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Adaptations in General Education Classrooms for Students with Severe Disabilities: Access, Progress Assessment, and Sustained Use

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Title: Adaptations in General Education Classrooms for Students with Severe Disabilities: Access, Progress Assessment, and Sustained Use
Language: English
Authors: Finnerty, Megan S., Jackson, Lewis B., Ostergren, Renee
Source: Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities. Jun 2019 44(2):87-102.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 16
Publication Date: 2019
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Education
Early Childhood Education
Kindergarten
Primary Education
Grade 4
Intermediate Grades
Descriptors: Severe Disabilities, Academic Accommodations (Disabilities), Elementary School Students, Mainstreaming, Regular and Special Education Relationship, Student Centered Learning, Teaching Methods, Peer Teaching, Student Participation, Teamwork, Educational Resources, Inclusion, Cooperative Planning, Teacher Collaboration, Evaluation Methods, Sustainability, Kindergarten, Grade 4
DOI: 10.1177/1540796919846424
ISSN: 1540-7969
Abstract: This study examined material adaptations being used with students who have severe disabilities in general education elementary classrooms during language arts, social studies, and science instruction. Data sources included classroom observations, interviews, and artifacts shared by three general and special educator teams. Findings revealed themes that describe how adaptations (a) facilitate access to grade-level content (tangible, student-centered, and blended with classroom materials and instruction) and (b) enable educators to assess progress in student learning (show what students know, blended with peer learning, and ownership of learning). Findings also revealed a set of themes (team collaboration, resources available, rhythm and routine, and build momentum) that help account for the sustained use of adaptations by educator teams across curricula and school days. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2019
Accession Number: EJ1217518
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0136890236;myx01jun.19;2019Jun12.03:16;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0136890236-1">Adaptations in General Education Classrooms for Students With Severe Disabilities: Access, Progress Assessment, and Sustained Use </title> <p>This study examined material adaptations being used with students who have severe disabilities in general education elementary classrooms during language arts, social studies, and science instruction. Data sources included classroom observations, interviews, and artifacts shared by three general and special educator teams. Findings revealed themes that describe how adaptations (a) facilitate access to grade-level content (tangible, student-centered, and blended with classroom materials and instruction) and (b) enable educators to assess progress in student learning (show what students know, blended with peer learning, and ownership of learning). Findings also revealed a set of themes (team collaboration, resources available, rhythm and routine, and build momentum) that help account for the sustained use of adaptations by educator teams across curricula and school days. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.</p> <p>Keywords: adaptations; general education curriculum; severe disability; inclusion</p> <p>Nationwide, practices are emerging to support educating students with severe disabilities in general education contexts ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref1">20</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref2">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref3">33</reflink>]). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref4">17</reflink>]) emphasizes the involvement and progress of students with disabilities in general curriculum; placing students with severe disabilities in general education classes provides a research-based way to meet this requirement ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref5">26</reflink>]). In inclusive classrooms, in which children with and without disabilities are taught together, high expectations and presuming competence in relation to grade-level curriculum are the standards for all children ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref6">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref7">31</reflink>]).</p> <p>Students who have severe disabilities constitute less than 2% of the student population. They have diverse learning and behavioral characteristics, extensive educational support needs, and they are likely to require alternate assessments ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref8">25</reflink>]). Educators who include these students have reported favoring approaches that support all students in active, typical ways ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref9">14</reflink>]). Practices such as differentiated instruction and flexible grouping can effectively address the learning of all students ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref10">37</reflink>]). In addition, Universal Design for Learning (UDL) offers a pathway for educators to intentionally plan for and deliver instruction and assessment across a wide array of learners ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref11">28</reflink>]). Yet, even with these practices in place, at times, students with severe disabilities may still require adaptations.</p> <p>The use of adaptations is a practice known to support students who have severe disabilities in inclusive classrooms ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref12">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref13">19</reflink>]). The concept of adaptations is broad, potentially involving changing instruction, altering content, and/or adjusting criteria to better meet learner needs ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref14">38</reflink>]). For example, a fourth grader with severe disabilities can participate in a grade-level social studies lesson if provided with prelabeled landmarks to complete the same map of the states being completed by classmates, the latter being required to produce written responses. Well-designed adaptations facilitate social and academic participation, promote independence, are only as special as necessary, are age and culturally appropriate, focus on student success rather than deficits, and are easy to use ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref15">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref16">24</reflink>]). They can increase academic engagement, reduce off task behaviors, and increase teacher expectations ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref17">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref18">26</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref19">30</reflink>]). Moreover, such adaptations can enhance student progress when used over multiple academic years ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref20">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref21">34</reflink>]).</p> <p>Despite the fact that we know adaptations are beneficial, challenges exist ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref22">22</reflink>]). Studies have shown mixed patterns with respect to the reliable provision of needed adaptations for students with disabilities across general education contexts ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref23">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref24">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref25">26</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref26">39</reflink>]). Moreover, adaptation processes require collaboration between education team members, which is often absent ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref27">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref28">22</reflink>]). Finally, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref29">10</reflink>] have noted that there is not only a need for adaptations to be available, but also a need for <emph>better</emph> adaptations.