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What Shapes the Intention to Study Abroad? An Experimental Approach

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Title: What Shapes the Intention to Study Abroad? An Experimental Approach
Language: English
Authors: Petzold, Knut, Moog, Petra
Source: Higher Education: The International Journal of Higher Education Research. Jan 2018 75(1):35-54.
Availability: Springer. 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-348-4505; e-mail: service-ny@springer.com; Web site: http://www.springerlink.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 20
Publication Date: 2018
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Descriptors: Study Abroad, Intention, Educational Benefits, Student Attitudes, College Students, Economics Education, Engineering Education, Foreign Countries, Decision Making, Predictor Variables, Personality Traits, Second Language Learning, International Educational Exchange, Comparative Analysis, Outcomes of Education
Geographic Terms: Germany
DOI: 10.1007/s10734-017-0119-z
ISSN: 0018-1560
Abstract: In contrast to previous studies, this investigation aims to get deeper insights into the causes of the intention to study abroad by using an experimental approach. Although international experience is often considered as important, many students at German universities do not even consider abroad. Referring to the Theory of Rational Choice (RCT) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the intention to study abroad is shaped by student's evaluation of expected benefits from studying abroad, resources and restrictions regarding its realization, and normative aspects. In a factorial survey experiment, hypothetical study abroad descriptions with varying attributes were presented to students of economics and engineering of a German university. The experimental design allows for more nuanced operationalizations and for diminished endogeneity biases through systematic variation and randomization. Thus, a more direct test of the assumptions about educational decision-making is possible. A comparison of the unbiased predictor weights clearly indicates that students prioritize conditions when considering study abroad. They seem to not ponder about beneficial outcomes of studying abroad, such as own personality development and being in a desired host country, as long as the realization of the stay is not substantially guaranteed by related foreign language skills, sufficient financing, and a supportive host university. Further facilitations through an exchange program and exchange in a group, as well as expectations of family and friends are of secondary importance.
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 72
Entry Date: 2017
Accession Number: EJ1164069
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0126830698;hie01jan.18;2018Jul06.09:08;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0126830698-1">What shapes the intention to study abroad? An experimental approach. </title> <p>In contrast to previous studies, this investigation aims to get deeper insights into the causes of the intention to study abroad by using an experimental approach. Although international experience is often considered as important, many students at German universities do not even consider abroad. Referring to the Theory of Rational Choice (RCT) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the intention to study abroad is shaped by student’s evaluation of expected benefits from studying abroad, resources and restrictions regarding its realization, and normative aspects. In a factorial survey experiment, hypothetical study abroad descriptions with varying attributes were presented to students of economics and engineering of a German university. The experimental design allows for more nuanced operationalizations and for diminished endogeneity biases through systematic variation and randomization. Thus, a more direct test of the assumptions about educational decision-making is possible. A comparison of the unbiased predictor weights clearly indicates that students prioritize conditions when considering study abroad. They seem to not ponder about beneficial outcomes of studying abroad, such as own personality development and being in a desired host country, as long as the realization of the stay is not substantially guaranteed by related foreign language skills, sufficient financing, and a supportive host university. Further facilitations through an exchange program and exchange in a group, as well as expectations of family and friends are of secondary importance.</p> <p>Study abroad; Intentions; Educational decision-making; Experiment; Factorial survey; Theory of planned behavior; Rational choice theory</p> <p>Against the backdrop of a globalizing economy, studying abroad is frequently regarded as one of the key instruments to provide undergraduate students with foreign language skills and intercultural competences in order to strengthen their employability (e.g., Parey and Waldinger [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref1">46</reflink>] ; Gerhards and Hans [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref2">22</reflink>] ; Van Mol [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref3">67</reflink>] ; European Commission [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref4">20</reflink>] ). In particular, multi-national companies assess study abroad experience as an advantage (e.g., Wiers-Jenssen [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref5">71</reflink>] ; Crossman and Clark [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref6">13</reflink>] ; Potts [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref7">51</reflink>] ; Kratz and Netz [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref8">34</reflink>] ; Petzold [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref9">48</reflink>] ). Moreover, positive effects on learning abilities and linguistic competence (e.g., Hadis [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref10">25</reflink>] ; Luo and Jamieson-Drake [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref11">39</reflink>] ), as well as on intercultural openness and personality development (e.g., Van Hoof and Verbeeten [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref12">66</reflink>] ; Zimmermann and Neyer [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref13">72</reflink>] ) are reported.</p> <p>However, although the number of students abroad has remarkably multiplied in the last three decades, only 23% of all students at German universities have study abroad experience (Heublein et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref14">27</reflink>] ; DAAD and DZHW [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref15">14</reflink>] ). Accordingly, almost 70% of students have not been abroad and only 39% of those report plans to do so (Heublein et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref16">28</reflink>] ). Furthermore, noteworthy selections by socio-economic background and disciplines have been revealed (e.g., Stroud [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref17">63</reflink>] ; Salisbury et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref18">55</reflink>] ; European Commission [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref19">20</reflink>] ; DAAD and DZHW [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref20">14</reflink>] ; Van Mol [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref21">67</reflink>] ). In particular, students with a high socio-economic background show greater intentions to study abroad (Lörz et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref22">38</reflink>] ), are more likely to study abroad at all (e.g., Daly and Barker [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref23">15</reflink>] ), and are more likely to obtain a study abroad scholarship and to spend significantly more time abroad (Netz and Finger [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref24">44</reflink>] ). Hence, it is still important to gain a better understanding why students consider study abroad or not.1 [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref25">1</reflink>]</p> <p>In present literature, a broad range of factors influencing study abroad is identified, such as the educational level of parents and differences in socio-economic backgrounds (Brux and Fry [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref26">8</reflink>] ; Lörz et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref27">38</reflink>] ) or academic and foreign language skills (Di Pietro and Page [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref28">16</reflink>] ). Also, gender (e.g., Stroud [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref29">63</reflink>] ; Salisbury et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref30">55</reflink>] ; Chang [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref31">11</reflink>] ), program design (Vande Berg [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref32">68</reflink>] ; Li et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref33">36</reflink>] ), the host university (e.g., Llewelyn-Smith and McCabe [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref34">37</reflink>] ; Jon et al. [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref35">32</reflink>] ), going abroad with others (Doyle et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref36">17</reflink>] ), and risk tolerance (Relyea et al. [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref37">53</reflink>] ) seem to have impact. Yet, financial costs are the main obstacle of studying abroad (Brus and Scholz [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref38">7</reflink>] ; Doyle et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref39">17</reflink>] ; Presley et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref40">52</reflink>] ; Bamber [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref41">4</reflink>] ; Netz [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref42">43</reflink>] ; Lörz et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref43">38</reflink>] ). In order to increase the comparability of the results, more and more empirical examinations are theory-driven. Beside others, in particular, varieties of the Theory of Rational Choice (RCT; e.g., Salisbury et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref44">55</reflink>] ; Netz [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref45">43</reflink>] ; Lörz et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref46">38</reflink>] ; Netz and Finger [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref47">44</reflink>] ) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB; e.g., Presley et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref48">52</reflink>] ; Goel et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref49">23</reflink>] ; Li et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref50">36</reflink>] ; Wang et al. [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref51">70</reflink>] ) are applied to provide explanations of decision-making on study abroad.