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Knowledge of Global Climate Change: View of Iranian University Students

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Title: Knowledge of Global Climate Change: View of Iranian University Students
Language: English
Authors: Salehi, Sadegh, Nejad, Zahra Pazuki, Mahmoudi, Hossein, Burkart, Stefan
Source: International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education. 2016 25(3):226-243.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 18
Publication Date: 2016
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, College Students, Climate, Knowledge Level, Hypothesis Testing, Environment, Trust (Psychology), Efficiency, Student Surveys, Social Influences, Gender Differences, Intellectual Disciplines, Comparative Analysis, Likert Scales, Pretests Posttests, Interviews, Statistical Analysis
Geographic Terms: Iran
DOI: 10.1080/10382046.2016.1155322
ISSN: 1038-2046
Abstract: This article assesses students' understanding of global climate change (GCC) and social factors affecting it. It was hypothesized that students who demonstrate pro-environmental attitudes are more likely to possess higher knowledge of GCC. It was further hypothesized that trust and personal efficiency would have a positive effect on the knowledge of GCC. To this end, 816 students of several universities in the Iranian Mazandaran province were randomly selected for a survey. Results show that the level of students' understanding of the GCC phenomenon is moderate and the social factors, environmental attitude, trust and personal efficiency have influence on their knowledge of GCC. Furthermore, the study shows that male students possess more knowledge of GCC than female ones.
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 75
Entry Date: 2016
Accession Number: EJ1098000
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0114607946;ght01aug.16;2019Feb21.13:49;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0114607946-1">Knowledge of global climate change: view of Iranian university students. </title> <p>This article assesses students' understanding of global climate change (GCC) and social factors affecting it. It was hypothesized that students who demonstrate pro-environmental attitudes are more likely to possess higher knowledge of GCC. It was further hypothesized that trust and personal efficiency would have a positive effect on the knowledge of GCC. To this end, 816 students of several universities in the Iranian Mazandaran province were randomly selected for a survey. Results show that the level of students' understanding of the GCC phenomenon is moderate and the social factors, environmental attitude, trust and personal efficiency have influence on their knowledge of GCC. Furthermore, the study shows that male students possess more knowledge of GCC than female ones.</p> <p>Keywords: Global climate change; environmental attitude; trust; Iran; environmental policy</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-2">1. Introduction</hd> <p>Global temperatures have risen over the past century by at least 0.74 °C and this appears to be the result of higher levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the earth's atmosphere, which ultimately leads to the warming of the world's climate (Urry, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref1">68</reflink>]). Climate change is one of the most threatening global environmental changes of this century (Cardwell, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref2">12</reflink>]). The economic and social implications of global climate change (GCC) are the subject of intense national and international studies in present day scenario (Sarkar, Padaria, Lal, & Bhatia, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref3">57</reflink>]). With regard to the relevance of this topic, many studies on the physical and biological aspects of climate change have been conducted during the last decades. However, in recent years, there has also been a growing interest regarding human attitude and the perception of GCC. There is an endeavor to understand climate change from a socio-economic perspective to prepare roadmaps for capacity building on policy, based on human perception and attitude (Sarkar et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref4">57</reflink>]). In addition, public policy must be developed to reduce GHGs and adapt to the potential risks of environmental changes. Behavior change strategies, that are consistent with the peoples' knowledge and awareness of global environmental change, are therefore necessary in order to developing sustainable policies (Cardwell, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref5">12</reflink>]; Scannell & Gifford, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref6">58</reflink>]). In addition, although government interventions play a significant role in GHG reduction, voluntary behavior change is also important (Semenza, Hall, Wilson, & Sailor, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref7">59</reflink>]). A scientifically (and technologically) literate citizenry is seen by governments and science educators as desirable, as it is believed to increase the international competitiveness of an economy and enhance good citizenship and public participation in a sophisticated democratic society (Spellman, Field, & Sinclair, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref8">62</reflink>]). Voluntary reduction of energy consumption depends on the awareness and acceptance of the existence of global environmental changes like climate change and global warming (Cardwell, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref9">12</reflink>]). Scientific evidence confirms that lay people think differently, and results show that people try to make sense of global warming or climate change by taking it into their understanding – and misunderstanding – of environmental problems in general (Dunlap, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref10">16</reflink>]). Iranian peoples' knowledge and behavior has not yet been studied in-depth – the only available piece of research (conducted by the authors of this paper) shows that people – at least in some parts of Iran – have very little knowledge of GCC. In the mentioned study, the researchers aimed to explore peoples' attitudes and behaviors towards climate change and initially conducted interviews with 18 persons from Mazandaran University for that purpose. They found that these persons equate GCC with seasonal changes and that they do not know exactly how GCC is happening (Salehi & Pazuki Nejad, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref11">51</reflink>]). Due to the very low level of knowledge of these lay persons, they have been excluded from the sample and this study has focused on university students who seem to be more knowledgeable on GCC than any other social group in Iran. For considering this issue in more detail, differences in the level of knowledge of GCC among subgroups, such as urban and rural residents or female and male students, have been considered. The risk of climate change is not gender-neutral (Habtezion, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref12">21</reflink>]) and gender dimensions of climate change need to be considered (Salehi, Pazuki Nejad, Mahmoudi, & Knierim, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref13">55</reflink>]) for obtaining a holistic picture of GCC in a region or country. It is assumed that people living in cities are more aware on GCC than the ones living in rural areas, due to the fact that city residents are more likely educated and have more likely access to information sources, such as mass media, books or magazines related to environmental knowledge (Anand & Seetharam, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref14">4</reflink>]). Accordingly, we consider these two factors in our study. As such, the purpose of this study is to explore Iranian undergraduate students' knowledge of GCC and the effect of social factors on it. The study aims to find answers to these three questions.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> What is the students' knowledge of GCC?</item> <p></p> <item> Do gender or residence have an effect on the knowledge of GCC?</item> <p></p> <item> Which other social factors influence students' knowledge of GCC?