</p> <p>Clearly, research is needed to increase our understanding of how adaptations can facilitate access to grade-level curricula in general education classrooms. Moreover, little is known about how adaptations factor into the assessment of learning, and how their sustained use can be assured. Accordingly, this study examined how general and special educators described their use of adaptations, using the following research questions:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <bold> Research Question 1: </bold> How do educator teams describe the features of adaptations that facilitate access to grade-level content?</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Research Question 2: </bold> How do educator teams describe the progress assessment features of adaptations?</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Research Question 3: </bold> How do educator teams account for the sustainability of adaptations across curricula and school day(s)?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0136890236-2">Method</hd> <p>This study employed qualitative inquiry to examine adaptations provided to students with severe disabilities in general education contexts from the perspective of stakeholders, the teachers. A social constructivism paradigm ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref30">7</reflink>]) within a social model of disability theory ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref31">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref32">15</reflink>]) framed the design and analysis of this study. Guided by social constructivism, we sought knowledge and understanding of the experiences of educator teams as they implemented adaptations into lessons. Scholars in disability theory have emphasized that educational solutions sought for addressing human differences should not focus on attempting to change the learner, but rather on changing the context of education itself so that the learner can grow with others rather than be educated apart ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref33">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref34">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref35">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref36">27</reflink>]). This study addresses this through its examination of practices that can make possible and enhance the equal participation of children and youth with disabilities in today's general education classrooms.</p> <p>Our study was aligned with a social or minority group model of disability, viewing disability not as a deficit requiring remediation but as a dimension of human differences. In this model, the meanings people construct about disability are influenced by the "quality of the arrangement between the individual and society" rather than "severity of disability" ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref37">15</reflink>], p. 281). Hence, an inquiry focused on meanings constructed by educators who are responding to disability by promoting access to general curriculum in general education could offer insights into practices that promote equity when students with disabilities are educated with their peers.</p> <p>In this study, teachers, as educator teams, were the participants. An <emph>educator team</emph> was defined as a general educator and a special educator working together to create and implement adaptations in general education classrooms. For the purpose of this study, an <emph>adaptation</emph> was defined as a change in the educational material that was used in a grade-level lesson to support a student. We combined multicase research design ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref38">40</reflink>]) with photo-elicited interviews ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref39">36</reflink>]). Similar to [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref40">24</reflink>], we intentionally looked at adaptations as perceived by the educators, and not at students as users. This focused our attention on the broad and specific features of the adaptations themselves, as perceived by these educators. The study was approved by both the school district's and the university's Institutional Review Board.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-3">Setting and Participants</hd> <p>The study was conducted in a western school district serving nearly 28,000 students. It was a high-performing district and was one of the top 10 largest districts in the state. Special education was defined as "integrated services"; yet, the district offered a continuum of placements for meeting student needs, as defined by Individualized Education Programs (IEPs). This meant services could be available to students in both general and special education settings.</p> <p>We used a purposeful convenience sampling procedure ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref41">7</reflink>]). Our participant selection criteria required that study participants be general and special educators who (a) worked as a team and (b) implemented adaptations for students with severe disabilities during grade-level instruction in general education classrooms. Initially, district administrative personnel identified six schools that met these criteria. The study was introduced by them to principals and teachers in these schools to determine whether they might be interested in sharing what they do within a research context. All six initially expressed an interest.</p> <p>When the study was then described to school personnel in detail by the principal investigator (first author), three schools and their educator teams agreed to participate. These were a fourth grade and two kindergarten teams. Table 1 presents the educator teams' training and teaching experiences. The two kindergarten classes consisted of 14 and 24 students in a full-day and a half-day classroom, respectively. The lower class size reflected a high percentage of students who qualified for free or reduced lunch. The fourth grade class consisted of 26 students.</p> <p>Graph: Table 1. Educator Teams' Characteristics.</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="center">Characteristics</th><th align="center">Kindergarten 1</th><th align="center">Kindergarten 2</th><th align="center">Fourth grade</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Mean years teaching experience<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn2">a</xref></td><td>6</td><td>24.5</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Mean years experience in severe disabilities<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">b</xref></td><td>8</td><td>20.5</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">Highest degrees earned</td></tr><tr><td> General educator</td><td>Masters</td><td>Masters</td><td>Bachelors</td></tr><tr><td> Special educator</td><td>Masters</td><td>Masters</td><td>Masters</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">Teaching certifications</td></tr><tr><td> General educator</td><td>EC</td><td>E, SE</td><td>E</td></tr><tr><td> Special educator</td><td>E, SE</td><td>SE</td><td>SE</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note.</emph> EC = early childhood; E = elementary; SE = special education.</p> <ulist> <item>2 a Mean refers to the educator teams' average number of years teaching with a teaching certificate.</item> <item>3 b Mean refers to the educator teams' average number of years of experience specifically supporting children with severe disabilities in all roles (e.g., respite care, paraeducator, and educator).</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0136890236-4">Data Collection</hd> <p>We selected language arts, social studies, and science as the content subjects for our investigation of adaptations. These three content areas were addressed in all the classrooms that were part of the study and included students with severe disabilities. Several forms of data were collected on the use of adaptations in these content areas. These included classroom observations, photographs of adaptations, and interviews with educator teams.