</p> <p>However, the mentioned studies usually deploy survey data, observed among students and graduates, what causes methodological limitations. First, operationalizations of decision factors are normally very approximate and often limited to institutional conditions and socio-economic background. As the definite cost-benefit arguments are usually not recorded, the decision situation cannot be examined in detail. As a result, when using large-scale survey data, assumptions of RCT explanations are normally restricted to indirect testing (cf. Goldthorpe [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref52">24</reflink>] ). Yet, particularly, the assumptions made about cost-benefit potentials in RCT explanations on educational decision-making require rigorous, preferably direct testing (cf. Becker and Hecken [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref53">5</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Second, problems of endogeneity can emerge from processes of systematic self-selection. For instance, students with certain personality traits and attitudes towards learning may systematically choose specific study subjects and academic disciplines (see Daly and Barker [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref54">15</reflink>] : 37). Disciplinary contexts, in turn, provide different institutional conditions for or against study abroad, such as collaborations with other universities (see Brus and Scholz [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref55">7</reflink>] ) and specific social expectations and subjective attitudes towards study abroad can arise (Petzold and Peter [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref56">49</reflink>] ). As a result, individual’s attributes and various institutional conditions for or against study abroad can be confounded in survey data, which hinders unbiased estimations of their importance for study abroad intentions.</p> <p>To overcome methodological restrictions in studies on mobility and migration, a greater application of experimental research methods has been very recently suggested (Baláž and Williams [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref57">3</reflink>] ). The major advantage of true experiments is the opportunity to investigate the framing of decisions more comprehensively due to more options for variation of situational treatment variables and a greater control over sample selection and allocation compared to surveys. Accordingly, a factorial survey experiment is applied in this study (cf. Auspurg and Hinz [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref58">2</reflink>] ). Hypothetical study abroad descriptions with varying attributes were presented to a sample of students of a German university (University of Siegen) in order to measure their study abroad intentions. Systematic variation of study abroad conditions and random assignment to the respondents neutralizes any biases within treatment variables and between treatment variables and individual’s characteristics. The experimental approach also serves for more detailed information and a more nuanced understanding of the formation of study abroad intentions.</p> <hd id="AN0126830698-2">Theoretical framework</hd> <p>Considering study abroad refers to decision-making on temporary migration and to decision-making on educational attainment. Both have been convincingly explained by applications of RCT in earlier work. Following a subjective maximization strategy, people weigh the costs and benefits of a move according to subjective expectation that individual’s goals can be achieved and opt for or against the move (e.g., Sjaastad [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref59">60</reflink>] ; Chemers et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref60">12</reflink>] ). Similarly, educational decisions result from the evaluation of potential consequences of educational attainment according to the associated costs and benefits and subjective probability of success (Breen and Goldthorpe [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref61">6</reflink>] ; Jonsson [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref62">33</reflink>] ; Becker and Hecken [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref63">5</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Accordingly, RCT is increasingly applied to explain study abroad decisions. Following this approach, study abroad is likely if the related accumulated discounted overall benefits exceed the arising discounted accumulated costs. In line with a “wide” version of RCT (Opp [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref64">45</reflink>] ), recent explanations of studying abroad include not only socio-economic and institutional constraints but also various preferences, individual’s attitudes, and expectations of relevant others (e.g., Di Pietro and Page [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref65">16</reflink>] ; Salisbury et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref66">55</reflink>] ; Petzold and Peter [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref67">49</reflink>] ). The study abroad decision is usually conceptualized as a multi-stage process that involves two major thresholds. The intention to become internationally mobile is developed at the first stage and serves as necessary precondition for the realization of study abroad at the second stage (cf. Luo and Jamieson-Drake [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref68">39</reflink>] ; Netz [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref69">43</reflink>] ; Jiani [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref70">31</reflink>] ; Lörz et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref71">38</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Especially, the TPB (Ajzen [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref72">1</reflink>] ), first, considers numerous costs, varying attitudes, and norms, while second, distinguishes between intentions and behaviors. The TPB claims behavior follows an intention, which, in turn, is promoted by a specific attitude and a subjective norm towards the behavior and by the perceived behavioral control. The attitude towards the behavior refers to a favorable evaluation of the behavior under consideration, the subjective norm refers to the perceived social expectations to perform the behavior, and the perceived behavioral control refers to perceived resources and restrictions for behavior performance.</p> <p>With TPB, various study abroad outcomes can be theorized as benefits that gain positive attitudes towards it, while perceived behavioral control is determined by costs of study abroad and others’ expectations reflect a subjective norm to study abroad. Moreover, the TPB considers the multi-stage process in decision-making on studying abroad (cf. Presley et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref73">52</reflink>] ; Goel et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref74">23</reflink>] ; Wang et al. [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref75">70</reflink>] ). In this article, we address the first stage of considering study abroad according to perceived benefits, to perceived resources and restrictions, and to subjective and personal norms.</p> <hd id="AN0126830698-3">Perceived benefits</hd> <p>Studying abroad is characterized by a number of beneficial outcomes. Since the benefits represent favorable evaluations of studying abroad, they can be addressed as a positive attitude towards studying abroad in the vein of the TPB.</p> <p>First, better labor market prospects can be considered as potential benefit of studying abroad. Graduates who spent a period abroad are more likely to earn higher and more growing wages compared to those without study abroad experience (Messer and Wolter [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref76">40</reflink>] ; Kratz and Netz [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref77">34</reflink>] ). According to Spence ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref78">62</reflink>] ), study abroad may serve as signal of unobserved productivity of graduates, what helps employers to separate suitable candidates from others in recruitment process. Studying abroad indirectly signals high-risk taking, assertiveness, and investment assets, and it can provide a general high willingness to become mobile. Referring to the educational expansion during the last decades (Schofer and Meyer [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref79">58</reflink>] ), we assume that up to a few years ago, the completion of general studies even without study abroad was a sufficient signal for individual productivity, while today, this may no longer need to be the case. In this situation, the supposition is that students are more motivated to study abroad due to its increased benefit through expected signaling effect (cf. Relyea et al. [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref80">53</reflink>] ; Tomlinson [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref81">64</reflink>] ; Netz and Finger [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref82">44</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Second, present studies provide the insight that, in particular, personality can be