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0114607946-3">2. Theoretical framework</hd> <p>Taking a scientific and proper approach to deal with the issue of GCC requires awareness towards this phenomenon, which helps to make a proper and applicable policy. In other words, to address GCC issues like environmental risks we need to understand the causes, consequences and potential solutions to GCC (Sutton, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref15">64</reflink>]). Environmental issues of the early twenty-first century are characterized by a high level of scientific, technical, environmental, political and cultural complexity (Cameron, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref16">11</reflink>]; Spellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref17">62</reflink>]). Sjoberg ([<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref18">61</reflink>]) has commented on the need for a reasonable level of public scientific literacy as a necessity of an equitable society (Spellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref19">62</reflink>], p. 212) and Kolstoe ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref20">30</reflink>]) believed that the rationale for this argument is that the general public can then become "good citizens" who are in a position to make informed and more accurate decisions about scientific issues (Spellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref21">62</reflink>], p. 212). This thinking gives the rationale for research on public perception of GCC (public knowledge and concern), which is considered to be of supportive or hindering character for public action on GCC (Vignola, Klinsky, Tam, & McDaniels, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref22">69</reflink>]). Public perception of GCC has been researched since two decades, whereby major emphasis was put on North America and Europe (e.g. Bostrom, Morgan, Fischhoff, & Read, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref23">10</reflink>]; Cardwell, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref24">12</reflink>]; Darier & Schüle, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref25">14</reflink>]; Dunlap, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref26">16</reflink>]; Kempton, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref27">28</reflink>]; Lazaro, Cabecinhas, & Carvalho, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref28">32</reflink>]; Löfstedt, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref29">37</reflink>]; Lorenzoni & Pidgeon, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref30">39</reflink>]; O'Connor & Bord, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref31">42</reflink>]; Reynolds, Bostrom, Read, & Morgan, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref32">46</reflink>]; Shwom, Bidwell, Dan, & Dietz, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref33">60</reflink>]; Zwick & Renn, [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref34">75</reflink>]) and less on developing countries (e.g. Adelekan & Gbadegesin, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref35">1</reflink>]; Asiyanbi, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref36">5</reflink>]; Clarke, Gaisford, & Jones, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref37">13</reflink>]; Dunlap, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref38">16</reflink>]; Leiserowitz & Thaker, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref39">35</reflink>]; Takahashi & Meisner, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref40">65</reflink>]; Vignola et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref41">69</reflink>]; Wang & Li, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref42">70</reflink>]). Most of these studies show that public knowledge of GCC is relatively moderate and that for a majority of the people it is rather difficult to understand the scientific context behind the term GCC (e.g. Bostrom et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref43">10</reflink>]; Cardwell, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref44">12</reflink>]; Dunlap, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref45">16</reflink>]; Kempton, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref46">28</reflink>]; Lazaro et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref47">32</reflink>]; Leiserowitz & Thaker, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref48">35</reflink>]; Löfstedt, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref49">37</reflink>]; Wang & Li, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref50">70</reflink>]). With regard to public concern about GCC, studies show relatively high concerns (e.g. Cardwell, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref51">12</reflink>]; Hills, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref52">24</reflink>]; Leiserowitz, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref53">33</reflink>]; Leiserowitz, Feinberg, Howe, & Rosental, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref54">36</reflink>]; Reynolds et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref55">46</reflink>]; Spellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref56">62</reflink>]; Vignola et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref57">69</reflink>]), which are expressed in thoughts about negative impacts or events (e.g. catastrophes) resulting from GCC (see Darier & Schüle, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref58">14</reflink>]; Lorenzoni, Leiserowitz, DeFranca, Poortinga, & Pidgeon, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref59">38</reflink>]; Lorenzoni & Pidgeon, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref60">39</reflink>]). In the context of public action on GCC, Pongiglione ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref61">44</reflink>]) highlights the necessity of providing locally contextualized procedural knowledge to the public so that it can apply its concerns and knowledge into action.</p> <p>With regard to Iran, no broad studies exist that give indications on public knowledge of GCC. For this reason, the presented study will contribute to close this gap and to the emerging research on public knowledge of GCC in developing countries.</p> <p>The aim of this study is to discover the relationship between knowledge of GCC and demographic variables (gender, place of residence), to understand the effects of environmental attitudes, trust and personal efficiency on knowledge of GCC among Iranian students. In order to this, we define these social factors as independent variables in the following section and use them in the analytical models presented in this paper (Figure 1).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Theoretical framework of factors influencing the knowledge of global climate change.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-4">2.1. Demographic variables</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0114607946-5">2.1.1. Gender differences</hd> <p>Research consistently shows that women and rural communities are more vulnerable to the risks of climate change than men (Habtezion, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref62">21</reflink>]; IPCC, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref63">25</reflink>]). With regard to gender differences, researchers argue that there exist higher levels of environmental concerns among women and that they are playing more prominent than men in environmentalism (Babaei, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref64">6</reflink>]; Dunlap, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref65">16</reflink>]; Hills, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref66">24</reflink>]; McCright, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref67">41</reflink>]; Spellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref68">62</reflink>]; Zelezny, Chua, & Aldrich, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref69">74</reflink>]). This is being explained by the fact that women are generally more often in charge of family care and therefore have more contact with environmental services (Rocheleau, Wangari, & Thomas-Slayter, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref70">48</reflink>]; Salehi et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref71">55</reflink>]; Terry, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref72">66</reflink>]), which makes them more likely to be affected by changes in the environment (e.g. GCC). This in turn might then also affect their perception on environmental changes such as GCC (Wolf & Moser, [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref73">71</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-6">2.1.2. Place of residence</hd> <p>This social factor can be justified by the fact that different experiences of nature among rural people and urbanites shape their different ways of thinking and feeling about the environment (Salehi, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref74">49</reflink>]). Following this line of thought, the relation between the place of residence and knowledge of GCC has been examined by some researchers. For example, Dunlap ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref75">16</reflink>]), Hills ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref76">24</reflink>]), Lazaro et al. ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref77">32</reflink>]), Cardwill ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref78">12</reflink>]) or Babaei ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref79">6</reflink>]) found that there was a relation between the place of residence of a person and the level of knowledge of GCC that person possesses. They found that people living in cities are more aware of GCC than people living in rural areas. On the other hand, Clarke et al. ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref80">13</reflink>]) found no difference between the place of residence and peoples' knowledge of GCC.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-7">2.1.3. Study subject/faculty affiliation</hd> <p>The understanding of the importance of environmental issues (and especially GCC) can facilitate the implementation of climate change policies. Some students might have a better understanding of GCC because of their study subject or their affiliation to a certain faculty. For example, Spellman et al. ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref81">62</reflink>]) found that students affiliated to natural-science faculties have a better understanding of GCC than the ones affiliated to non-natural-science faculties. Salehi and Pazuki Nejad ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref82">54</reflink>]) found that students affiliated to medical, engineering and natural resources faculties have a more positive environmental attitude and behavior than the ones affiliated to the faculties of law and political sciences, human and social sciences or physics.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-8">2.2. Environmental attitude</hd> <p>Some studies show that there are significant relationships between environmental knowledge and environmental attitudes (e.g. Kuhlmeier, Van Den Bergh, & Lagerweij, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref83">31</reflink>]; Makki, Abd-El-Khalick, & BouJaoude, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref84">40</reflink>]; Yoon Fah & Sirisena, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref85">73</reflink>]). "Environmental attitudes are conceptualized in terms of attitude theory as being composed of beliefs and affect toward an object" (Karimi, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref86">26</reflink>], p. 81). The sociologists Dunlap and Van Liere ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref87">19</reflink>]) have described the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP), which describes the state of one's understanding of nature and his relation to it and thus represents a constellation of values, attitudes or beliefs which are "perhaps best captured by spaceship earth metaphor". This paradigm hypothesized that the predominant world view of that time, the Dominant Social Paradigm (Pirages & Ehrlich, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref88">43</reflink>]), which was characterized by traditional values and beliefs, such as economic growth, material progress and technological optimism (Salehi & Pazuki Nejad, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref89">52</reflink>]), was undergoing a change towards greater public environmental concern. Heath and Gifford ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref90">23</reflink>]) and Bord, O'Connor, and Fisher ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref91">9</reflink>]) examined the effect of the NEP on the understanding of GCC. Their results indicate that environmental attitude has an impact on the understanding of complex environmental issues such as GCC.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-9">2.3. Trust</hd> <p>Research on public knowledge of GCC shows that the messenger of climate change information has an influence on how the receiver perceives the content of the message (Bales, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref92">7</reflink>]; Yearley, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref93">72</reflink>]). Some of the European and North American studies on the perception of GCC (e.g. Dietz, Dan, & Rachael, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref94">15</reflink>]; Poortinga & Pidgeon, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref95">45</reflink>]) describe the importance of the messenger and the level of trust between him and the receiver of such messages for the mediation of public reaction to GCC, but information on this topic for the developing country context is still scarce. Merely Vignola et al. ([<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref96">69</reflink>]) describe the relation of GCC knowledge and trust for Costa Rica. Trust has been shown to be an important correlate of interpretations of risk and resultant support or opposition to policy choices in the face of risk (Kellstedt, Zahran, & Vedlitz, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref97">27</reflink>], p. 115). Trust in information from governmental agencies, (environmental) non-governmental organizations ((e)NGOs) or media can facilitate the recognition and understanding of climate change. Therefore, trust can facilitate the knowledge acquisition and guarantee a safety net that people can rely on to borrow money or assets in times of climatic variation or weather shocks (Khanh Nam, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref98">29</reflink>], p. 4). Researchers (e.g. Cardwell, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref99">12</reflink>]; Kellstedt et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref100">27</reflink>]; Lazaro et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref101">32</reflink>]; Spellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref102">62</reflink>]; Tranter & Skrbis, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref103">67</reflink>]) find that reliable information resources, such as scientists, (e)NGOs, government and mass media, help in facilitating an understanding of complex scientific findings, such as GCC.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-10">2.4. Personal efficiency</hd> <p>Facing a diffuse and seemingly distant environmental problem such as GCC, from which a diverse range of consequences can occur, some individuals may believe that their efforts will not significantly ameliorate the negative consequences, whereas others may think that their efforts will make a difference. The belief that the things one can do will make a significant difference should be a prerequisite for the willingness to make any personal effort, in this case to combat GCC (Heath & Gifford, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref104">23</reflink>], p. 53). Some researchers like Heath and Gifford ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref105">22</reflink>]), Kellstedt et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref106">27</reflink>]), Hills ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref107">24</reflink>]) and Clarke et al. ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref108">13</reflink>]) find this variable to have a significant influence on risk assessments of GCC.