</p> <p>For each classroom, three observations of 25 to 45 min each were conducted, covering language arts, social studies, and science. A template was designed to structure descriptive and reflective notes regarding classroom materials, supports, and the use of adaptations, and how these supported participation, social interactions, and communication during instruction. This instrument was consistent with [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref42">5</reflink>] recommendation about instrument design when collecting data across sites. The observations also served to establish a better understanding of the participants' teaching world, they facilitated rapport with participants prior to conducting interviews, and they served as a triangulation feature for credibility of findings.</p> <p>In photo-elicited interviewing, images are viewed as facilitating deeper reflections and richer discussions of phenomena under investigation ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref43">9</reflink>]). Hence, each educator team was asked to choose and photograph three adaptations used during language arts, social studies, and science lessons. In addition to the photographs, teachers recorded background information, using a researcher-developed template requiring them to describe for each of the relevant lessons how the adaptation was produced, how it was aligned to state academic standards, and how it was used. These photographs, plus descriptions, then served as visual prompts, guides, and reminders for the educator teams when answering questions about, or expanding on, their use of adaptations.</p> <p>Interviews, occurring over a 4-month period, were conducted in the general education classrooms when students were not present. A team's collection of photographed adaptations was printed on 8″ × 10″ cardstock and arranged on a table for reference during the interviews. Broad questions targeting the three research questions enabled participants to dialogue and construct the meaning of their experiences with adaptations with regard to access, progress assessment, and sustainability. Table 2 shows an abbreviated version of the interview schedule. The interviews lasted between 40 and 55 min and were audio recorded. They were then transcribed verbatim shortly after the interview for preliminary data analysis. Subsequently, follow-up interviews of between 20 and 40 min were conducted, serving a member checking function ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref44">8</reflink>]). The principal researcher reviewed the transcripts with the participants for their accuracy and posed clarifying questions. The participants also had an opportunity to comment on and contribute to the emerging themes during these interviews. These interviews were also audio recorded and transcribed.</p> <p>Graph: Table 2. Abbreviated Interview Schedule.</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left">Photo-elicited interview questions</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Please tell me briefly what you like about these adaptations (photographs)?</td></tr><tr><td>How did these adaptations support students with severe disabilities with access to language arts, social studies, or science lessons?</td></tr><tr><td>How did these adaptations support students with learning during language arts, social studies, or science lessons?</td></tr><tr><td>Describe anything about these adaptations that enable you to use them day after day?</td></tr><tr><td>What kinds of resources and supports do you need to make adaptations available?</td></tr><tr><td>How do you manage challenges?</td></tr><tr><td>Is there anything else you would like to tell me related to adaptations connected to general education lessons?</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0136890236-5">Data Analysis</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was to construct an understanding of how educator teams perceived the development, application, and value of material adaptations used in instruction within general education classes that included students with severe disabilities, in relation to providing learner access to content, assessing student progress, and sustaining adaptation use across time and content. Working with educator team perceptions, the constant-comparative method of data analysis ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref45">32</reflink>]) coupled with a multi-case analysis approach ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref46">40</reflink>]) provided vehicles for constructing this understanding, backed up by descriptions and incidences observed during classroom observations. The first author completed this analysis, assisted by the qualitative data analysis software program, QSR NVivo®.</p> <p>Initially, for each individual case, the transcript data were chunked into categories (e.g., access, learning, academic standards, and resources) using color-coding, and this was repeated consecutively for each educator team. These data clusters were then sorted and grouped to align with the three research questions, representing the overarching concepts of access, progress assessment, and sustainability. This analysis resulted in sets of preliminary, descriptive themes that preserved the perceptions of the participants while expressing meanings that seemed to address the three research questions (e.g., "collaborative planning and support" and "serve as a bridge to expand learning" addressed sustainability). These preliminary themes were then further refined or discarded through reimmersion in the data and sifting through the cases to cross-check how themes matched the findings within individual cases. A final step of this within-case analysis was to share these preliminary themes, such as the access themes of "student-centered" and "blend with classroom material," with the educator teams in the second round of interviews. The themes were then confirmed or revised as indicated by their responses.</p> <p>The foregoing within-case analysis resulted in themes that seemed to fit well with the overarching concepts of this study while still adhering to the language and areas of emphasis of the participants. However, the differentiation of the data into final themes—themes that could fully represent and elucidate the concepts of access, progress assessment, and sustainability—occurred during the cross-case analysis, when the cases were viewed collectively as a whole. This involved researcher reimmersion in the raw data, making comparisons and drawing contrasts across the three cases, and rethinking the organization and naming of the themes in relation to the concepts of access, progress assessment, and sustainability. This process resulted in the original themes transforming into more precise themes, each being uniquely and differentially related to one of the three foregoing concepts. For example, initial themes such as "fosters growth" and "fosters ownership of learning" coalesced to a final theme, "ownership of learning," which informed the concept of progress assessment. Finally, returning again to the data, the first researcher developed descriptive, defining characteristics for each of the themes. For example, when the responses of the participants were examined further, the "tangible" theme appeared best represented by the characteristics "manipulative and visual," "self-explanatory," "simple," and "portable." The final themes and their defining characteristics, organized in relation to the overarching concepts of access, progress assessment, and sustainability, are the findings reported in this study.</p> <p>Our study employed a number of procedures to ensure the trustworthiness and credibility of the analysis. As recommended by [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref47">32</reflink>], reliability was achieved through an audit trail and an expert and peer review process to confirm the reasonableness of the within and cross-case themes. As recommended by [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref48">8</reflink>], validity was supported via triangulation of data, member checking, and researcher bias clarification. These processes assured the voices of the participants were represented in the analysis.