developed by studying abroad. A greater understanding of other cultures, the discovery of a foreign culture and language, trying out if one can work abroad, and thus getting to know one’s own person are often perceived as a reward (cf. Van Hoof and Verbeeten [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref83">66</reflink>] ; Toncar et al. [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref84">65</reflink>] ; Doyle et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref85">17</reflink>] ; Luo and Jamieson-Drake [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref86">39</reflink>] ). Studying abroad associated with increasing openness and agreeableness and decreasing neuroticism (Zimmermann and Neyer [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref87">72</reflink>] ). Thus, students may also more tend to study abroad due to expected personality development (cf. Sánchez et al. [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref88">56</reflink>] ; Stroud [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref89">63</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Finally, benefits can result from leisure and travel activities in the host country. Its natural and cultural attractions, such as environment, interesting architecture, and the weather, are primary motivators for undertaking an educational exchange (Llewelyn-Smith and McCabe [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref90">37</reflink>] ; Michael et al. [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref91">41</reflink>] ). From our theoretical perspective, host country’s unique characteristics can help to achieve subjective life goals, which are reflected by the desire for a certain host country. As a result, the intention to study abroad is the stronger the more desired a host country is.</p> <p>We assume:</p> <p>Students with a positive attitude towards studying abroad report a higher intention to study abroad (H1). That is: The belief in productivity signaling (H1a), as well as the belief in personality development (H1b) through studying abroad, and a desired host country (H1c) foster the intention to study abroad.</p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0126830698-4">Perceived resources and restrictions</hd> <p>Following TPB, the perceived ease or difficulty of behavior performance is reflected by individual’s experience and anticipated obstacles in a decision situation (Ajzen [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref92">1</reflink>] : 188). Applied to decision-making on study abroad, this refers to performance-related aspects and to cost considerations (Di Pietro and Page [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref93">16</reflink>] ; Doyle et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref94">17</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Subjectively perceived performance abilities, such as students’ general self-confidence and self-assessed productivity, can play a role in educational decisions (cf. Jonsson [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref95">33</reflink>] ). According to earlier experiences with the realization of educational decisions, students develop an attitude towards their own general performance in educational attainment. This holds specifically true for decision-making on study abroad (Lörz et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref96">38</reflink>] ). That is, the higher students assess their general productivity, the more they tend for studying abroad.</p> <p>Besides, more objective competencies enable students to complete a period abroad. Particularly, specific foreign language skills are frequently reported being decisive for study abroad decisions (e.g., Brus and Scholz [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref97">7</reflink>] ; Di Pietro and Page [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref98">16</reflink>] ; Brux and Fry [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref99">8</reflink>] ; Doyle et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref100">17</reflink>] ; Luo and Jamieson-Drake [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref101">39</reflink>] ). Certified foreign language skills are often a formal requirement for participation in exchange programs and to get access to desired host countries. Correspondingly, we assume that the higher relevant foreign language skills are, the greater is the reported intention to study abroad.</p> <p>Universities with a good reputation are attributed providing more support and intense supervision for foreign exchange students (i.e., support from staff or library quality). They also rather guarantee the realistic opportunity to achieve an accepted graduation (Llewelyn-Smith and McCabe [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref102">37</reflink>] ; Simpson and Weihua [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref103">59</reflink>] ; Jiani [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref104">31</reflink>] ). Students can consider a high reputation as indicator for those support structures that make their stay more comfortable and give them better success prospects. Therefore, a high reputation of the host university may increase the intention to study abroad.</p> <p>In addition, a number of studies found that monetary costs are the main obstacle for studying abroad (e.g., Brus and Scholz [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref105">7</reflink>] ; Doyle et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref106">17</reflink>] ; Sánchez et al. [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref107">56</reflink>] ; Salisbury et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref108">55</reflink>] ; Brux and Fry [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref109">8</reflink>] ; Presley et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref110">52</reflink>] ; Bamber [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref111">4</reflink>] ). On the one hand, studying abroad causes various direct financial costs, such as travel costs, housing costs, living expenses, and tuition fees. On the other hand, indirect costs arise from a retarded graduation and a later labor market entry (cf. Doyle et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref112">17</reflink>] ; Lörz et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref113">38</reflink>] ). Financial support, for instance by a scholarship, reduces at least the direct monetary costs and serves additionally as institutionalized evidence of distinction (Netz and Finger [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref114">44</reflink>] ). Hence, we expect a higher intention to study abroad if a scholarship is provided.</p> <p>Studying abroad can also gain social costs through the separation from others who are subjectively important for the students, such as partner, children, or friends (Doyle et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref115">17</reflink>] ; Netz [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref116">43</reflink>] ). Homesickness and social isolation abroad can be prevented by exchange in groups or together with a good friend (Toncar et al. [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref117">65</reflink>] ; Sánchez et al. [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref118">56</reflink>] ) so that the intention to study abroad should be higher in that case.</p> <p>Finally, organizational costs address problems with obtaining information on possible programs and host countries and a lack of ability in the organization of life abroad (Brus and Scholz [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref119">7</reflink>] ; Jon et al. [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref120">32</reflink>] ). If students are proposed to be actively supported in learning before, during, and after their period abroad by supportive programs (e.g., Vande Berg [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref121">68</reflink>] ), they should rather tend for studying abroad.</p> <p>We assume:</p> <p>The lower the perceived costs to study abroad are, the higher is the reported intention to study abroad (H2). That is: A high level of self-assessed productivity (H2a), good relevant language skills (H2b), a high reputation of the host university (H2c), financial support through a scholarship (H2d), exchange in a group (H2e), and an exchange program (H2f) foster the intention to study abroad.</p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0126830698-5">Subjective and personal norms</hd> <p>In TPB, subjective norms refer to individual’s expectations whether or not relevant others approve or disapprove one’s behavior. The importance of the involvement of students in various academic, social, and political contexts for the consideration of studying abroad is repeatedly emphasized (e.g., Salisbury et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref122">55</reflink>] ; Carlson [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref123">10</reflink>] ). In particular, the support by the parents and faculties can be clearly decisive when considering study abroad (Paus and Robinson [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref124">47</reflink>] ). By the example of Thai students, Pimpa ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref125">50</reflink>] ) shows in detail that family expectations have a strong influence on a variety of factors important for the decision to study abroad, i.e., on finance, information, or competition. Those family expectations are also considerably stronger in China than in the USA or in France (Sánchez et al. [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref126">56</reflink>] ). Hence, the endorsement of study abroad by relevant others, such as family members, can foster the intention to study abroad (see also Li et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref127">36</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Besides perceived social pressures, feelings of obligation or responsibility, that is, personal norms, need to be considered (Ajzen [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref128">1</reflink>] : 195). The process of the evolutionary emergence of a particular personal norm to study abroad has been recently discussed (Petzold and Peter [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref129">49</reflink>] ). In this process, especially in highly internationalized social and professional contexts, the social expectations to study abroad are more and more internalized by students and the need to study abroad is finally already accepted just for intrinsic motivations. As a result, there may be an independent influence of a personal norm in addition to the influence of a subjective norm.