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref20">1</reflink>]). Ethnic studies includes units of study or programs that are centered on the knowledge and perspectives of an ethnic or racial group reflecting narratives and points of view rooted in that group's lived experiences and intellectual scholarship (Sleeter, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref21">32</reflink>], p. 20).</p> <p>There is a substantial research base claiming "that well-designed and well-taught ethnic studies curricula have positive academic and social outcomes for students and that curricula are designed and taught somewhat differently depending on the ethnic composition of the students and the subsequent experiences they bring" (Sleeter, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref22">32</reflink>], p. 20).</p> <hd id="AN0111115427-7">The MAS Program in Tucson</hd> <p>Christine Sleeter, past-president of NAME, conducted a comprehensive review of the research on ethnic studies programs and curricula. According to Sleeter, "There is a lot of talk in this country about closing the achievement gap; there is a program here in Tucson that is doing that" (McGinnis & Palos, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref23">29</reflink>]). As highlighted in the <emph>Precious Knowledge</emph> documentary, "While 48 percent of Mexican-American students currently drop out of high school, Tucson High's Mexican American/Raza Studies Department has become a national model of educational success, with 93 percent of enrolled students graduating from high school."</p> <p>This kind of success did not happen haphazardly. As stated in the film <emph>Precious Knowledge</emph> (McGinnis & Palos, 2011), "In 1997, community activists led the Tucson City Council to set up a study committee to look at ways of boosting Latino student achievement and reducing the dropout rate." This work resulted in the creation of the Hispanic Studies Department, which in 2002 was renamed the Mexican American/Raza Studies Department within the TUSD. The program was designed to promote academic and social equity for Latino/a students. The teachers at TUSD, in collaboration with faculty at the University of Arizona, designed a four-semester, three-component social studies curriculum called the Social Justice Education Project (SJEP) which included culturally and historically relevant curriculum, critical pedagogy, and authentic caring. According to Solyom and Brayboy ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref24">33</reflink>]), the aim of the curriculum was to show young people how they could become engaged in a participatory democracy.</p> <p>The MAS Program was created as one component of a multi-pronged model according to Sean Arce, former Director of the Mexican American/Raza Studies Department. First, as originally designed,</p> <p>MAS seeks to lessen or remove the achievement gaps through educating minoritized students in ways that foster and encourage critical thinking skills and honest dialogue regarding the history of the U.S. The program also seeks to instill pride among students for minoritized people's accomplishments. (Solyom & Brayboy, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref25">33</reflink>], p. 483)</p> <p>Second, "the program is based on Indigenous teachings that promote love, truth, and respect for all living things" (Solyom & Brayboy, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref26">33</reflink>], p. 482). Third, the program is open to any student who is interested in participating in it (Solyom & Brayboy, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref27">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although Arizona's former education superintendent, Tom Horne, and other opponents of the MAS Program in Tucson Unified Public Schools claimed that the program was teaching students to hate America, the teachers led students during each class meeting in a recitation of "In Lak'ech," a Mayan-inspired poem by the legendary Chicano playwright Luis Valdéz which contains the same sentiment as the Golden Rule embraced by teachers across the country (Espinoza-Gonzalez et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref28">16</reflink>]; McGinnis & Palos, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref29">29</reflink>]; Wun, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref30">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>Supporters of MAS said students participating in the program were encouraged to embrace America, develop critical thinking skills, and explore history and literature that were relevant, meaningful, and affirming of their cultural identities. David Scott, TUSD Director of Accountability and Research, wrote, "I find that there are positive measurable differences between MAS students and the corresponding comparative group of students" in a report he prepared for TUSD superintendent Dr. John Pedicone. He went on to claim that juniors enrolled in an MAS course were more likely to be successful on their Arizona's Instrument to Measure Standards subject tests and seniors were more likely to graduate than their peers (SJEPmoviemiento, 2010). An advocate of MAS, University of Arizona professor Roberto Cintli Rodriguez claimed "Tucson's program is exceptional, a model. Students become engaged and they succeed" (Wetschler, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref31">36</reflink>], p. 52). In addition, according to the Cabrera report, students from the TUSD who participated in the now-outlawed MAS courses were more likely to finish school, "MAS students were 108% more likely to graduate than non-MAS students" (Cabrera, Milern, Jaquette, & Marx, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref32">9</reflink>], p. 1111). In spite of the affirmative intentions and documented successes of MAS, Tom Horne campaigned tirelessly to ban the program. MAS celebrated the diversity of minority groups in the United States but was cited by Horne and other opponents as promoting ethnic solidarity which was construed as being anti-individualistic and anti-American.