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-11">2.5. Hypotheses and theoretical framework</hd> <p>With regard to the described variables we have tested the following hypotheses:</p> <p> <bold>H1:</bold> Female students, students living in urban areas and students affiliated to natural sciences faculties possess a higher level of GCC</p> <p> <bold>H2:</bold> Students with a positive attitude towards the environment possess a higher level of knowledge of GCC</p> <p> <bold>H3:</bold> Students who have trust in the government, scientists or environmental groups possess a higher level of knowledge of GCC</p> <p> <bold>H4:</bold> Students with a high level of personal efficiency possess a higher level of knowledge of GCC</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-12">3. Location of research</hd> <p>There is no doubt that climate change is taking place in Iran. The analyses of climate scientists show that the temperature in the northern and southern regions of Iran is steadily rising. Reduced rainfalls are occurring and desert areas in South East and West Iran are expanding (Alijani, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref109">3</reflink>]). However, Iran is a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol and according to this treaty, the country is obliged to implement mitigation and adaptation policies to reduce GHG emissions. Performance indicators reported by the German Institute for Climate Watch in 2011 suggest that Iran was ranked 52 out of 60 on the performance index of climate change and this means that it lost 14 positions compared to the previous evaluation period. According to enactment, the rules of procedure adopted from the Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol in July 2009 by the Iranian Cabinet, the National Climate Change Committee and the Secretariat related to the Environmental Protection Agency of Iran, it seems that Iran now gets better grades in terms of reducing carbon emissions (Ahadi, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref110">2</reflink>]).</p> <p>Mazandaran Province is a Caspian province in the north of Iran, located on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea. The province covers an area of 23,842 km<sups>2</sups>. According to the census of 2006, the population of the province was 2,922,432 of which 53.18% were registered as urban dwellers, 46.82% villagers and the remaining as non-residents. Mazandaran is one of the most densely populated provinces in Iran and has diverse natural resources. The study was conducted in Qaemshahr city which is located in the north-eastern part of Mazandaran Province. Qaemshahr, like other cities in the province, hosts, because of its natural landscape, various groups of people from the other provinces, especially during holidays and generally during weekends. In the last three decades, many forest and mountain areas of the city have been destroyed and environmental problems are becoming more visible to the residents. This situation makes Qaemshahr a suitable case for conducting such study.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-13">4. Methodology</hd> <p>This study utilized a survey method and the main tool for data collection was a questionnaire. Given that the focus of the study is to assess students' knowledge, the unit of analysis in this study is the university student and the level of analysis is micro. To this end, 816 students of different universities were selected using stratified sampling and interviewed face to face. Having examined the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, the survey data were collected and analyzed. Four hypotheses were examined. Data entry and final processing was performed applying IBM-SPSS software.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-14">4.1. Knowledge of global climate change and other variables</hd> <p>Knowledge of GCC was the dependent variable in this study. Knowledge of GCC is about the causes, consequences and potential solutions to global warming and practical knowledge that enables individual and collective action (Leiserowitz & Smith, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref111">34</reflink>]). To analyze knowledge of GCC, we used the scale of Spellman et al. ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref112">62</reflink>]) which consists of 18 items (9 items related to global warming and the greenhouse effect and 9 items related to ozone depletion). After a pre-test, we used seven statements related to global warming and the greenhouse effect and eight statements related to ozone depletion. Each statement was measured with a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. In this study, the scale had moderately low internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.60).</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-15">4.2. New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale</hd> <p>To measure the students' environmental attitudes, the NEP scale, developed by Dunlap, Kent, Mertig, and Jones ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref113">18</reflink>]), was applied. For measuring the NEP, Dunlap and his colleagues (Dunlap, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref114">17</reflink>]; Dunlap et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref115">18</reflink>]; Dunlap & Van Liere, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref116">19</reflink>]) have developed a Likert scale. This scale has been widely used during the past two decades and researchers have variously used it with samples of the general public or specific sectors such as farmers (Salehi, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref117">49</reflink>]). The NEP addresses four aspects of an environmental worldview with three statements for each: the realization of limits to growth, anti-anthropocentrism, belief in the fragility of the balance of nature and the rejection of human exemptionalism. Attitudes were measured with a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Agreement with positively (pro-environmentally) narrated statements results in higher measures, while measures of the negatively narrated statements are reversed so that disagreement with them results in lower measures. In this study, the scale had an acceptable internal consistency (α = 0.68).</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-16">4.3. Trust</hd> <p>According to Kellstedt et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref118">27</reflink>]), the credibility of informational resources, such as governmental and non-governmental agencies plays an important role in offering programs for global warming risk reduction and provides certainty for people about environmental problems. To measure this variable, we used four statements related to informational resources. Each statement was measured with a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. In this study, the scale had moderately low internal consistency (α = 0.61).</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-17">4.4. Personal efficiency</hd> <p>Personal efficiency is the perceived ability of a respondent to influence climate change outcomes, to induce others to behave in ways that mitigate human sources of climate change and whether a respondent accepts climate change as a human responsibility (Kellstedt et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref119">27</reflink>], p. 118). This variable consists of four items. Each item is measured with a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. In this study, the scale had an acceptable internal consistency (α = 0.69).</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-18">4.5. Socio-demographic variables</hd> <p>For the purpose of this study, we applied different operational definitions to measure socio-demographic variables. Place of residence was defined as the current place of living for the respondent. It was coded as 1 = village (rural area) and 2 = city or town (urban area). The gender variable was coded as 1 = male and 2 = female. Furthermore, the affiliation to a university faculty/department and the number of semesters already studied were analyzed.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-19">5. Results</hd> <p>In this section, we present the results of the descriptive and statistical analyses to estimate students' knowledge of GCC. From the sample of 816 students, 40% were male and 60% female. 81.5% of the respondents live in cities and 18.5% in rural areas. Most respondents were affiliated to the Agricultural and Natural Resources faculty as well as to the Construction Engineering and Social and Human Sciences faculties.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-20">5.1. Knowledge of global climate change (GCC)</hd> <p>The results of Table 1 show that 11 statements (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref120">1</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref121">2</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref122">3</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref123">4</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref124">5</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref125">7</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref126">10</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref127">11</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref128">13</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref129">14</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref130">15</reflink>) were marked correctly by the majority of students. A total of 57.1% of the students did not know that without clouds and water vapor in the atmosphere, the earth would be much colder and 58.9% were unaware that scientists believe that large amounts of ozone gas in the atmosphere increases ultraviolet radiation on the earth's surface. 