</p> <p>We assume:</p> <p>Students with a subjective and a personal norm to study abroad report a higher intention to study abroad (H3). This is: Positive social expectations of family and friends (H3a) and a normative belief in the must to study abroad (H3b) foster the intention to study abroad.</p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0126830698-6">Methods and data</hd> <p>The TPB proposes that attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control make independent contributions to intentions and that they may have differing impacts across situations (Ajzen [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref130">1</reflink>] : 88-89). From a methodological perspective, this implies that all three components are strictly non-correlated one by another. If the predictors are correlated, they cannot make completely independent contributions.</p> <p>However, since students select themselves systematically in study programs and academic disciplines, which in turn provide different institutional conditions for or against study abroad (see Daly and Barker [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref131">15</reflink>] ; Brus and Scholz [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref132">7</reflink>] ), individual’s personality traits, attitudes towards study abroad, and the institutional conditions for or against study abroad can be empirically correlated. In fact, recent investigations on study abroad intentions, which apply survey data, report remarkable correlations between various predictors (Presley et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref133">52</reflink>] : 238; Stroud [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref134">63</reflink>] : 499). Also, changing effects of stepwise regression models reveal clear dependencies between predictors (Lörz et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref135">38</reflink>] ). As a result, the effects of predictors are biased and cannot be considered independently.</p> <p>Furthermore, studies often suffer from poor operationalizations of theoretical assumptions due to data restrictions. Sometimes, only some few socio-economic variables are included in analysis (Di Pietro and Page [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref136">16</reflink>] ). Elsewhere, family expectations are captured by a categorical variable indicating that students are living together with their family (Stroud [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref137">63</reflink>] ; Luo and Jamieson-Drake [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref138">39</reflink>] ). Though in other studies parent’s approval to studying abroad is directly questioned (Presley et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref139">52</reflink>] ; Goel et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref140">23</reflink>] ), no intention is measured under the condition of (hypothetical) other family expectations. Given these restrictions, RCT explanations can rather be tested indirectly (cf. Goldthorpe [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref141">24</reflink>] ).</p> <p>In contrast to former studies, we deploy an experimental design to examine intentions to study abroad. By the variation of independent variables and the random assignment of subjects to comparison groups, the isolated impact of the independent variables on the dependent variable can be identified (Campbell and Stanley [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref142">9</reflink>] ). Accordingly, experimental designs are appropriate to test for causal relationships (Morgan and Winship [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref143">42</reflink>] ). Furthermore, compared to conventional surveys, experiments particularly allow for a more comprehensive investigation of decision-making since they provide more options for nuanced variation of situational treatment variables (cf. Baláž and Williams [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref144">3</reflink>] ).</p> <hd id="AN0126830698-7">Factorial survey approach</hd> <p>An experimental design that has found greater application for quite some time in social sciences is the factorial survey (Rossi [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref145">54</reflink>] ; Jasso [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref146">30</reflink>] ; Auspurg and Hinz [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref147">2</reflink>] ). In factorial survey experiments, hypothetical decision situations, here on studying abroad, are described in vignettes, while treatments (dimensions) are varied systematically at different levels. A number of experimental vignettes are then randomly presented to participants for judgment. Variation and randomization serve to obtain unbiased effect estimations. Yet, the design remains all advantages of survey methods. Factorial surveys are widely applied to various subjects in the social sciences (cf. Wallander [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref148">69</reflink>] ) and increasingly used to investigate migration and mobility decisions (Crossman and Clark [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref149">13</reflink>] ; Snijders and Bosker [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref150">61</reflink>] ). Further, a related survey experimental design (conjoint analysis) has already been successfully applied to examine study abroad intentions (Garver and Divine [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref151">21</reflink>] ).</p> <p>When exploring study abroad intentions, the major advantage of a factorial survey design is, in contrast to conventional survey data, the avoidance of correlations between varied treatments and between treatments and individual’s characteristics. Unlike in real decision situations, institutional conditions are not restricted to certain combinations. For example, situations with and without exchange program or different expectations of others can be provided. Furthermore, students can be confronted with conditions, which are originally improbable. For instance, also students who actually would not have a chance to compete for a scholarship successfully can be asked to consider study abroad as if they would have a chance. At the same time, complex vignette descriptions allow for simulating a realistic decision-making situation in which the respondents have to weigh the importance of numerous conditions when considering study abroad. Subjects are forced to prioritize the importance of the particular treatments, that is, they have to decide if they would give up something of a dimension in favor of another dimension. Altogether, the approach serves for a more direct testing of theoretical assumptions as decisive explanatory factors are systematically included.</p> <p>The design has also some shortcomings, such as the possibility to construct illogical cases or the rise of learning and fatigue effects. Yet, the factorial survey is considered to provide internally valid results if not overly complex vignettes, and a limited number of vignettes per respondent are used (Sauer et al. [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref152">57</reflink>] ). The major criticism of vignette studies is that both situations presented and intentions reported are only hypothetical, while realized behavior is not observed. However, studies validating vignette judgments with observations of real behavior for different situations show that essentially reality-based decisions are made (e.g., Eifler [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref153">19</reflink>] ; Hainmueller et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref154">26</reflink>] ). At least, the direction and relative strength of treatment effects on self-reported and observed behavior are kept being similar.</p> <hd id="AN0126830698-8">Data collection and sample</hd> <p>The underlying data were collected in regular summer term 2012 using a standardized paper and pencil questionnaire among students of the University of Siegen, targeting general aspects of study abroad. The questionnaires were distributed in lectures among all present students and collected immediately after finishing. Due to this kind of intense data collection, restrictions had to be made regarding the chosen lectures. In order to capture a possibly broad variety in participant characteristics, primarily students of economics and engineering science were recruited, as those represent disciplines with the highest and the lowest participation in international exchange in Germany (cf. DAAD and DZHW [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref155">14</reflink>] : 52). It must also be noted that a representative sample is even not necessary (though possible) to test treatment effects with factorial survey experiments (cf. Auspurg and Hinz [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref156">2</reflink>] ).</p> <p>A total of 370 questionnaires were issued, of which 307 were reasonable to work with due to explicit refusal (<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref157">18</reflink>), other fields of study (<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref158">19</reflink>), or too many item non-responses for multivariate analysis (<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref159">19</reflink>). As shown in Table 1, the students were, on average, 23.27 years old at the time of data collection. Since the sample is selective, women are under-represented. Only a minority of 11.73% has already study abroad experience, and approximately the same proportions of engineering and economics students have been reached.