</p> <p>Horne's opposition to the program had its roots in political tensions and a perceived insult. In 2006, labor organizer Delores Huerta visited Tucson Magnet High School and told students that "Republicans hate Latinos" (Huerta, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref33">20</reflink>]). To respond to Huerta's comment, a Latina Republican speaker visited the school and was treated poorly by students. The Republican, then-Superintendent of Public Instruction Tom Horne, placed the blame for the students' actions on the ethnic studies program. He responded publicly to the incident by writing an open letter to the people of Tucson regarding the MAS program. Horne wrote "I believe the students did not learn this rudeness at home, but from their Raza teachers" (Strauss, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref34">34</reflink>], para. 13). He complained that the program taught "a kind of destructive ethnic chauvinism" (para. 15).</p> <p>Horne's efforts to convince lawmakers to eliminate the program succeeded in spring 2010 when Governor Jan Brewer signed into law the bill banning ethnic studies. The bill bans curricula that "Promote the overthrow of the United States government; Promote resentment toward a race or class of people; Are designed primarily for pupils of a particular ethnic group; Advocate ethnic solidarity instead of the treatment of pupils as individuals" (Arizona House of Representatives, 2010, lines 12–15). As a result, in January 2011 the TUSD governing board voted that "All MAS courses and teaching activities, regardless of the budget line from which they are funded, shall be suspended immediately" (Tucson Unified School District Governing Board, 2012, para. 2).</p> <p>The ban on ethnic studies in Arizona is not an isolated incident nor is it purely cultural. For years Arizona teachers have been expected to instruct using curricula built entirely on dominant Eurocentric ideals. The state's politicians have a history of resistance to multicultural acknowledgement including rejection of Martin Luther King Day as a federal holiday in 1986 and the banning of bilingual education in 2000 (Arizona Ballot Initiative, 2000; Berman, 2014). Additionally, while campaigning for Attorney General, Horne cited his accomplishments, emphasizing his success in banning ethnic studies. This campaign strategy resulted in Horne's election.</p> <p>The summer of 2013 found TUSD in an interesting predicament. For decades the district had been court-ordered to implement a desegregation plan. The MAS program described here served that purpose but once state law banned it in 2010 the district was suddenly out of compliance again. In order to address the desegregation order, classes were reinstated. Kurt Garbe, a high school teacher in the district, explains how the program has lost steam. Community and student participation and interest in the 2013–2014 MAS courses did not match that of the previous program. He continued explaining that teachers, most of whom are new due to attrition resulting from the ban, received training for the new courses (K. Garbe, personal communication, January 13, 2014).</p> <hd id="AN0111115427-8">Montana's IEFA</hd> <p>The path for the education of Indigenous peoples in Montana and throughout the Americas took many turns between the late 1800s, when Indian boarding schools were prominent, and the latter half of the 21st century. The early 1970s presented numerous opportunities to advocate for systemic change within public schools educating American Indian students. One of the greatest achievements occurred when high school students from the Fort Peck Reservation shared with the Constitutional delegates their desire to learn about their own cultures and languages along with the standard Eurocentric curriculum (Juneau & Smoker Broaddus, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref35">22</reflink>]). This so inspired an entirely non-Indian Montana constitutional delegation that they crafted and included Article X, Section 1, Subsections 1 and 2 in the 1972 re-writing of the Montana state constitution. The exact language is as follows:</p> <p>Section 1. Educational goals and duties. (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref36">1</reflink>) It is the goal of the people to establish a system of education which will develop the full educational potential of each person. Equality of educational opportunity is guaranteed to each person of the state. (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref37">2</reflink>) The state recognizes the distinct and unique cultural heritage of the American Indians and is committed in its educational goals to the preservation of their cultural integrity. (Montana State Constitution, Article X, Section 2)</p> <p>In 1999, another celebrated event in Indian Education in Montana occurred when Representative Carol Juneau (Mandan/Hidatsa) introduced and was able to pass Montana Code Annotated 20-1-501, now known as IEFA.