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-6">Positionality</hd> <p>Knowledge of author biases and points of view can better position readers for interpreting the findings of a study ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref49">7</reflink>]). We believe that general education contexts offer rich opportunities for children with severe disabilities to learn. What can help make this possible is for our field to broaden its understanding of how material adaptations contribute to educating students with severe disabilities in grade-level general education classrooms. This desire for understanding these processes was coupled with a sincere appreciation for the teachers in these educator teams as knowledgeable professionals, who possessed the insights that we needed to accurately inform the field about these processes. Consistent with social constructivism, this meant listening carefully to them, and closely adhering to their stories and narrative when generating themes and reporting findings. Put differently, although we as researchers would reach conclusions and derive implications for practitioners, we wanted authorship of the findings to reside in the words of the participants.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-7">Findings</hd> <p>This research examined how teachers described their design and use of material adaptations in general education contexts to support learning of academic content by students with severe disabilities during language arts, social studies, and science. Qualitative analysis procedures were used to develop themes that characterized how teachers used adaptations in relation to providing access to content and progress assessment, and their perceptions of what ensured sustainability. In subsequent sections, these themes and their characteristics are defined, described, and illustrated with respect to access, progress assessment, and sustainability.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-8">Access</hd> <p>Three themes emerged characterizing educator teams' experiences with adaptations promoting access to grade-level content. These were (a) tangible, (b) student-centered, and (c) blended with classroom materials and instruction.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-9">Tangible</hd> <p>Tangible refers to physical dimensions of adaptations that enhanced student responding. Adaptations that could be manipulated enabled students to respond actively within lessons. Such adaptations were also visual, for example, images for producing a matching response in a Science Reader (Figure 1), or laptop icons that facilitated a student's construction of word/picture sentences (Figure 2). A general education teacher explained that visual representation and manipulative qualities should be at the forefront in adaptation design:</p> <p>In my classroom they all need some type of adaptation at some point. You think of the main things, like, how do you make it visual? Because, that usually for all kids, makes it more accessible for them. So how do you make it visual? How do you make it hands-on? Which all of these [adaptation examples] the student would be doing something.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Matching images used with kindergarten science reader.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Grid created with adaptive software on classroom laptop.</p> <p>Educator teams also said adaptations should be self-explanatory and simple, reducing the need for instructions on their use and making them more workable. A kindergarten teacher expressed,</p> <p>I think the most important thing that I would have to say about adaptations, is that it does not have to be difficult. A lot of what we do is really simple, using the similar resources as the gen ed peers. Sometimes when you hear the word "adaptations" for your students [with severe disabilities] or any other student, teachers panic, but it really doesn't have to be difficult.</p> <p>Finally, portability assured ready availability for students and support staff alike across settings.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-10">Student-centered</hd> <p>Adaptations that were student-centered were designed to support individual learning needs. This included their use to facilitate the acquisition of IEP goals in general education contexts. A special educator emphasized, "the classroom teacher described the assignments to me and then we looked at what the student was working on and how can we work his goals [IEP goals] into the assignments."</p> <p>The consideration of students' general understanding was also part of the adaptation process when ensuring access to grade-level curriculum. Educators wondered how to design adaptations that matched the activities of classmates, yet was also understandable for the learner with more intensive learning needs. A general educator said, "how do you make it something that is matching what everybody else is doing, but at the level they need?" Her teammate added,</p> <p>It [adaptation] is not so far above their heads that they are so focused on trying to figure out what they're doing or what we are talking about, but they are able to do it. If it is too far above their heads and they are struggling so hard to figure out even where we are, then they are not going to learn because they are worried about what they are supposed to be doing. And a lot of the times, if the materials we provide them, if it is too hard, they are wandering around; they are talking because they don't know and they're not going to engage in it. But, if it is something they are able to do, they engage in it and participate actively. So, I think that is how the adaptations really help keep them where they are supposed to be. And they are interested.</p> <p>Finally, when adaptations were designed to enable communication with academic language, this promoted access to lessons. For example, in the fourth grade, the adaptation previously shown in Figure 2 employed the content vocabulary of the language arts text that was being used by classmates in a literacy lesson.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-11">Blended with classroom materials and instruction</hd> <p>Adaptations promoting access integrated well with classroom materials and instruction. Sometimes, they were the same materials with different learning targets. A kindergarten teacher expressed, "A lot of what we do is so closely related to the general ed kids, that I'm just [using the] same materials, different targeted skill." Even when adaptations differed from materials used by classmates, a classroom teacher summarized, "these [adaptation examples] are in the subject that the rest of the class is doing, or the theme, or the topic."</p> <p>Adaptations aligned to grade-level academic standards supported access to lesson content. As reported earlier, teachers designed adaptations for acquisition of IEP goals and these IEP goals were linked to academic standards. This observed congruency facilitated access. Explained by a special educator:</p> <p>All of his IEP goals and objectives are linked to standards, as well. So we use those when we are writing his IEP. We [general and special educator] sat down and looked at them all and said what is appropriate for this student? What would we like to see him working on? What skills are not as strong or missing?</p> <p>And her general educator counterpart added,</p> <p>And I try to keep, with your help [special educator], I try to keep the activity [use of adaptation] as true to the activity that we are doing as possible. And so those are all directly linked to standards and so keeping it true allows it to link directly to his standards and the standards that the rest of the class is working toward at the same time.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-12">Progress Assessment</hd> <p>Along with providing access to the grade-level content, adaptations also need to provide a vehicle for teachers to assess the progress of students using them. Three themes described how adaptations provided a means for students to demonstrate learning as interpreted by teachers. These were (a) show what students know, (b) blended with peer learning, and (c) ownership of learning.