</p> <hd id="AN0126830698-9">Vignette construction</hd> <p>Seven dimensions have been varied in order to capture decisive predictors of study abroad intention as hypothesized above (see Table 2). It is assumed that higher dimension levels are associated with higher perceived costs. This systematic variation results in a fast-growing range of possible treatment combinations, which can be addressed by the Cartesian product of all dimensions and levels. In this study, the variation gains 648 possible unique attribute combinations of study abroad, which represent the perfect orthogonal and full balanced experimental design. Since not all vignettes can be presented for practical reasons, a D-efficient sample of 120 vignettes was drawn, in order to provide that the characteristics of a maximum zero correlation of dimensions (orthogonality) and a maximum variance of levels (level balance) are maintained (Kuhfeld et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref160">35</reflink>] ; Dülmer [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref161">18</reflink>] ).2 [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref162">2</reflink>] For the same reason, no further vignettes have been excluded from this sample.</p> <p>In order to avoid learning and fatigue effects, the sampled vignettes were additionally divided into 15 decks, with eight vignettes each (cf. Auspurg and Hinz [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref163">2</reflink>] ). That is, 15 questionnaire versions were constructed; each for one deck, and every respondent expressed the intention to study abroad towards eight hypothetical study abroad vignettes.</p> <p>Before presenting the vignettes, respondents were briefly instructed about the certain meanings of the varied dimensions and it was pointed out that all vignettes refer to a period of one semester abroad without graduation purpose. Figure 1 shows the vignette texts.Vignette texts</p> <p>The queried intentions were expressed on a seven-point scale that reaches from “in no case” to “by all means.” Figure 2 shows that the intentions to study abroad across all vignettes are distributed very balanced, with sufficient variance for multivariate analysis (M = 3.84; SD = 2.01). That is, the participants responded sensitively to the varied conditions of study abroadDistribution of intentions to study abroad across all vignettes</p> <hd id="AN0126830698-10">Measurements of self-assessed productivity, attitudes, and personal norm to study abroad</hd> <p>Individual’s self-assessed productive capabilities, positive attitudes towards study abroad, and the personal norm to study abroad are components of the explanation model. These variables at respondent’s level were measured with item batteries displayed in Table 3. The related reliabilities (Cronbach’s alpha) reveal that those items which refer to the same constructs are highly correlated. Thus, they were summarized to single scales.</p> <p>Individual’s productivity is a self-assessed measure using four items, which address particularly the comparison of one’s capabilities with those of other students. The mean of productivity is higher than the middle of the scale. In contrast, students believe with a lower average that study abroad truly signals individual productive capabilities. Furthermore, the attitude towards personality development through studying abroad reveals that the students in the sample believe mainly that studying abroad fosters their personality development. Finally, the mean in the agreement that students perceive a must to study abroad is lower than the middle of the scale. That is, a personal norm to study abroad is less expressed.</p> <hd id="AN0126830698-11">Bivariate correlations between independent variables</hd> <p>As initial test for the quality of the achieved experimental data, bivariate Pearson’s correlations are calculated between both all treatment variables (vignette dimensions) and all treatment variables with individuals’ attitudes and their personal norm. As it is shown in Table 4, all correlations between vignette dimensions are particularly low due to systematic variation. Furthermore, the correlations of vignette dimensions with variables at individuals’ level are even nearby zero due to random assignment. This indicates that the two core principles of experiments, variation and randomization, were successful in our study (see Campbell and Stanley [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref164">9</reflink>] ). As a result, the estimation of the respective vignette characteristics effects is unbiased. On the contrary, individual’s attitudes and their personal norm are of course correlated with each other, as they could not be assigned randomly by design. Therefore, their effect estimations cannot be interpreted independently but must be considered as mutually biased.</p> <hd id="AN0126830698-12">Estimation methods</hd> <p>Since each respondent expressed intentions to study abroad with regard to eight vignettes, a hierarchical data structure arose (cf. Hox et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref165">29</reflink>] ; Jasso [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref166">30</reflink>] ). The related problem that standard errors at respondents’ level are underestimated while those at the vignettes’ level are overestimated can be captured by multi-level modeling, i.e., random intercept modeling (Snijders and Bosker [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref167">61</reflink>] ).3 [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref168">3</reflink>] In this model, the intention to study abroad is additively influenced by both study abroad attributes that varied in the vignettes as well as respondent’s characteristics, such as attitudes and norms. The intercepts are estimated using a random component, and robust standard errors are applied in order to avoid biased estimations through non-modeled heteroscedasticity. The model can be noted as followsYij=β0+βXij+γZj+νj+εij;i=1,...,n;j=1,...,m</p> <p>With:</p> <p>Y<subs>ij</subs></p> <p>Intention of respondent j to study abroad under conditions described in vignette i</p> <p>X<subs>ij</subs></p> <p>Vector with study abroad conditions described in vignettes</p> <p>Z<subs>j</subs></p> <p>Vector with respondent characteristics (e.g., attitudes)</p> <p>ν<subs>j</subs></p> <p>Error term on respondent level</p> <p>ε<subs>ij</subs></p> <p>Error term on vignette level</p> <hd id="AN0126830698-13">Results</hd> <p>In this section, the predictors of the experimentally stimulated study abroad intentions are analyzed. Three nested regression models were calculated in order to test the quality of randomization before hypotheses are tested simultaneously in a joint model.</p> <p>As outlined in the theory section above, the perceived benefits of studying abroad are represented by the beliefs in personality development and productivity signaling and by the desired host country. The self-assessed productivity, relevant language skills, host university’s reputation, financial support through a scholarship, exchange in a group, and the existence of an exchange program reflect resources and restrictions when considering study abroad. The subjective norm is operationalized by family’s and friends’ expectations and the personal norm by the respective items.</p> <p>Table 5 shows three models. Model 1 contains the vignette dimensions solely. Model 2 includes only respondents’ self-assessed productivity, attitudes, and personal norm towards study abroad. Finally, both variable groups as well as socio-economic and study-related covariates are integrated in model 3. The calculations are based on 2456 vignette judgments made by 307 students and show all acceptable fit indices. Across the three models, all coefficients at vignettes’ and respondents’ levels are very similar without any noteworthy differences. Besides low bivariate correlations (Table 4) and the results of a Hausman test,<sups>3</sups> the stable effect sizes across all three regression models indicate clearly that confounder variables were neutralized by successful variation and randomization, with the exception of individual’s characteristics that cannot be randomly assigned by design.</p> <p>Effects of vignette dimensions and student’s characteristics on the intention to study abroad</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><tr><th rowspan="3" /><th colspan="9">Dependent variable: intention to study abroad</th></tr><tr><th colspan="3">Model 1</th><th colspan="3">Model 2</th><th colspan="3">Model 3<sup>a</sup></th></tr><tr><th>B</th><th>SE B</th><th>Beta</th><th>B</th><th>SE B</th><th>Beta</th><th>B</th><th>SE B</th><th>Beta</th></tr><tr><td colspan="10">Vignette dimensions</td></tr><tr><td>Exchange program (ref. no program)</td><td>0.34***</td><td>(0.06)</td><td>0.09</td><td /><td /><td /><td>0.34***</td><td>(0.06)</td><td>0.09</td></tr><tr><td>Fin. scholarship (ref. no scholarship)</td><td>0.98***</td><td>(0.06)</td><td>0.24</td><td /><td /><td /><td>0.98***</td><td>(0.06)</td><td>0.24</td></tr><tr><td>Exchange in group (ref. alone)</td><td>0.36***</td><td>(0.06)</td><td>0.09</td><td /><td /><td /><td>0.36***</td><td>(0.06)</td><td>0.09</td></tr><tr><td colspan="10">Related language skills</td></tr><tr><td>Elementary skills (ref. no skills)</td><td>0.53***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.12</td><td /><td /><td /><td>0.53***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.12</td></tr><tr><td>Good skills (ref. no skills)</td><td>1.27***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.30</td><td /><td /><td /><td>1.26***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.30</td></tr><tr><td colspan="10">Reputation host university</td></tr><tr><td>Equal reputation (ref. poorer rep.)</td><td>0.26***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.06</td><td /><td /><td /><td>0.27***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.06</td></tr><tr><td>Better reputation (ref. poorer rep.)