</p> <p>Monies were finally allocated for the implementation of IEFA following the ruling of the Montana Supreme Court case titled <emph>Columbia Falls School Dist. v. State (2004)</emph> where the Columbia Falls School District unified with numerous organizations in a suit against the State of Montana claiming lack of funding to fully support a "quality education" under which IEFA fell. Columbia Falls won the case on the sheer fact that Montana was "defenseless" in that it had completely neglected to fund IEFA. As a result, funding was allocated in 2005 to address the constitutional mandate to implement IEFA. Over the past 10 years the allocation of funding has supported the creation of curricular materials and professional development in an effort to improve education for and about American Indians of Montana.</p> <hd id="AN0111115427-9">MAS and IEFA: Similarities and Differences</hd> <p>Montana and Arizona share the title of the "only state" in different arenas. To date, Montana is the sole state in the United States to have a constitutional mandate to integrate Indian Education across the curriculum. Arizona stands alone in dismantling ethnic studies and passing a bill that prohibits it. The ways in which the events surrounding the ethnic studies debate unfolded in Arizona and Montana, when laid out on a timeline, are striking. While Arizona lawmakers were legislating to eliminate ethnic studies, Montana was continuing to prove its commitment to IEFA by funding the mandate, designing/providing curriculum for it, and electing leaders who would support it.</p> <p>In both contexts, it was students who requested the integration of culturally responsive and community-driven curricula taught from a social justice perspective. Beginning in the 1960s, the "Chicano Blowouts" of 1968 had a direct impact on the inclusion of ethnic studies in schools in Arizona (Garcia & Castro, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref38">18</reflink>]). As mentioned above, Montana's Constitution (1972) affirmed the commitment to Indigenous education. By the 1990s, both Arizona and Montana moved forward and embraced multicultural education as an approach so students could develop higher-order thinking skills and cultural awareness. As TUSD initiated the elective MAS Program in 1996, Montana encoded the commitment to IEFA for all students within its constitutional language in 1999.</p> <p>By the 1990s, both Arizona and Montana moved forward and embraced multicultural education as an approach so students could develop higher-order thinking skills and cultural awareness.</p> <p>Then the timelines began to diverge. While the educators in the MAS Department at TUSD certainly aimed their trajectory toward helping students understand their own histories, policymakers at the state level had different ideas. Although open to all students, the MAS Program was not mandated across all grade levels and within all disciplines as IEFA was. Additionally, MAS utilized many instructors who were Latino/a, while less than three percent of the teaching corps in Montana is made up of American Indian teachers (Montana OPI, 2014). In 2000 bilingual education was banned in Arizona while in 1999 IEFA was funded by the Montana legislature (MCA 20-1-501). Arizona Superintendent of Public Instruction Tom Horne in 2007 wrote his "Open Letter to the People of Tucson" decrying the divisive nature of ethnic studies and initiated his campaign to ban ethnic studies across the state. By contrast, in 2008 Montana elected Denise Juneau (Mandan/Hidatsa), the first American Indian female to hold a state-level elected position in the history of U.S. politics, as the Superintendent of Public Instruction.</p> <p>Superintendent Tom Horne did not accept offers to attend classes (McGinnis & Palos, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref39">29</reflink>]), was not open to any discussion, and did not respond positively to student refutations of his claims (K. Garbe, personal communication, January 13, 2014). He remained hyper-critical of the MAS program in fear that minority students were being indoctrinated with dangerous ideology and ethnic chauvinism. Conversely, in Montana all students learn about the histories and cultures of American Indians in Montana and IEFA promotes academic engagement, achievement, and personal empowerment. Horne succeeded in passing his ethnic studies ban into law in 2010, the same year "The Framework," a guidebook used to support teachers and administrators in the implementation of IEFA, was published by the Montana OPI (Elser, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref40">15</reflink>]). In 2012, Sean Arce, the director of the dismantled TUSD MAS Program, lost his position with TUSD (Herreras, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref41">19</reflink>]); in comparison, Montanans re-elected IEFA advocate Superintendent Juneau.