61.2% of the students did not know that Iran is not the world's largest producer of GHGs and 50.9% were not informed that scientists have yet to find evidence that suggests that stratospheric ozone levels are declining over Iran. This suggests that Iranian students have limited access to information resources in order to understand the phenomenon of GCC and its effects on their country.</p> <p>Table 1. Frequency and mean distribution of the knowledge GCC scale items.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>% Distribution</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Items</td><td>SD</td><td>MD</td><td>U</td><td>MA</td><td>SA</td><td>Mean rating of 5</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1-Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere contributes to the global greenhouse effect (T)</td><td char=".">1.4</td><td char=".">1.6</td><td char=".">18.7</td><td char=".">49.5</td><td char=".">28.8</td><td char=".">4.02</td></tr><tr><td>2-A more intense greenhouse effect would probably lead to global warming (T)</td><td char=".">0.6</td><td char=".">0.9</td><td char=".">9.7</td><td char=".">40.9</td><td char=".">47.9</td><td char=".">4.34</td></tr><tr><td>3-Recent observations strongly suggest that violent volcanic eruptions have no effect on global climate (F)</td><td char=".">12.9</td><td char=".">44.9</td><td char=".">34.8</td><td char=".">5.2</td><td char=".">2.2</td><td char=".">3.61</td></tr><tr><td>4-Scientists predict that the burning of fossil fuels, especially coal, will enhance the greenhouse effect (T)</td><td char=".">1.6</td><td char=".">6.8</td><td>11</td><td char=".">48.5</td><td char=".">32.1</td><td char=".">4.02</td></tr><tr><td>5-If global warming occurs, it will probably have little, if any, impact on crop and timber production in Asia (F)</td><td char=".">26.9</td><td char=".">40.4</td><td char=".">19.5</td><td char=".">10.7</td><td char=".">2.5</td><td char=".">3.78</td></tr><tr><td>6-Without clouds and water vapor in the atmosphere, the Earth would be much colder (T)</td><td char=".">3.9</td><td char=".">17.7</td><td char=".">35.5</td><td>28</td><td>15</td><td char=".">3.32</td></tr><tr><td>7-Without the ozone layer in the atmosphere, life on Earth is endangered (T)</td><td char=".">0.8</td><td>3</td><td char=".">11.2</td><td char=".">26.8</td><td char=".">58.1</td><td char=".">4.38</td></tr><tr><td>8-Scientists believe that large amounts of ozone gas in the atmosphere increases ultraviolet radiation on the earth's surface (T)</td><td char=".">7.5</td><td char=".">16.3</td><td char=".">35.1</td><td char=".">27.6</td><td char=".">13.5</td><td char=".">3.23</td></tr><tr><td>9-CFCs are the most serious threat to the ozone layer (T)</td><td char=".">1.1</td><td char=".">3.3</td><td char=".">16.1</td><td char=".">44.3</td><td char=".">35.2</td><td char=".">4.09</td></tr><tr><td>10-Clearing of tropical rain forests is likely to intensify the global greenhouse effect (T)</td><td>–</td><td char=".">0.3</td><td char=".">13.5</td><td char=".">53.3</td><td char=".">32.9</td><td char=".">4.18</td></tr><tr><td>11-Scientists believe that burning fossil fuels, especially coal, will worsen the greenhouse effect (T)</td><td char=".">26.8</td><td char=".">50.4</td><td char=".">21.7</td><td char=".">1.1</td><td>–</td><td char=".">4.02</td></tr><tr><td>12-Iran is the world's largest producer of greenhouse gases (F)</td><td char=".">4.7</td><td char=".">14.2</td><td char=".">42.3</td><td char=".">28.7</td><td>10</td><td char=".">3.25</td></tr><tr><td>13-With the use of renewable energy (solar and wind), global warming will intensify (F)</td><td char=".">4.9</td><td char=".">16.8</td><td char=".">23.4</td><td char=".">37.1</td><td char=".">17.9</td><td char=".">3.46</td></tr><tr><td>14-Greater exposure to ultraviolet radiation generally increases the risk of contracting skin cancer and developing cataracts of the eye (T)</td><td char=".">0.3</td><td char=".">3.6</td><td char=".">18.9</td><td char=".">44.1</td><td char=".">33.2</td><td char=".">3.67</td></tr><tr><td>15-Scientists have yet to find evidence that suggest that stratospheric ozone levels are declining over Iran (T)</td><td char=".">1.4</td><td>3</td><td char=".">46.5</td><td char=".">29.9</td><td char=".">19.1</td><td char=".">4.06</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>5 Note: SD = strongly disagree, MD = mildly disagree, U = Unsure, MA = mildly agree, SA = strongly agree, T = True, F = False.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-21">5.2. Comparing the difference between faculties and departments and knowledge of GCC</hd> <p>It was assumed that students affiliated to certain faculties or departments have different knowledge of GCC (Clarke et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref131">13</reflink>]; Salehi & Pazuki Nejad, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref132">53</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref133">54</reflink>]; Spellman et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref134">62</reflink>]).</p> <p>The results of a Kruskal–Wallis test (Kruskal–Wallis test: 65.575; Sig: 0.00) show that the knowledge of GCC differs among the faculties. Students affiliated to the faculties of Civil Engineering, Environmental Health, Medicine, Natural Resources and Agricultural Sciences have reached higher ranks. This result shows that there exists a higher knowledge of GCC among students affiliated to natural-science-faculties compared with those affiliated to non-natural-science faculties, such as Humane and Social Sciences, Administrative Sciences, Theology, Law and Political Sciences, Arts and Architecture, who received lower ranks.</p> <p>The results also show that there is a significant difference in knowledge of GCC among students from different university departments (Kruskal–Wallis test: 57.04; Sig: 0.00). Students affiliated to the departments of Environmental Health, Agricultural Sciences and Civil Engineering achieved a higher ranking than the ones affiliated to other departments.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-22">5.3 Analyses of differences in knowledge of GCC and semesters studied</hd> <p>The assumption was that students of higher semesters who might have participated in courses on GCC or with topics related to GCC might possess higher levels of knowledge of GCC than students who never participated in courses related to GCC. The results show that the differences are not significant (Kruskal–Wallis test: 9.02; Sig: 0.25) and therefore, the semesters studied have no significant influence on the knowledge of GCC.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-23">5.4. Environmental attitude</hd> <p>The students' environmental worldviews were determined by providing percentage distribution, mean scores and indexes of the students' NEP scores (Table 2). Mean rating indicates that pro-NEP views are much higher than the "average". This result suggests that students' attitudes toward the environment are relatively positive.</p> <p>Table 2. Frequency and mean distribution of the NEP scale.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>% Distribution</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Items</td><td>SD</td><td>MD</td><td>U</td><td>MA</td><td>SA</td><td>Mean rating of 5</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Humans must live in harmony with nature to survive.</td><td char=".">1.5</td><td char=".">0.4</td><td char=".">8.7</td><td>52</td><td char=".">8.33</td><td char=".">4.12</td></tr><tr><td>Human intervention in nature often produces disastrous results.</td><td char=".">1.1</td><td char=".">9.2</td><td char=".">8.4</td><td char=".">50.1</td><td char=".">31.2</td><td char=".">4.01</td></tr><tr><td>To maintain a healthy economy, it requires a developing economy where industrial growth is controlled.</td><td char=".">0.6</td><td char=".">2.5</td><td char=".">14.4</td><td char=".">44.3</td><td char=".">38.2</td><td char=".">4.17</td></tr><tr><td>Man was created to rule over the other creatures.