</td><td>1.29***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.30</td><td /><td /><td /><td>1.28***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.30</td></tr><tr><td colspan="10">Host country preference</td></tr><tr><td>Less desired (ref. not desired)</td><td>0.58***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.13</td><td /><td /><td /><td>0.57***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.13</td></tr><tr><td>Strongly desired (ref. not desired)</td><td>0.75***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.18</td><td /><td /><td /><td>0.75***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.18</td></tr><tr><td colspan="10">Family’s/friends’ expectations</td></tr><tr><td>Show no expect. (ref. exp. stay)</td><td>0.30***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.07</td><td /><td /><td /><td>0.30***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.07</td></tr><tr><td>Expect study abroad (ref. exp. stay)</td><td>0.41***</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.10</td><td /><td /><td /><td>0.41**</td><td>(0.07)</td><td>0.10</td></tr><tr><td colspan="10">Student’s characteristics</td></tr><tr><td>Self-assessed productivity</td><td /><td /><td /><td>0.07</td><td>(0.05)</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.06</td><td>(0.05)</td><td>0.03</td></tr><tr><td>Believe in personality development</td><td /><td /><td /><td>0.31***</td><td>(0.06)</td><td>0.18</td><td>0.31***</td><td>(0.06)</td><td>0.18</td></tr><tr><td>Believe in signaling productivity</td><td /><td /><td /><td>-0.04</td><td>(0.05)</td><td>-0.03</td><td>-0.08</td><td>(0.05)</td><td>-0.06</td></tr><tr><td>Personal norm to study abroad</td><td /><td /><td /><td>0.23***</td><td>(0.04)</td><td>0.20</td><td>0.20***</td><td>(0.04)</td><td>0.17</td></tr><tr><td>Constant</td><td>1.22***</td><td>(1.13)</td><td /><td>1.34***</td><td>(0.33)</td><td /><td>-0.35</td><td>(1.20)</td><td /></tr><tr><td colspan="10">Variance</td></tr><tr><td>σ<sub>ν</sub></td><td>1.02***</td><td>(0.05)</td><td /><td>0.74***</td><td>(0.05</td><td /><td>0.78***</td><td>(0.04)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>σ<sub>ε</sub></td><td>1.40</td><td>(0.02)</td><td /><td>1.80</td><td>(0.03)</td><td /><td>1.40</td><td>(0.02)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Log likelihood</td><td /><td>-4565.66</td><td /><td /><td>-5012.82</td><td /><td /><td>-4503.90</td><td /></tr><tr><td>LR-χ<sup>2</sup></td><td /><td>997.56***</td><td /><td /><td>103.24***</td><td /><td /><td>1121.08***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>N<sub>vignettes</sub></td><td /><td>2456</td><td /><td /><td>2456</td><td /><td /><td>2456</td><td /></tr><tr><td>N<sub>respondents</sub></td><td /><td>307</td><td /><td /><td>307</td><td /><td /><td>307</td><td /></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Random intercept models; maximum likelihood estimation; non-standardized coefficients (B) and standardized coefficients (Beta); standard errors are in parentheses</p> <p>*p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001</p> <p> <sups>a</sups>Covariates: age, sex, relationship (−0.25*), study abroad experience, parents worked abroad, field of studies (economics, engineering), and origin region (Africa, Western Europe, Eastern Europe and Russia, Southern Europe, China, USA)</p> <p>Hence, the treatment coefficients can indeed be interpreted as isolated causal effects on the intention to study abroad. The larger the coefficient, the stronger is the influence of a dimension on the intention to study abroad. The successfully gained experimental data met the theoretical prerequisite of TPB that attitude, subjective norm, and perceived control towards a behavior under consideration are independent one from another (cf. Ajzen [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref169">1</reflink>] : 88-89).</p> <p>In model 3, most of the varied and measured variables show statistically significant positive effects, just as expected. That is, perceived benefits (H1) resulting from the expected gain for personality development (H1b) and from a fulfilled desire for a certain host country (H1c) let students more tend to study abroad. On the contrary, the belief that studying abroad serves as signal of this productivity in the labor market does not matter for the intention to study abroad (H1a). This indicates that, at least in the sample used, subjective goals are important drivers of the propensity for studying abroad. This holds, in particular, true for those goals besides labor market prospects, such as individual maturation and potential leisure activities.</p> <p>Moreover, resources and restrictions are considered to be important for the realization of the study abroad benefits (H2). The intention to study abroad is higher if good relevant language skills (H2b), a good host university’s reputation (H2c), financial support through a scholarship (H2d), exchange in a group (H2e), and support by an exchange program (H2f) are provided. Surprisingly, the extent of self-assessed productive capabilities makes students not more inclined to study abroad (H2a). Thus, especially clear supportive activities of institutions are welcomed since they help to ease the realization of study abroad.</p> <p>Finally, also normative aspects play a role when considering study abroad (H3). On the one hand, the subjective norm increases one’s intention to study abroad, which is reflected by expectations of one’s own family and friends that he or she will study abroad (H3a). On the other hand, also the personal norm to study abroad let students more tend to study abroad (H3b). The personal norm expresses the extent to what students have internalized the obligation to study abroad. Thus, both social pressure and internalized norms are influential in this study.</p> <p>As a first result, except productivity-related effects, the three hypotheses are clearly supported by data analysis. As it was shown, the effects are not biased due to experimental design. It can therefore be concluded that the three explanatory components, that is, attitude, norm, and perceived control towards studying abroad, indeed contribute independently to the intention to study abroad, just as proposed by TPB.</p> <p>The unbiased regression coefficients further allow for a valid comparison of the relative effect sizes.4 [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref170">4</reflink>] Advanced language skills and a high reputation of the host university are most important for the intention to study abroad. Under this experimental condition, the intention lies on average 1.3 scale units higher than in the respective reference categories. The third strongest predictor is financial support through a scholarship that can also increase the intention by about one scale point. These strongest predictors represent all decisive resources for a successful realization of a term abroad. Obviously, strict criteria of actual feasibility are of extraordinary importance for students when they consider study abroad.</p> <p>The effects of a desired host country and of the belief that one’s personality will be developed through studying abroad reach medium sizes. The personal norm to study abroad gains a similar regression weight. The first two predictors are theoretically associated with benefit considerations, particularly with regard to more general life goals. The compliance of a personal norm can also be interpreted as a kind of benefit when decision-making (cf. Opp [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref171">45</reflink>] ). We conclude that issues of recreation opportunities, one’s individual development, and the subjective gratification are decisive determinants of the study abroad intention, provided that a period abroad is realizable at all.</p> <p>In contrast, support by an exchange program, exchange in a group, and expectations of family and friends, though statistically significant, show relatively low effect sizes. Apparently, comparably less importance is given to rather general organizational conditions abroad and to non-internalized normative expectations. That is, students may not evaluate these conditions as exclusive criterions but appreciate them when they are given.</p> <p>As second result, it can be stated that students obviously apply a clear priority when decision-making on study abroad: First, resources and restrictions serving for the actual feasibility of studying abroad are considered. Second, subjective benefits and opportunities for one’s own well-being abroad are taken into account. Third, the attention is drawn to general organizational support and others’ expectations.</p> <hd id="AN0126830698-14">Discussion and conclusion</hd> <p>Although extensive efforts are being made to motivate as many students as possible to study abroad, the majority of students studying at German universities completed no study abroad. The general purpose of this article is therefore to identify conditions that make students more inclined to study abroad. Yet, unlike previous studies, we provide deeper insights by applying an experimental approach. In a factorial survey experiment (Rossi [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref172">54</reflink>] ; Jasso [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref173">30</reflink>] ; Auspurg and Hinz [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref174">2</reflink>] ), varying hypothetical study abroad attributes were presented to students of economics and engineering of the University of Siegen in order to examine their intention to study abroad with unbiased data and more nuanced operationalized determinants.</p> <p>In accordance with the Theory of Rational Choice (RCT) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), our results largely support the hypotheses. Similar to previous findings (e.g., Stroud [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref175">63</reflink>] ; Presley et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref176">52</reflink>] ; Goel et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref177">23</reflink>] ; Salisbury et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref178">55</reflink>] ; Li et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref179">36</reflink>] ; Luo and Jamieson-Drake [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref180">39</reflink>] ; Netz [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref181">43</reflink>] ; Lörz et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref182">38</reflink>] ), considerations on study abroad benefits, on resources and restrictions of its realization, and about normative aspects predict the intention to study abroad. Yet, in contrast to other studies, we found systematically differing unbiased weights in the subjective estimations, which reveal that students apply a clear priority towards conditions when considering study abroad. They seem not to ponder about beneficial outcomes of studying abroad until its realization is not guaranteed, while supportive structures are of secondary importance.