</p> <hd id="AN0111115427-10">Why IEFA Works</hd> <p>IEFA works because it improves education for ALL students. It is not only the signature multicultural mandate for Montana, it is an essential element of an inclusive multicultural education approach. Wetschler ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref42">36</reflink>]) offered seven tips for effectively implementing ethnic studies, all of which have been operationalized through IEFA. First, he suggested building support by "cultivating champions in the legislature" (p. 52). Among the many supporters of IEFA are State Representative and Senator Carol Juneau, Superintendent of Public Instruction Denise Juneau, Senator Jon Tester, Governors Brian Schweitzer and Steve Bullock, Montana Senator and member of the Tribal Council of the Chippewa Cree tribe Jonathan Windy Boy, and the numerous tribal government leaders. They have collaborated to pass legislation, fund pilot programs, and lead the nation in Indian Education initiatives. Montana also has champions in state education agencies and districts. All Indian Education specialists, seven tribal college presidents, Indian Leadership Education and Development (ILEAD) project principals and superintendents, and K–12 IEFA coaches are involved. These individuals and many others continue the work of the original 1972 Constitutional delegates.</p> <p>The Montana OPI's Indian Education Division provides professional development for school administrators, curriculum directors, IEFA coaches, K–12 teachers, librarians, school boards, law enforcement, and other community groups. The OPI compiles and distributes the <emph>Montana American Indian Student Achievement Data Report</emph> and supports research endeavors to share program effectiveness and secure financial support for continued professional and curricular development.</p> <p>Although there is no one proven formula for successful reform of education for Indian students, it is clear it must involve American Indian leaders. "Individual teachers can do phenomenal things, but nothing (in education is going to change systematically) ... until power is shared," says Julie Cajune (personal communication, July 23, 2010), former director of American Indian education for the Ronan Public Schools on the Flathead Reservation. Montana has crafted a unique approach to school reform by recognizing tribal sovereignty, partnering with tribes, honoring self-determination, and promoting economic development (Boyer, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref43">8</reflink>]).</p> <p>Tribal elders, community members, officers, and the faculty, staff, and students at tribal colleges in Montana have the knowledge and expertise to help the educators in Montana's public institutions fulfill IEFA by integrating accurate and appropriate information (Fox, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref44">17</reflink>]). Tribal leaders from across the state came together to develop a set of key understandings entitled the Essential Understandings, the conceptual framework for teaching to and about Indian people of Montana.</p> <p>IEFA is not an add-on but rather is integrated into all curricula, practices, and policies. Its emphasis on multiple perspectives and contemporary issues makes it an ideal companion to the Common Core State Standards that promote critical thinking and autonomy. It allows Indian students to see themselves reflected in the curriculum while allowing other students to see through windows into other cultures. It is a discourse wherein curiosity and acceptance are both fueled and satisfied. When IEFA is implemented in a culturally responsive manner, Indian and non-Indian students alike have their cultural heritages valued and their life experiences validated on their educational journeys. They learn a comprehensive Montana history appreciating American Indian perspectives and recognizing their contributions to core curricular areas, past and present. It is hoped that more educators embrace what IEFA offers so that all students learn to see the strength in diversity and are prepared to take stands against social injustice.</p> <hd id="AN0111115427-11">Conclusion</hd> <p>As highlighted in the introduction, E pluribus unum is not always easily accomplished. As we embark on the next 50 years following King's powerful speech, it is important to re-examine our national goals and clarify how the education system can advance the democratic ideals of citizenship and equality; we must both value these ideals conceptually and implement them pedagogically. These beliefs are especially evident in states and districts which have adopted curriculum or even legal stances related to ethnic studies.</p> <p>Our curricular choices reflect our beliefs as educators and policymakers, and they directly affect students. As citizens of the pluralistic democracy known as the United States, we have an instructional responsibility, a moral imperative, and a civic duty to teach the histories and heritages of all groups. Focusing on the academic success and well-being of ALL students is at the heart of Montana's IEFA initiative. This incontrovertible priority allows us to put differences aside, initiate negotiations, promote collaboration, and address the social injustices and educational inequities that exist by recognizing disparate experiences and honoring multiple perspectives. In Montana, we have made ethnic studies our official stance.