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-13">Show what students know</hd> <p>Adaptations that make readily apparent what students know were those that enabled them to answer questions and produce products in general education lessons. Answering questions was a form of assessment especially emphasized by teachers. The adaptation previously shown in Figure 2 made it possible for a fourth grader to answer questions related to story read alouds during small group literacy lessons. The classroom teacher said,</p> <p>[The student with an adaptation] is able to answer some of the questions using these icons that were pre-programmed. And so, I can ask him a question. Say, "So what happened to this?" or "Who was the person that...?" And he is able to select the correct answer, which is really fun to see him following along and understanding and being able to answer those questions from what he does know and what icons are provided already for him.</p> <p>Adaptations also provided a framework for students to produce work assessed by teachers. For example, in the fourth grade, a student completed an adapted science report illustrating his class electricity experiment. The special educator described,</p> <p>He was able to, with assistance of the paraprofessional programming in the words and phrases, he was then able to click on phrases to create the sentence of what he did. He still participated in the entire activity with friends of creating the circuit to make the light bulb light up, but then he was able to record it in a different way.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-14">Blended with peer learning</hd> <p>Teachers were able to observe the impact of adaptations more easily when their implementation was immersed in the activities of peers and not in isolation in separate areas of the class. In other words, the classroom teacher could efficiently examine skill and content acquisition of the adaptation user by observation in relation to the patterns of learning in the other students. For example, during center time (rotating small groups of 4-5 students), as the classroom teacher read the science reader, all students matched animals and habitats while the teacher expanded on content and asked probing questions. For a student using the science reader adaptation (Figure 1), progress could be observed readily by the classroom teacher and the special educator as this youngster successfully matched images representing the same content and in the same context as peers. The kindergarten teacher said,</p> <p>It was really nice to see the adaptation with the science reader, because I feel that was authentic learning. He was doing what other kids were doing, it was using what we had already taught him with matching, these other matching adaptations, but he was actually doing it more in a learning, authentic lesson.</p> <p>In addition, when learning together with others, peers could model grade-level expectations, sometimes eliciting evidence of learning in the student who is using an adaptation. In an example from the fourth grade classroom, a general educator described how a student who used adaptations demonstrated learning alongside peer models:</p> <p>I think this is one of my favorite ways for [student with adaptation] to participate because he really does get involved and you can tell he gets really into the discussion because he sits at the table with everyone. The way I set it up, I often have students read in pairs, so that they have that support. So, I have him read with another student and he will follow along and he will be able say some of the words, more in an echo. But sometimes he will be able to actually participate in the reading of it. The students are great. They include him, they're like this is where we are, make sure you are following along.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-15">Ownership of learning</hd> <p>Educator teams were likely to say that learning was occurring when students demonstrated investment in that learning via the quality of their use of adaptations. Ownership, and not simply task compliance, could be inferred when a student's use of an adaptation resulted in a change in demeanor, such that the student wanted to respond and to show the teacher or peers what was being understood. From the educator teams' perspectives, by noting student change in affect and demeanor, they were able to assess how learning in a student using an adaptation was "clicking" during a lesson. For instance, reflecting on the science lesson adaptation shown in the previously presented Figure 1, the general educator said,</p> <p>And the look on his face and his reactions too, are, I think are what are so important. Because you can tell too, he knew, I am doing this with my friends. And he really likes to sit with the other kids and they're great with him too. We have been working towards that. So it was cool to see.</p> <p>Student familiarity with adaptations, as an aspect of ownership, helped teachers be aware of when learning was occurring. Teachers noticed students focusing on lesson content and not on trying to figure out how to use an adaptation. For example, as a fourth grader became more familiar with the adaptation grid shown previously in Figure 2, the special educator observed,</p> <p>I have noticed an increase in him being able to answer those WH questions because anytime he is asked, "Who is the story about?" Even if it is not quite the correct one, he is answering with a character's name. So he is at least associating "who" with a character, rather than describing what just happened. So I think the reinforcement of him being asked those questions and using this [adaptation] is helping him get that understanding of what those questions really mean.</p> <p>For these teachers, adaptations as vehicles for progress assessment extended their value beyond access. They served as tools for assessing learning. Yet, adaptations are of little value if not used continuously and in multiple contexts.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-16">Sustainability</hd> <p>We examined how educator teams accounted for sustained use of adaptations across the curricula and school days. By sustained use, we mean that adaptations reoccurred and were not limited to one type of content area or context. Four major themes emerged: (a) team collaboration, (b) resources available, (c) rhythm and routine, and (d) build momentum.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-17">Team collaboration</hd> <p>A basis for sustained use was provided when educator teams worked in unison to create, implement, and reflect on adaptations in general education contexts. Teams described different ways they communicated and exchanged ideas about students and lessons to make adaptations available, including email, informal meetings, and scheduled planning meetings. The processes of team communication could be unique; however, there was a consensus that it was necessary to share information. One general educator explained,</p> <p>I think it's really important that [special educator] and I are in constant communication about the students' needs. And that helps. She either has ideas for adaptations or I say, "oh this is how I am adapting this lesson with my own materials." I think the most important thing is that time for [special educator] and I to collaborate and communicate about what is going on in here [general education classroom] and share materials.</p> <p>Sustainability was also supported when there was an equitable partnership between the general and special educators when working together on adaptations. This sometimes meant that general educators took on the role of creating adaptations and vice versa. In all cases, the teachers functioned as coordinated partners in designing and implementing adaptations.</p> <p>It is important to acknowledge that these educators did experience challenges in maintaining the level of collaboration needed to implement adaptations day after day. However, such challenges were sometimes perceived as opportunities. For example, a special educator said this about team planning:</p> <p>That has been one of my personal goals this year, is to get better at knowing what is going on in the classrooms. And it makes a huge difference in what the kids are able to do and able to participate in.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-18">Resources available</hd> <p>Availability of needed material and people supports played a role in sustaining the use of adaptations in classrooms. With respect to materials, any that were used regularly to make adaptations across content areas and school days needed to be readily available. A special educator said, they "do a lot of laminating and use lots of Velcro," and these materials had to be easily accessed to ensure their use in adaptation construction. The adaptations themselves also needed to be readily available, as the fourth grade team noted,</p> <p>So it [the adaptation] is always in the room [general education classroom] and is accessible to him [student needing an adaptation] whenever he is doing a writing assignment. It is not something we have to plan ahead for.