</p> <p>The results of previous studies are quite ambiguous. For instance, additional financial burdens through studying abroad are either presented being decisive at all (e.g., Doyle et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref183">17</reflink>] ; Netz [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref184">43</reflink>] ), less important (e.g., Toncar et al. [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref185">65</reflink>] ; Lörz et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref186">38</reflink>] ), or even without any matter (Stroud [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref187">63</reflink>] ; Luo and Jamieson-Drake [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref188">39</reflink>] ). In one study, the expectation to participate in student groups abroad increases the intention to study abroad remarkably (Luo and Jamieson-Drake [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref189">39</reflink>] ), while in another study, peer interactions reveal not any effect (Salisbury et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref190">55</reflink>] ). In particular, previous applications of the TPB provide contradictory results. In the model of Presley et al. ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref191">52</reflink>] ), the subjective norm to study abroad is the strongest predictor of the respective intention, while the attitude towards studying abroad shows the weakest effects. In clear contrast, Goel et al. ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref192">23</reflink>] ) present a model where the intention to study abroad is solely affected by the attitude towards studying abroad, while the subjective norm and control beliefs remain without any influence. Li et al. ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref193">36</reflink>] ) report that the effects of attitude, subject norm, and perceived behavioral control are usually stronger than those of the country image. It is not clear so far, whether those observed effect heterogeneities result from different operationalizations or from biased sample compositions.</p> <p>In contrast, we demonstrated how the application of an experimental design can contribute to the research on educational decision-making such as on study abroad intentions. Experiments provide both more detailed and direct operationalization opportunities of the theoretical explanation factors and a more rigorous testing strategy through reduced endogeneity (cf. Baláž and Williams [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref194">3</reflink>] ). As a result, we can more rely on the effects found and interpret their relative sizes with greater reliability. The application of experiments for examining educational decisions can further be encouraged by taking the remarkably similar results of a related survey experiment (conjoint analysis) into account (Garver and Divine [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref195">21</reflink>] ). Just as in our study, financial costs, the envisaged host country, and the language spoken in classes are highly important attributes for US undergraduate students when considering study abroad.</p> <p>Our results are also certainly limited and further research is urgently needed. First, the analysis is based on students of only two disciplines and of only one German university. Thus, the results are not necessarily generalizable to other universities or countries since the non-variable students’ characteristics may differ. Though this is an experimental not representative study, it would be desirable in the future to use a broader respondent sample, possibly from different universities and countries. This holds, in particular, true for countries and universities in Asia, where more and more regional hubs of higher education emerge. Due to the broad variation of cultural, institutional, and economic conditions, as well as in provided study abroad programs, it seems promising to investigate both decision-making of Asian students on study abroad (cf. Chang [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref196">11</reflink>] ; Li et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref197">36</reflink>] ; Bamber [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref198">4</reflink>] ) and how students from other world regions make their choice of Asian host countries and universities (cf. Jon et al. [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref199">32</reflink>] ; Jiani [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref200">31</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Second, the period abroad and its purpose are not varied in this study. We considered a stay of one semester abroad with the purpose to earn credits. Summer exchanges and long-term study abroad with graduation are other varieties of international student mobility. Yet, the time spent abroad is considered as one of the most important attributes of study abroad (Garver and Divine [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref201">21</reflink>] ), and a number of studies have uncovered differing outcomes of short-term and long-term stays abroad for careers and personality development (Wiers-Jenssen [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref202">71</reflink>] ; Parey and Waldinger [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref203">46</reflink>] ; Chang [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref204">11</reflink>] ; Zimmermann and Neyer [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref205">72</reflink>] ). Therefore, various forms of studying abroad can go along with different motivations and preferences so that the comparison of preferences for and decision-making on various forms of international student mobility is one venue for future studies.</p> <p>Third, against our assumption, the students’ level of self-assessed productivity and the strength of their beliefs to signal this productivity by studying abroad did not show remarkable effects. This could lead to the improper conclusion that these aspects are not important when considering a term abroad. However, the variables were measured as students’ characteristics as they cannot be varied and randomly attributed by design. In contrast to the vignette treatments, they are thus interrelated to some extent (see Table 4). Though we controlled statistically for a number of observed variables (see Table 1), at least slightly biased effect estimations cannot be fully ruled out. Hence, less prone measurements of individual’s productivity are highly desirable in the future.</p> <p>Fourth, while referring to a multi-stage process that involves the thresholds of intention formation towards studying abroad and its realization, we investigated only the first stage. However, recent studies revealed that determinants differ notably between intention to and realization of study abroad (e.g., Luo and Jamieson-Drake [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref206">39</reflink>] ; Netz [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref207">43</reflink>] ). It is thus highly desirable to compare intentions to study abroad, expressed in factorial survey experiments, with actual study abroad behavior. This may also provide deeper insights into the behavioral validity of survey experiments in general (cf. Eifler [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref208">19</reflink>] ; Hainmueller et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref209">26</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Our results also include implications for policy makers. The benefits of studying abroad are clearly seen by students. Hardly any activities seem to be necessary to improve the interest in studying abroad. However, when students consider study abroad, they make their selections obviously by criteria of actual feasibility at first. Those criteria include the financial cost, the required foreign language skills, and the supportive structures at the host university. A broader financial support and early language promotion could therefore increase the intent for studying abroad. Also, partnerships with well-equipped and supportive host universities abroad could encourage more students to take study abroad into account. In contrast, less effort seems to be required in order to develop exchange programs or exchanges in groups, as these attributes are of secondary importance for the students.</p> <p>The original version of this article was revised: Table 5 was incorrect. Coefficients in Table 5 were not aligned to their appropriate labels in the first column. The corrected Table 5 is now shown here.</p> <p>An erratum to this article is available at https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0134-0.</p> <hd id="AN0126830698-15">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>The authors wish to thank the editors and three anonymous referees for their helpful comments and constructive remarks. This research was supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Germany [Grant Number 01PW11013].</p> <hd id="AN0126830698-16">References</hd> <hd id="AN0126830698-17">Citations</hd> <p>1 Ajzen I, The theory of planned behavior, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1991, 50, 2, 179, 211, 10.1016/0749-5978(<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref210">91</reflink>)90020-T</p> <ulist> <item>2 Auspurg K, Hinz T, Factorial survey experiments, 2015, London/Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications</item> <item>3 Baláž, V. Williams, A. M. (2015). 