</p> <p>As a result of lessons learned, we make the following recommendations for ethnic studies programs such as MAS and others throughout the United States. First, keep students at the center of all efforts. They should be the primary beneficiaries of any policy initiatives. We have found that it is easier to navigate education reform from common ground. Second, remember that good things take time, changes will not happen overnight, and persistence is an important piece of the puzzle. The audacious legislation known as IEFA was 40+ years in the making. Third, locate and cultivate allies at administrative, legislative, and community levels in order to broaden the support base for positive change. And ensure that the community leadership is inclusive of all groups; in Montana, Indians and non-Indians alike are leaders for the cause. Fourth, resist stand-alone programming and instead take bold steps to revamp curricula, infusing it with culturally responsive pedagogy addressing issues of social injustice and educational inequity head-on. In teacher preparation programs, professional development workshops, and K–12 classrooms across our state, tough conversations about race are commonplace.</p> <p>Our curricular choices reflect our beliefs as educators and policymakers, and they directly affect students. As citizens of the pluralistic democracy known as the United States, we have an instructional responsibility, a moral imperative, and a civic duty to teach the histories and heritages of all groups.</p> <p>Another consideration is that with change comes challenge. While implementing IEFA we have encountered obstacles. As noted by Wetschler ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref45">36</reflink>]) "credible proof" of effectiveness is a key to perceived success of any education reform effort. In Montana we have anecdotal evidence of the success of IEFA and as responsible educators we know our efforts are on the right side of history. However, designing quantitative studies to demonstrate the law's effectiveness has been taxing. Also, helping everyone in the state to recognize the value of IEFA is a challenge in itself, especially because our teaching force and our state leadership are not static. In addition, financial support is not always guaranteed, even though IEFA is encoded into our Constitution as well as our state law.</p> <p>Some would argue that the attack on ethnic studies is about racism, not borders or land disputes. Without doubt, it draws attention to whose voices are heard and whose have been silenced. In Montana, American Indians comprise the majority-minority and we are listening. We have committed to a quality education for all Montanans inclusive of Western humanities and Indian education. Across this nation, students should learn a comprehensive history. When done correctly, ethnic studies honors the political, geographical, and historical realities of all its students. When we endeavor through professional development, curricular choices, and collaboration with cultural experts, we bring our ideals to fruition.</p> <p>On August 28, 2013, when President Obama paid homage to Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., he stood on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial where Dr. King stood 50 years before and reminded us that "The promise of this nation will only be kept when we work together" (Preston, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref46">25</reflink>], para. 9). So, to commemorate Dr. King's inspirational speech, we ask ourselves, are we walking the talk? The answer—a resounding—Yes! In Montana we are. Montana's IEFA initiative is leading the way to educating all of Montanans, Indian and non-Indian alike, to become better citizens for an interdependent global world.</p> <p>The success of IEFA will materialize when students who understand the diversity of Montana and the strength such diversity brings to our State become tribal, state, and national leaders. They will translate their IEFA knowledge into a stronger capability to deal with a global society made up of thousands of cultural groups. (Juneau & Juneau, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref47">21</reflink>], pp. 124–125)</p> <p>As Carjuzaa et al. (2010) explained, "IEFA is a hopeful indicator of the changing paradigm of public education; rather than aiming to inculcate nationalism through a culturally homogenized curriculum, IEFA attempts to strengthen democracy by fostering relationships and including multiple perspectives" (p. 197). We recognize that although American Indians will guide the way, educators throughout Montana are developing the necessary skills, strengths, and varying perspectives to contribute. It is important to note that we craft this article today in such collaboration.</p> <ref id="AN0111115427-12"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref20" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Acosta, C., & Mir, A. (2012, Summer). Empowering young people to be critical thinkers: The Mexican American studies program in Tucson. Voices in Urban Education, 34, 17–28. Retrieved from <ulink href="http://vue.annenberginstitute.org/issues/34/empowering-young-people">http://vue.annenberginstitute.org/issues/34/empowering-young-people</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref37" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Alexander, K., & Alexander, M. D. (2012). American public school law (8th ed.). 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  Data: Making the Dream Real: Montana's Indian Education for All Initiative Thrives in a National Climate of Anti-Ethnic Studies