</p> <p>A real challenge expressed by teams was the need for time to collaboratively plan and physically prepare adaptations. An educator team strongly iterated together their challenge, "Time, it takes time." To enhance efficiency, the educator teams stressed that time allocated for adaptation development could be reduced by retaining as resources examples of adaptations. This provided teachers with the capacity to reuse, reproduce, and revise for students across school days. Teachers also spoke about saving adaptations for use with future students who would be entering their grade levels.</p> <p>The broad support of the full team—paraeducators, colleagues, classmates, families, and administrators—strongly contributed to sustained use of adaptations. A consensus was communicated that educators should not take on adaptation processes alone. A teacher said,</p> <p>I think from my perspective, honestly, having that support, having a paraprofessional or having you [special educator] in the room with him at all times is amazing. I feel like I can really reach him more at his level with that support, where I couldn't, doing it all by myself. So having someone to guide those questions or have PixWriter [computer software] pulled up, or have the communication device ready to go on the pages we need. It's so helpful for me. Or having someone cut it out and paste and show where those need to go. I couldn't do it without the support.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-19">Rhythm and routine</hd> <p>An established rhythm and routine within lessons and across activities that incorporated adaptations on a regular basis influenced sustainability. As teachers implemented adaptations, they were more likely to continue to do so in other lessons. The adaptation grid shown previously in Figure 2 provides an example of this. The team explained that this adaptation came to be used "throughout different subjects and throughout the year."</p> <p>Sometimes, adaptations were implemented <emph>on-the-fly</emph>: that is, they were embedded into learning activities within the moment. Or a combination approach referred to by participants as "hybrid" worked when educator teams planned to use an adaptation with a specific lesson, but flexibility in the manner it was used was permitted. Established rhythms and routines provided the optimal environment for such adaptations to be created and used, focusing instructional attention first on what is being taught, and on the adaptation as secondary and dependent on the goals of the lesson. A general educator said,</p> <p>Some adaptations are just on-the-fly with whoever. I think those are the best ones because they are so meaningful. It is truly, here is the task and how can we make it yours [student using the adaptation] without really changing it? How does it become something at your level, something that you can own as your own learning without being like go sit in the corner and color?</p> <p>Peer acceptance of the use of adaptations by other students doing the same schoolwork as themselves contributed to the flow of learning routines and helped sustain adaptation use. A special educator noted how these experiences began early and stretched into future school years:</p> <p>And it starts here [kindergarten classroom] and we have a good role model with [classroom teacher] and her para and the kids. And as our students get older, just today with the students in 5<sups>th</sups> grade, and the kids are fifth graders, they are quiet, they are focused and they attended to [5<sups>th</sups> grade student with severe disabilities]. At the end [of his presentation] they all did the hands up and high-fived him. Our fifth graders, there are attitudes and behaviors and they can sometimes not be nice to each other, but in that moment, supporting the student [who uses adaptations] that I have in 5<sups>th</sups> grade, it was just like, "ah," because it starts early. The kids are very accepting and supportive.</p> <p>Her teammate added,</p> <p>It is just a cool part of what kids become accustomed to. Another cool thing is that my students have never been like, "why is [student using an adaptation] working on that? I want to do that." They just know sometimes students are going to have different things because we are all learning different things, at different times.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-20">Build momentum</hd> <p>Individually, adaptations served as tools for students to learn specific tasks or information. However, the educator teams noted that adaptations could contribute to a foundation for continuous learning when teachers relied upon them. This was illustrated by a kindergarten teacher, as she reflected on learning and the use of adaptations. She iterated,</p> <p>I think with all children, when they're young, at the age that I have, there is an element of having to build just the foundation for them to be able to do work to show you what they learned or know. It is not always automatic, they can learn something and show that. It is a process, and I think the same with him. It is going to be a slower process and we are building it differently [use of adaptations].</p> <p>As successful use of adaptations was observed, the educator teams reported that they were more likely to continue to rely on them. Success was in and of itself a motivator for expanded use across content areas and school days. Moreover, as new content was introduced via the progressing general education curriculum, changing content perpetuated reliance on adaptations that had worked in the past to ensure continued progress in learning.</p> <p>Finally, these teachers reported that continued reliance on and use of adaptations was strengthened by the coupling of general education curriculum with IEP goals. The fusion of IEP goals with general education curricula resulted in a coherent roadmap, guiding these teachers in the development and implementation of adaptations.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-21">Discussion</hd> <p>Using a qualitative, multicase research design with photo-elicited interviews, we examined perceptions of adaptations used by three educator teams working in elementary general education classrooms that included students with severe disabilities. We examined how these teams used and described features of adaptations that supported access and progress assessment at grade level in language arts, social studies, and science, and we examined how these general and special educators accounted for sustainability across curricula and school days. We found that <emph>access</emph> was supported by adaptations described as tangible, student-centered, and blended with classroom materials and instruction; <emph>progress assessment</emph> was supported by adaptations that make apparent what a student knows, blended with what other students were learning, and revealed a student's ownership of the learned material; and, <emph>sustainability</emph> was supported by the collaborative dynamics of the team, availability of resources, the established class rhythms and routines, and by building momentum with adaptations.</p> <p>We note up front three limitations associated with our research. First, this study was limited to a purposeful convenience sample and is not representative of a wider population. Common in qualitative inquiry, the findings are specific to the cases studied; yet, interested readers may interpret the findings to meet their unique circumstances. Second, we did not detail characteristics of students who accessed and participated in grade-level lessons with adaptations. Perhaps, knowing more about the learners would have provided a different understanding of the adaptation processes. Third, the research interviews were conducted jointly with general and special educators. It was not obvious that any of the team members were limited by this arrangement, but it is possible that some participants may have been restrained in what they shared ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref50">8</reflink>]). Counter to this scenario, the educator teams approached the interviews in unity, they had agreed to participate as teams and together they chose the adaptations upon which the photo-elicited interviews were based. These educators reflected, affirmed, and built upon each other's thoughts. Teams indicated that they appreciated the time spent talking together more deeply about their perspectives on the work they accomplish or strive for related to creating and using adaptations in general education contexts for students with severe disabilities.