</td><td char=".">7.4</td><td char=".">13.4</td><td char=".">16.6</td><td char=".">43.9</td><td char=".">18.8</td><td char=".">3.53</td></tr><tr><td>Humans are severely abusing the environment.</td><td char=".">0.8</td><td char=".">8.7</td><td char=".">11.4</td><td char=".">48.6</td><td char=".">30.4</td><td char=".">3.99</td></tr><tr><td>The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset.</td><td char=".">1.4</td><td char=".">14.4</td><td char=".">17.9</td><td char=".">48.4</td><td char=".">17.9</td><td char=".">3.67</td></tr><tr><td>The earth is like a spaceship with very limited room and resources.</td><td char=".">3.3</td><td char=".">11.5</td><td char=".">15.3</td><td char=".">45.6</td><td char=".">24.3</td><td char=".">3.76</td></tr><tr><td>The primary purpose of the creation of plants and animals is to be used by humans.</td><td char=".">7.9</td><td char=".">21.6</td><td char=".">18.9</td><td char=".">37.3</td><td char=".">14.2</td><td char=".">3.28</td></tr><tr><td>We are reaching the stage where the Earth cannot meet the needs of the population anymore.</td><td char=".">3.6</td><td char=".">17.3</td><td>17</td><td char=".">43.1</td><td>19</td><td char=".">3.56</td></tr><tr><td>Beyond the industrial society, there are limits to growth that cannot be increased.</td><td char=".">5.1</td><td char=".">14.7</td><td char=".">35.9</td><td char=".">34.2</td><td char=".">10.2</td><td char=".">3.29</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>6 Note: SD = strongly disagree, MD = mildly disagree, U = Unsure, MA = mildly agree, SA = strongly agree.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-24">5.5. Trust</hd> <p>Table 3 shows that students have trust in information sources related to GCC issues. Comparing the different items shows that the statement "I trust the information the government provides on climate change" (mean = 3.19 out of 5) has a low and the statement "I trust the information the non-governmental agencies provide on climate change" (mean = 3.80 out of 5) has a high mean.</p> <p>Table 3. Frequency and mean distribution of the informational resources.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>% Distribution</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Items</td><td>SA</td><td>MA</td><td>U</td><td>MD</td><td>SD</td><td>Mean rating of 5</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>I trust the information the government provides on climate change</td><td char=".">12.8</td><td char=".">30.4</td><td char=".">29.1</td><td char=".">18.8</td><td char=".">8.8</td><td char=".">3.19</td></tr><tr><td>I trust the information the non-governmental agencies provide on climate change</td><td char=".">9</td><td char=".">23.9</td><td char=".">41.6</td><td char=".">19.7</td><td char=".">5.7</td><td char=".">3.80</td></tr><tr><td>In my opinion, scientists have accurate understanding of global warming and climate change</td><td char=".">18.9</td><td char=".">51.4</td><td char=".">18.1</td><td char=".">11</td><td char=".">0.6</td><td char=".">3.57</td></tr><tr><td>In my opinion, scientists can reduce our concern of the risk of global warming and climate change</td><td char=".">14.3</td><td char=".">42.3</td><td char=".">26.9</td><td char=".">14.6</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3.66</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>7 Note: SD = strongly disagree, MD = mildly disagree, U = Unsure, MA = mildly agree, SA = strongly agree.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-25">5.6. Personal efficiency</hd> <p>According to Table 4, the personal efficiency responses are averaging. The comparison of the different items shows that the statement "There is no reason to change behavior because essentially consequences of climate change are still uncertain" has a low mean with 3.09 out of 5 and that the statement "In my opinion, the government is responsible for climate change mitigation" has a high mean with 3.92 out of 5.</p> <p>Table 4. Frequency and mean distribution of perceived personal efficiency.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>% Distribution</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Items</td><td>SA</td><td>MA</td><td>U</td><td>MD</td><td>SD</td><td>Mean rating of 5</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>My actions to reduce the effects of global warming and climate change will encourage others to reduce their relevant effects in the community</td><td char=".">24.9</td><td char=".">43.5</td><td char=".">24.1</td><td char=".">6.1</td><td char=".">1.4</td><td char=".">3.84</td></tr><tr><td>There is no reason to change behavior because essentially consequences of climate change are still uncertain.</td><td char=".">4.8</td><td char=".">7.4</td><td char=".">15.1</td><td char=".">35.9</td><td char=".">36.8</td><td char=".">3.09</td></tr><tr><td>In my opinion, the government is responsible for climate change mitigation.</td><td char=".">11</td><td char=".">7.4</td><td char=".">15.1</td><td char=".">35.9</td><td char=".">36.8</td><td char=".">3.92</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>8 Note: SD = strongly disagree, MD = mildly disagree, U = Unsure, MA = mildly agree, SA = strongly agree.</p> <p>Table 5. The variance analysis of students' knowledge of GCC to gender and place of residence.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Variables</td><td>Mann–Whitney U test</td><td>Sig</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Gender</td><td char=".">3.02</td><td char=".">0.00</td></tr><tr><td>Resident</td><td char=".">−0.26</td><td char=".">0.76</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 6. Coefficients of the explanatory model for knowledge of GCC.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Variable</td><td>Beta</td><td><italic>T</italic>-value</td><td>Sig</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>EA</td><td char=".">0.24</td><td char=".">4.69</td><td char=".">0.00</td></tr><tr><td>T</td><td char=".">0.26</td><td char=".">5.10</td><td char=".">0.00</td></tr><tr><td>PE</td><td char=".">0.43</td><td char=".">8.37</td><td char=".">0.00</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 7. Summary of Multivariable Regression for NEP, T, PPE.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td><italic>R</italic></td><td><italic>R</italic> Square</td><td>Adjusted <italic>R</italic> square</td><td><italic>F</italic></td><td>Sig</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>0.57</td><td char=".">0.33</td><td char=".">0.32</td><td char=".">41.78</td><td char=".">0.00</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0114607946-26">5.7. Comparing the difference between gender, place of residence and knowledge of GCC</hd> <p>Based on previous research, it was assumed that there exists a relationship between gender and knowledge of GCC. Furthermore, it was assumed that residents living in rural areas have different knowledge of GCC than the ones living in urban areas. The Table 5 shows the results of testing these hypotheses.</p> <p>According to Table 1, there is a significant relationship between gender and students' knowledge of GCC. In other words, male students possess a higher knowledge level of GCC than female ones (mean of male students = 72.29, mean of female students = 69.94). On the other hand, the results show that place of residence has no influence on the students' knowledge of GCC.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-27">5.8. Factors influencing students' knowledge of GCC</hd> <p>Past studies showed environmental attitude (EA), trust (T) and personal efficiency (PE) to have an effect on the level of knowledge of GCC. In this section, the influence of these factors was tested using regression (stepwise method).</p> <p>The Beta coefficients suggest that EA and T have a relatively small effect, whereas PE proves to have a significant effect on the knowledge of GCC (Table 6).</p> <p>Table 7 shows that EA, T and PE explained 32% of the variance in knowledge of GCC. There was a significant relationship observed between the students' knowledge of GCC and EA, T, PE (41.78, <emph>p</emph> < 0.00).