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Conditions That Catalyze the Emergence of Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions

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Title: Conditions That Catalyze the Emergence of Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions
Language: English
Authors: Mac, Jacqueline, Sarreal, Adrianne D., Wang, Amy C., Museus, Samuel D.
Source: New Directions for Higher Education. Sum 2019 (186):67-77.
Availability: Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 11
Publication Date: 2019
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Descriptive
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Two Year Colleges
Descriptors: Asian American Students, Pacific Islanders, Federal Aid, Knowledge Level, Community Colleges, Program Development, Institutional Characteristics
DOI: 10.1002/he.20324
ISSN: 0271-0560
Abstract: Increased knowledge about the conditions that have catalyzed and enabled institutions to seek and effectively acquire federally recognized and supported Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions (AANAPISI) status can inform the work of potential and emerging AANAPISIs.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2019
Accession Number: EJ1218947
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0136999824;ndh01jun.19;2019Jun17.07:42;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0136999824-1">Conditions that Catalyze the Emergence of Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions </title> <p>Increased knowledge about the conditions that have catalyzed and enabled institutions to seek and effectively acquire federally recognized and supported Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions (AANAPISI) status can inform the work of potential and emerging AANAPISIs.</p> <p>Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions (AANAPISIs) are the newest category of Minority‐Serving Institutions (MSIs). This AANAPISI designation emerged in 2008 as part of a national movement to better serve Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) college students. Since 2008, the number of campuses designated as AANAPISIs has steadily increased, and this trend will likely continue. Indeed, given the rapid growth of AAPI communities in the United States, an increasing number of institutions will likely witness a rise in their AAPI student enrollments and meet the minimum eligibility requirements for AANAPISI status (as discussed in the following sections, institutions meet the racial demographic requirement to be eligible for AANAPISI status when 10% or more of their student body is AAPI).</p> <p>Potential and emerging AANAPISIs can benefit from increased knowledge about the conditions that have enabled funded AANAPISIs to seek and effectively acquire this federal designation and its associated resources. For example, such knowledge can help these campuses better understand the urgency of acquiring resources to tailor learning environments and support systems to AAPI students, given that their institutional cultures are often not designed to serve this population. In addition, clarifying these conditions could help potential and emerging AANAPISIs better understand the value of this designation and its corresponding funding opportunities in their efforts to fulfill their larger institutional missions. Finally, understanding these conditions might help leaders and educators at potential and emerging AANAPISIs understand how to lay the groundwork and create the conditions for the effective pursuit of this MSI status. Yet, discussions about such conditions are difficult to find.</p> <p>In this chapter, we explore the conditions that lead institutions to seek AANAPISI designation and funding. First, we provide an overview of the emergence of AANAPISI as a federally recognized designation and evidence regarding how these institutions shape the experiences of AAPI students. Then, we describe a study of the conditions that lead to decisions to seek AANAPISI designation and funding. We conclude with recommendations for institutions that are considering efforts or planning to pursue AANAPISI designation and funding.</p> <hd id="AN0136999824-2">Emergence of AANAPISIs as the Newest Category of Minority‐Serving Institutions</hd> <p>MSIs are a critical group of postsecondary institutions because of their role in educating and graduating racially and ethnically diverse students (O'Brien & Zudak, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref1">23</reflink>]). However, there is significant variation in the types of MSIs that exist. Whereas the notion of serving a specific racially minoritized student population is generally embedded in the founding and core missions of Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Tribal Colleges and Universities, many other institutions become "minority serving" because of demographic changes, immigration and resettlement patterns, and trends in the enrollment of racially minoritized student populations (Wolanin, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref2">30</reflink>]). AANAPISIs typically fit the latter category, as they often are not founded with a specific mission to educate and support AAPI students or serve AAPI communities, but instead become focused on serving AAPIs over time.</p> <p>Policymakers, congressional staffers, and community organizers advocated for the AANAPISI designation to challenge the pervasive model minority myth, which perpetuates problematic overgeneralizations of AAPIs or Asian Americans, depending on the context, as universally successful and masks their struggles (Museus, 2014; Park & Chang, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref3">25</reflink>]; Suzuki, 2002). Advocates also sought to codify the minoritized status of AAPIs and establish a precedent of AAPIs being eligible for existing federal funding for minoritized populations outside of the Department of Education (Park & Chang, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref4">25</reflink>]). Authorized first as a part of the College Cost Reduction and Access Act in 2007 and later by the Higher Education Opportunity Act in 2008, AANAPISI legislation recognizes and provides funding for postsecondary institutions serving large numbers of AAPIs.</p> <p>Colleges and universities must meet multiple criteria before they can pursue and receive federal AANAPISI designation and funding (U.S. Department of Education, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref5">29</reflink>]):</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Enrollment of an undergraduate student body that is at least 10% Asian American or Native American Pacific Islander;</item> <p></p> <item> Enrollment of an undergraduate population in which at least 50% of students receive need‐based financial aid;</item> <p></p> <item> Low average expenditure per full‐time equivalent undergraduate student compared to similar institutions; and</item> <p></p> <item> Legal authorization to award bachelor's or associate's degrees.