</p> <p>Despite these limitations, our research contributes to a deeper understanding of the use of material adaptations, broadening our field's understanding of ensuring access ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref51">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref52">33</reflink>]) and adding to present knowledge about their construction ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref53">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref54">23</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref55">24</reflink>]). Perhaps more importantly, our findings extend what is known in our field about using material adaptations to include assessing learning and ensuring sustainability. We offer what we believe are our major contributions to the field in two sections: "Implications for Practice" and "Implications for Research."</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-22">Implications for Practice</hd> <p>Our study's participants saw the creation and sustained use of adaptations for students with severe disabilities in general education contexts as useful for assuring content access and for assessing student progress. Our research suggests that regular and sustained use of material adaptations for these purposes is more assured when the following practices are in place: (a) defining student needs in general education terms, (b) collaborative teaming, and (c) viewing adaptations as routinely available classroom tools. These are described below.</p> <p>First, as described by study participants, the educational needs of students who required adaptations were defined in their IEPs such that goals were consistent with grade-level academic standards ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref56">29</reflink>]). Educator teams designed adaptations to simultaneously support IEP goals and access to and progress in general education lessons. When grade-level general education curriculum is a source of goals for students on IEPs, the planning for the whole class and for students who need adaptations can be realized as a coherent and "teacher friendly" process. Moreover, it was apparent to us that these general and special educators valued knowing that they were meeting the learning needs of students with severe disabilities in lessons that likewise met the learning needs of the other students in these classes.</p> <p>Second, our findings suggest that positive collaborative teaming significantly affected the availability and implementation of adaptations. The educator teams committed themselves to mutually sharing and merging information about general education lessons and student IEP goals. Scheduled weekly meetings and less formal exchanges resulted in adaptations that supported learning needs and engagement in grade-level lessons in a timely manner for instruction. We also found that these educator teams displayed flexibility and role sharing in how the adaptations were developed and implemented in their classrooms. These collaborative partnerships appeared to propel educator teams to provide curricular adaptations in their classrooms across curricula and school days. We argue that without such responsiveness, learning opportunities in general education are less likely for students who require adaptations.</p> <p>Third and finally, adaptations are sometimes perceived as specialized equipment, used exclusively with particular students, and raising concerns about what is really being learned given the provided support. The teachers in our study appeared to perceive adaptations differently, viewing them as tools of the class to enhance a student's potential to learn. Material adaptations were only as special as necessary ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref57">19</reflink>]) and were a means to facilitate communication from teacher to learner about what is expected, and from learner to teacher showing what has been learned. Hence, they can be viewed as aspects of universal design ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref58">28</reflink>]), making learning apparent and observable in any student in whom learning is not always apparent or observable. An implication of this is that sustained use of adaptations is likely supported when they are viewed as classroom tools, expressions of UDL. They are available for any that need them, they are designed to enhance learning and assessment, and they are not viewed as extraordinary equipment for particular students. Adaptations as classroom tools also operationalize a premise of disability theory, in that there is a shift from attempting to "fix" a disability to seeking learning and participation solutions, which could ultimately extend the range of students being educated in general education classrooms.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-23">Implications for Research</hd> <p>We are concerned, as are others with the failure of education to adopt more inclusive practices with students who have severe disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref59">35</reflink>]). We suggest that research directly addressing our practitioner-related findings can help chip away at some of the barriers and misconceptions about inclusive education that we believe are affecting inclusion in schools. We offer two directions for future research: (a) adaptations as assessment tools and (b) expanding evidence-based practice research.</p> <p>Beginning with adaptations as assessment tools, we note that many consider inclusion to be about providing social opportunities with typical peers rather than about learning grade-level content (for a review of the literature, see [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref60">2</reflink>]). We suggest that this is a barrier to the design and reliable use of adaptations. Future research should examine how changing teacher perceptions about the functions of adaptations might influence practice: If adaptations are perceived as assessment tools for measuring learning of general education content, can this affect their use? In addition, when coupled with IEP goals designed around grade-level general curriculum, can this further support the sustained use of adaptations? Finally, we note that research ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref61">22</reflink>]) suggests uncertainties around grading students with severe disabilities served in general education classes. Research is needed on whether adaptations that simultaneously enhance learning on IEP goals and general curriculum can help resolve these differences.</p> <p>In a related vein, teachers in our study saw adaptations as part of the success stories of their students, and they actively planned continued use of adaptations across time. We suggest that studies are needed that examine longitudinally across grades progress in learning general education content when students with severe disabilities are placed in general education classes, their IEPs are grounded in grade-level curriculum, and adaptations are used as part of progress assessment. A body of evidence showing continued learning under these conditions could be brought to bear on the present decline in general education placements for these students ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref62">6</reflink>]). Such research could also raise concerns about the value and utility of state alternate assessments that employ a separate set of standards.