</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-28">6. Discussion and conclusions</hd> <p>Ulrich Beck, a world well-known social scientist believes that we are in transition to a society which is characterized by global risks and losses, that the cost of modernization gradually outweighs the benefits and endangerment of human nature to destroy itself and that the engine is turned on (Barry, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref135">8</reflink>]). He argues that the main features of the new society are risk awareness and avoidance. Dangers that threaten humanity include planet warming, loss of biodiversity, ozone layer depletion or the destruction of the natural environment (Sutton, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref136">64</reflink>]). GCC is among those scientific issues that threaten human daily lives not only in developed countries but also in developing countries, where infrastructure might be poor and the community seems to be very vulnerable. "Climate change is a topic about which everybody has an opinion, often based largely on incomplete knowledge and major misconceptions" (Robinson, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref137">47</reflink>], p. 38). Effective climate change education therefore requires the construction of new knowledge and the understanding that among learners there exist often well-established and deeply personal frameworks of existing beliefs, incomplete knowledge and understanding (Robinson, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref138">47</reflink>]). "The influence of existing knowledge on learners' abilities to take on new understanding is significant and affects how information is perceived, how judgments are made about this information, and what students are able to understand and remember" (Robinson, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref139">47</reflink>], p. 38). As so far there exists no in-depth research on the Iranians' perception of GCC, this study aimed at exploring this topic by focusing on university students.</p> <p>The results of the study show that students have moderate knowledge of climate change and that there is a disconnection between actual climate science-based knowledge and perceived knowledge. This result is inconsistent with results obtained by Spellman et al. ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref140">62</reflink>]), Kellstedt et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref141">27</reflink>]), Hills ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref142">24</reflink>]), Clarke et al. ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref143">13</reflink>]) and Wang and Li ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref144">70</reflink>]). This difference might be explained by the post materialist values theory. In other words, the limited importance of the environment in general and knowledge of climate change specifically, results from to the fact that having a job and a source of income are the main concerns of Iranian students. Research outcomes of Salehi and Pazuki Nejad ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref145">51</reflink>]) are evidencing this assumption. The rate of youth unemployment is with 26.5% nearly twice as high than the average total unemployment rate in the country (Statistical Center of Iran, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref146">63</reflink>]). This index shows that the labor market, due to the high average annual population growth rate of 4% in the 1980s, is still in transition. It is also pointed out that each year more than one million and two hundred thousand new jobs will have be created until the unemployment crisis of the 17 to 30 year old youth is solved (Firoozjayan, Mohammadi, & Pazuki Nejad, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref147">20</reflink>]).</p> <p> <bold>H1:</bold> Female students, students living in urban areas and students affiliated to natural sciences faculties possess a higher level of GCC</p> <p>The results show that there exists a difference between female and male students in their knowledge of GCC, with male students possessing a higher level of GCC knowledge than female students. This result is contrary to results described by Spellman et al. ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref148">62</reflink>]). However, Spellman et al. ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref149">62</reflink>]), although detecting a higher level of knowledge of GCC among women, were surprised by their results since women are often assumed to have little interest in scientific matters and remain under-represented in most scientific fields. Further to the differences in gender, no difference was observed between rural and urban students and their knowledge of GCC. This result is contrary to a number of previous studies conducted by researchers, such as Dunlap ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref150">16</reflink>]), Hills ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref151">24</reflink>]), Lazaro et al. ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref152">32</reflink>]), Cardwill, ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref153">12</reflink>]) or Babaei ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref154">6</reflink>]), who found that there was a positive relation between place of residence and knowledge of GCC. However, Clarke et al. ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref155">13</reflink>]) came to similar findings like we did in our study. It seems that Mazandaran province (where this research has been taken place), due to its mild weather, the common seasonal temperature changes, naturally recurring floods and other typical weather phenomena is not perceptible to climate change. In other words, local effects of climate change are not easily visible. Studies, such as the ones conducted by Salehi, Solaimani, and Pazukinejad ([<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref156">56</reflink>]) and Salehi and Pazuki Nejad ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref157">51</reflink>]) confirm this finding. Furthermore, our findings show that students' knowledge of GCC was influenced by their affiliation to a certain faculty or university department. Students affiliated to natural-science faculties or departments ranked higher in comparison with the ones affiliated to non-natural science faculties or departments. This result is consistent with results obtained by Spellman et al. ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref158">62</reflink>]) and Salehi & Pazuki Nejad ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref159">54</reflink>]). With regard to our findings, we have to reject the hypothesis that female Iranian students and students living in rural areas possess a higher level of GCC.</p> <p> <bold>H2:</bold> Students with a positive attitude towards the environment possess a higher level of knowledge of GCC</p> <p>We discovered that environmental attitude affects the level of knowledge of climate change among Iranian students. Students with a positive environmental attitude, have a better understanding of environmental issues like GCC. This finding is consistent with other studies reporting a strong impact of environmental attitude on knowledge of GCC (e.g. Bord et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref160">9</reflink>]; Heath & Gifford, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref161">22</reflink>]). With regard to our results, we accept the hypothesis that Iranian students with a positive attitude towards the environment possess a higher level of knowledge on GCC.</p> <p> <bold>H3:</bold> Students who have trust in the government, scientists or environmental groups possess a higher level of knowledge of GCC</p> <p>The statistical analysis shows that the level of trust Iranian students have in authorities, other groups or scientists affects their level of knowledge of GCC. This result is in line with previous studies, such as Kellstedt et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref162">27</reflink>]), Lazaro et al. ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref163">32</reflink>]), Salehi and Pazuki Nejad ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref164">53</reflink>]) or Babaei ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref165">6</reflink>]). For this reason, we accept our hypothesis.</p> <p> <bold>H4:</bold> Students with a high level of personal efficiency possess a higher level of knowledge of GCC</p> <p>Some researchers, such as Heath and Gifford ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref166">22</reflink>]), Kellstedt et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref167">27</reflink>]), Hills ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref168">24</reflink>]) or Clarke et al. ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref169">13</reflink>]) described that the personal efficiency shifted the attitude and perceptions of GCC. In our survey, this hypothesis was accepted as our statistical analyses suggest a significant relationship between personal efficiency and knowledge of GCC among Iranian students.