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Multicultural+Perspectives%22"><i>Multicultural Perspectives</i></searchLink>. 2015 17(4):198-206.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22American+Indian+Education%22">American Indian Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22American+Indian+Studies%22">American Indian Studies</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ethnic+Studies%22">Ethnic Studies</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22State+Action%22">State Action</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22State+Policy%22">State Policy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Descriptions%22">Program Descriptions</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Development%22">Program Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Effectiveness%22">Program Effectiveness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Role+of+Education%22">Role of Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Objectives%22">Educational Objectives</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Models%22">Models</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Achievement+Gap%22">Achievement Gap</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Best+Practices%22">Best Practices</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Cooperation%22">Educational Cooperation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Bias%22">Racial Bias</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Discrimination%22">Racial Discrimination</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1080/15210960.2015.1088303
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  Data: The espoused foundation of U.S. society, "E pluribus unum" (out of many, one), is based on the belief that this nation should simultaneously support pluralism and promote unity. The road to making this ideal a reality, however, has not always been smooth. The ever-widening achievement gap highlights how this discordance plays out in our education system. Ethnic studies came about to counterbalance the predominance of Euro-American perspectives in our textbooks and curricula and address the inaccuracies, myths, and misconceptions surrounding other groups. Efforts to create a better and more just America were recently tested, however, when an Arizona law prohibiting school districts from offering courses taught from a specific racial/ethnic perspective targeted the Mexican-American Studies Program in Tucson schools. In contrast, Montana's educators who embrace the Indian Education for All initiative and teach all students about Montana's first inhabitants is thriving. In this article, we summarize the research on ethnic studies; track the inception, opposition, and abolition of the ethnic studies program in Tucson; and describe how Montana legislators, state education agencies, tribal members, and classroom teachers have collaborated and successfully promoted the unprecedented reform effort known as Indian Education for All in this anti-ethnic studies national climate.
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  Data: 2015
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1082567
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1082567
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/15210960.2015.1088303
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 9
        StartPage: 198
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: American Indian Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: American Indian Studies
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Ethnic Studies
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: State Action
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: State Policy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Program Descriptions
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Program Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Program Effectiveness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Role of Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Objectives
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Models
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Achievement Gap
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Best Practices
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Cooperation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Bias
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Discrimination
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Arizona
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Montana
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Making the Dream Real: Montana's Indian Education for All Initiative Thrives in a National Climate of Anti-Ethnic Studies
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Carjuzaa, Jioanna
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Baldwin, Anna E
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Munson, Michael
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2015
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1521-0960
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 17
            – Type: issue
              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Multicultural Perspectives
              Type: main
ResultId 1