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Personality development of sojourners, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2013, 105, 3, 515, 530, 10.1037/a0033019</item> <ref id="AN0126830698-18"> <title>Footnotes</title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref25" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext>In literature, it is usually distinguished between summer exchanges, short-term study abroad for the purpose of credit earnings, and long-term stays pursuing a graduation abroad (e.g., Goel et al. 2010; Zimmermann and Neyer 2013). In accordance with previous studies (e.g., Salisbury et al. 2010; Luo and Jamieson-Drake 2015; Netz 2015; Kratz and Netz 2016; Lörz et al. 2016), our theoretical considerations and our analyses are related to studying abroad for a period of one semester in order to achieve credits. We instructed the respondents in our experiment to make their decisions on studying abroad correspondingly. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref58" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext>Orthogonality and level balance of the full experimental design may be biased by sample selection when these characteristics are not considered. Therefore, our vignette sample was drawn using the modified Federov search algorithm, which found the optimally efficient solution between perfect orthogonality and balance (cf. Kuhfeld et al. 1994). D-efficiency is a standardized measure for the sampling-bias, ranging from 0 (bias) to 100 (no bias) (cf. Dülmer 2007). Our sample shows the following efficiencies, representing high orthogonality and balance: D-efficiency = 97.05, A-efficiency = 94.29, and G-efficiency = 90.92. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref57" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext>In order to ensure the robustness of the random effects estimation results have been compared with results of a fixed effects estimation. No substantial differences were obtained applying the Hausman test (χ2 = 10,11; p = 0,521), which was developed to test for those effect differences. Since fixed effects models control for unobserved heterogeneity, lacking effect differences serve as further indication that randomization was successful. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref41" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext>Attitudes and norms at the individuals’ level have been included as seven point scales (see Table 3) into the models, while the vignette dimensions are binary variables. Thus, the non-standardized coefficients are generally lower at the individuals’ level compared to dummy predictors at vignettes’ level. In order to simplify the comparison, standardized Beta-coefficients were calculated. </bibtext> </blist> </ref> </ulist> <p>PHOTO (COLOR)</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR)</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR)</p> <aug> <p>By Knut Petzold and Petra Moog</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib8" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib7" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib5" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib6" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref78"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref91"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref103"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref123"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref124"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref125"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib9" firstref="ref142"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref143"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref145"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref146"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref148"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref150"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref151"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref152"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref153"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref154"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl66" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref157"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl67" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref160"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl68" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref165"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl69" bibid="bib91" firstref="ref210"></nolink>
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  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Petzold%2C+Knut%22">Petzold, Knut</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Moog%2C+Petra%22">Moog, Petra</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Higher+Education%3A+The+International+Journal+of+Higher+Education+Research%22"><i>Higher Education: The International Journal of Higher Education Research</i></searchLink>. Jan 2018 75(1):35-54.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Springer. 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-348-4505; e-mail: service-ny@springer.com; Web site: http://www.springerlink.com
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 20
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2018
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Study+Abroad%22">Study Abroad</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intention%22">Intention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Benefits%22">Educational Benefits</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Economics+Education%22">Economics Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Engineering+Education%22">Engineering Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Decision+Making%22">Decision Making</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Predictor+Variables%22">Predictor Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personality+Traits%22">Personality Traits</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Second+Language+Learning%22">Second Language Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22International+Educational+Exchange%22">International Educational Exchange</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Comparative+Analysis%22">Comparative Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Outcomes+of+Education%22">Outcomes of Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Germany%22">Germany</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s10734-017-0119-z
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0018-1560
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: In contrast to previous studies, this investigation aims to get deeper insights into the causes of the intention to study abroad by using an experimental approach. Although international experience is often considered as important, many students at German universities do not even consider abroad. Referring to the Theory of Rational Choice (RCT) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the intention to study abroad is shaped by student's evaluation of expected benefits from studying abroad, resources and restrictions regarding its realization, and normative aspects. In a factorial survey experiment, hypothetical study abroad descriptions with varying attributes were presented to students of economics and engineering of a German university. The experimental design allows for more nuanced operationalizations and for diminished endogeneity biases through systematic variation and randomization. Thus, a more direct test of the assumptions about educational decision-making is possible. A comparison of the unbiased predictor weights clearly indicates that students prioritize conditions when considering study abroad. They seem to not ponder about beneficial outcomes of studying abroad, such as own personality development and being in a desired host country, as long as the realization of the stay is not substantially guaranteed by related foreign language skills, sufficient financing, and a supportive host university. Further facilitations through an exchange program and exchange in a group, as well as expectations of family and friends are of secondary importance.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: Ref
  Label: Number of References
  Group: RefInfo
  Data: 72
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2017
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1164069
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1164069
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s10734-017-0119-z
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 20
        StartPage: 35
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Study Abroad
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intention
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Benefits
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Economics Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Engineering Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Decision Making
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Predictor Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Personality Traits
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Second Language Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: International Educational Exchange
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Comparative Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Outcomes of Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Germany
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: What Shapes the Intention to Study Abroad? An Experimental Approach
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Petzold, Knut
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            NameFull: Moog, Petra
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            – D: 01
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              Type: published
              Y: 2018
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0018-1560
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              Value: 75
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              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Higher Education: The International Journal of Higher Education Research
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