</p> <p>Next and finally, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref63">18</reflink>] described how evidence-based practice research seldom addresses practices that demonstrably blend with existing pedagogies in general education. We note that our research shows how adaptations can be configured to both match <emph>what</emph> is being learned and <emph>how</emph> instruction is occurring with the other students in a class. We support the position offered by Jackson that evidence-based practice research should focus on how general education practices can be augmented with special education practices, such that they promote learning in all students. We believe that additional research on successful material adaptations, conducted in general education classrooms, and focusing on both accessing and assessing grade-appropriate content, could contribute to the evidence-based practices body of research.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-24">Conclusion</hd> <p>In conclusion, we share a quote from a general educator that illustrates the commitment of these educator teams to include children using adaptations in general education classrooms such that both general education curriculum and individual student needs are addressed:</p> <p>I want him to be a part of everything we are doing as much as he can, but we also need to make sure that his learning is targeted to what he needs, so that we're incorporating both sides of learning targets, and the objectives, and what we need to meet with the standards. Just knowing where we are at with that, allows us to stay with the subjects and stay with the tasks and focus on his needs instead of just making it, doing it, because we [in grade-level general education classroom] are doing it.</p> <hd id="AN0136890236-25">Author Biographies</hd> <p> <bold>Megan S. Finnerty</bold> is an adjunct instructor in the School of Special Education at the University of Northern Colorado. Her research interests include the design and use of adaptations in general education contexts and teacher preparation.</p> <p> <bold>Lewis B. Jackson</bold> is a professor of Special Education at the University of Northern Colorado. He has been active for many years in supporting inclusive education, as an advocate, teacher, and scholar.</p> <p> <bold>Renee Ostergren</bold> is an integrated services coach in the Poudre School District. 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Remedial and Special Education, 24, 262-278. doi:10.1177/07419325030240050201</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Yin R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0136890236-27"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Editor-in-Charge: Susan Copeland</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Megan S. Finnerty; Lewis B. Jackson and Renee Ostergren</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Megan S. Finnerty is an adjunct instructor in the School of Special Education at the University of Northern Colorado. Her research interests include the design and use of adaptations in general education contexts and teacher preparation.</p> <p>Lewis B. Jackson is a professor of Special Education at the University of Northern Colorado. He has been active for many years in supporting inclusive education, as an advocate, teacher, and scholar.</p> <p>Renee Ostergren is an integrated services coach in the Poudre School District. Her professional interests include facilitating inclusive practices and providing support to educators, paraeducators, and families.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref63"></nolink>
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  Data: Adaptations in General Education Classrooms for Students with Severe Disabilities: Access, Progress Assessment, and Sustained Use
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  Data: English
– Name: Author
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Finnerty%2C+Megan+S%2E%22">Finnerty, Megan S.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jackson%2C+Lewis+B%2E%22">Jackson, Lewis B.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ostergren%2C+Renee%22">Ostergren, Renee</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Research+and+Practice+for+Persons+with+Severe+Disabilities%22"><i>Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities</i></searchLink>. Jun 2019 44(2):87-102.
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  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 16
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2019
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Primary+Education%22">Primary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+4%22">Grade 4</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Intermediate+Grades%22">Intermediate Grades</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Severe+Disabilities%22">Severe Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Accommodations+%28Disabilities%29%22">Academic Accommodations (Disabilities)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Students%22">Elementary School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mainstreaming%22">Mainstreaming</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Regular+and+Special+Education+Relationship%22">Regular and Special Education Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Centered+Learning%22">Student Centered Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Methods%22">Teaching Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peer+Teaching%22">Peer Teaching</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Participation%22">Student Participation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teamwork%22">Teamwork</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Resources%22">Educational Resources</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Inclusion%22">Inclusion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cooperative+Planning%22">Cooperative Planning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Collaboration%22">Teacher Collaboration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Evaluation+Methods%22">Evaluation Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Sustainability%22">Sustainability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+4%22">Grade 4</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1177/1540796919846424
– Name: ISSN
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  Data: 1540-7969
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study examined material adaptations being used with students who have severe disabilities in general education elementary classrooms during language arts, social studies, and science instruction. Data sources included classroom observations, interviews, and artifacts shared by three general and special educator teams. Findings revealed themes that describe how adaptations (a) facilitate access to grade-level content (tangible, student-centered, and blended with classroom materials and instruction) and (b) enable educators to assess progress in student learning (show what students know, blended with peer learning, and ownership of learning). Findings also revealed a set of themes (team collaboration, resources available, rhythm and routine, and build momentum) that help account for the sustained use of adaptations by educator teams across curricula and school days. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
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  Data: 2019
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  Data: EJ1217518
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        Value: 10.1177/1540796919846424
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      – Text: English
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      Pagination:
        PageCount: 16
        StartPage: 87
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Severe Disabilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academic Accommodations (Disabilities)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Students
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      – SubjectFull: Mainstreaming
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      – SubjectFull: Regular and Special Education Relationship
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      – TitleFull: Adaptations in General Education Classrooms for Students with Severe Disabilities: Access, Progress Assessment, and Sustained Use
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