</p> <hd id="AN0114607946-29">6.1. Implications of the study</hd> <p>The results of the study have some implications for policy makers. To foster sustainability, Iran requires engaging citizens who are aware of environmental policy, including the mitigation of and adaptation to GCC. By increasing peoples' knowledge of climate change policy, they might shift from a passive citizen with selfish values to a responsible citizen with rather altruistic values (Salehi & Pazuki Nejad, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref170">51</reflink>]). This study shows that the moderate level of knowledge of GCC among Iranian students is a major obstacle to overcoming environmental issues like GCC. However, our analysis also shows that, while knowing about their limited knowledge, the students are very interested in obtaining more knowledge of GCC issues. This concern or interest can provide a suitable ground for climate change education in higher education institutions. The availability of accurate and reliable scientific information could help students to understand the risks coming along with GCC. Iranian students have limited access to environmentally related information sources and this contributes to their difficulties in understanding the phenomena of GCC and its effects on their country. In an interview with an expert of the Climate Change Office of the Iranian Environmental Protection Agency, the interviewee expressed that most of the elaborated policies that are related to energy, industry and agriculture as well as the educational programs for GCC are focused on teachers and housewives (in Tehran) and that there has not been any cooperation between this governmental institution and institutions of higher education (e.g. universities) on topics related to education on environmental issues and GCC (Salehi, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref171">56</reflink>]). It can be assumed that understanding GCC issues may change students' attitudes towards the importance of environmental phenomena such as climate change and give them a rationale to perform supportive behaviors. Therefore, to promote students' understanding of the process of GCC and global warming, it requires environmental education for all departments and faculties. The successful implementation of environmental policies in all sectors of higher education could do serious investment. Indeed, cooperation between the state, higher education institutions and the media could increase the level of citizens' literacy on GCC and help them to take meaningful action for reducing the effects of GCC.</p> <p>Despite the fact that our results show that factors such as environmental attitude, trust, and personal efficiency have an effect on the knowledge of GCC, the <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> values were not high. The rather low <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> values suggest that the effect of some of these factors on the knowledge of GCC is not direct, but mediated by several other factors such as cultural worldviews and environmental concerns. 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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Salehi%2C+Sadegh%22">Salehi, Sadegh</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Nejad%2C+Zahra+Pazuki%22">Nejad, Zahra Pazuki</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Mahmoudi%2C+Hossein%22">Mahmoudi, Hossein</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Burkart%2C+Stefan%22">Burkart, Stefan</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22International+Research+in+Geographical+and+Environmental+Education%22"><i>International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education</i></searchLink>. 2016 25(3):226-243.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 18
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2016
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Climate%22">Climate</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Knowledge+Level%22">Knowledge Level</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Hypothesis+Testing%22">Hypothesis Testing</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Environment%22">Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Trust+%28Psychology%29%22">Trust (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Efficiency%22">Efficiency</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Surveys%22">Student Surveys</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Influences%22">Social Influences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intellectual+Disciplines%22">Intellectual Disciplines</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Comparative+Analysis%22">Comparative Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Likert+Scales%22">Likert Scales</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pretests+Posttests%22">Pretests Posttests</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interviews%22">Interviews</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Statistical+Analysis%22">Statistical Analysis</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Iran%22">Iran</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/10382046.2016.1155322
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1038-2046
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This article assesses students' understanding of global climate change (GCC) and social factors affecting it. It was hypothesized that students who demonstrate pro-environmental attitudes are more likely to possess higher knowledge of GCC. It was further hypothesized that trust and personal efficiency would have a positive effect on the knowledge of GCC. To this end, 816 students of several universities in the Iranian Mazandaran province were randomly selected for a survey. Results show that the level of students' understanding of the GCC phenomenon is moderate and the social factors, environmental attitude, trust and personal efficiency have influence on their knowledge of GCC. Furthermore, the study shows that male students possess more knowledge of GCC than female ones.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: Ref
  Label: Number of References
  Group: RefInfo
  Data: 75
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2016
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1098000
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1098000
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/10382046.2016.1155322
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 18
        StartPage: 226
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Climate
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Knowledge Level
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Hypothesis Testing
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Environment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Trust (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Efficiency
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Surveys
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Influences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intellectual Disciplines
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Comparative Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Likert Scales
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pretests Posttests
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Interviews
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Statistical Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Iran
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Knowledge of Global Climate Change: View of Iranian University Students
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
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          Name:
            NameFull: Salehi, Sadegh
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          Name:
            NameFull: Nejad, Zahra Pazuki
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            NameFull: Mahmoudi, Hossein
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            NameFull: Burkart, Stefan
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2016
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1038-2046
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 25
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education
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