</item> </ulist> <p>Once institutions meet these criteria, they can apply for and acquire federal designation as an eligible AANAPISI, and they can apply for and receive federal funding to strengthen their capacity to serve AAPI students.</p> <hd id="AN0136999824-3">Being a Historically and Predominantly White Institution and Becoming an AANAPISI</hd> <p>Because AANAPISIs are not founded on missions to support AAPI students and are only required to have a student body that is at least 10% AAPI, these institutions are typically historically and predominantly White. As a result, their campus cultures are disproportionately founded on the values and perspectives of middle‐class White populations and their policies and practices are mainly designed to serve White and more affluent students (Nguyen, Nguyen, Nguyen, Gasman, & Conrad, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref6">21</reflink>]).</p> <p>The historically and predominantly White nature of the cultures of these institutions can lead to the perpetuation of a plethora of challenges for AAPI students. These challenges include the following (Kim, Chang, & Park, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref7">6</reflink>]; Kodama & Huynh, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref8">7</reflink>]; Kotori & Malaney, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref9">8</reflink>]; Lewis, Chesler, & Forman, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref10">9</reflink>]; Liang, Liu, Nguyen, & Song, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref11">10</reflink>]; Maramba & Palmer, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref12">12</reflink>]; McGee, Thakore, & Lablance, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref13">13</reflink>]; Museus, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>], 2014; Museus & Kiang, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>]; Museus & Maramba, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref16">16</reflink>]; Museus & Park, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref17">18</reflink>]; Museus & Truong, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref18">19</reflink>]; Park, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref19">24</reflink>]):</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Lack of faculty engagement and support;</item> <p></p> <item> Absence of culturally relevant curricula and support services;</item> <p></p> <item> Experiences of racial prejudice and discrimination;</item> <p></p> <item> Cultural conflict resulting from misalignment between students' backgrounds and the culture of their institutions; and</item> <p></p> <item> Invisibility of the challenges and inequities AAPI students face.</item> </ulist> <p>There is also some indication that the historically and predominantly White nature of AANAPISIs might have implications for the ways in which these institutions make sense of their identities and responsibilities to serve AAPI communities. While research on the impact of historically and predominantly White cultures at AANAPISIs specifically is difficult to find, scholarship on Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs) might provide some insight into the implications of these historically and predominantly White foundations (Garcia, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref20">4</reflink>]; Malcom‐Piquex & Bensimon, 2015; Santiago & Andrade, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref21">26</reflink>]; Somers & Leichter, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref22">27</reflink>]). For example, the institutional identities, missions, and leadership messages (e.g., presidents' addresses) at many HSIs are void of language about the responsibilities that accompany such status, raising questions about whether serving Latinx communities is a priority for these campuses (Contreras, Malcolm, & Bensimon, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref23">3</reflink>]; Garcia, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref24">4</reflink>]; Gasman, Castro Samayoa, Boland, & Esmieu, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref25">5</reflink>]).</p> <p>In addition, scholars have noted that the federal government's HSI program prompts and prioritizes a focus on enrollment and graduation rates of Latinx students (Contreras et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref26">3</reflink>]). Such a focus can reinforce problematic notions that enrolling and graduating a target number of Latinx students, rather than producing equitable outcomes for or intentionally serving Latinx communities, is what defines HSIs (Núñez, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref27">22</reflink>]). The federal government also emphasizes enrollment, persistence, and graduation rates in its processes governing AANAPISIs, potentially prompting these campuses to also focus their attention on these more simplistic measures of serving AAPI communities rather than indicators of deeper campus‐wide commitments to these populations (such as the existence of culturally relevant curricula or holistic and proactive support systems that are tailored specifically to these groups).</p> <hd id="AN0136999824-4">Creating Culturally Engaging Conditions for AAPI Students to Thrive</hd> <p>An emerging body of literature depicts how AANAPISI programs create counterspaces that provide culturally relevant and responsive education and support that allow AAPI students to thrive within their larger institutions (Museus, Wright‐Mair, & Mac, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref28">20</reflink>]; Nguyen et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref29">21</reflink>]). For example, some AANAPISI programs use their federal funding to expand the reach of Asian American studies courses, foster communities of learning that engage with the cultural identities and needs of racially diverse student populations and provide holistic and proactive support networks that help AAPI students thrive in college (Museus et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref30">20</reflink>]). In addition, existing empirical research suggests that such efforts might be conducive to improving outcomes among AAPI students at AANAPISIs, including strengthening their understanding of their own identities, fostering stronger connections between students and their communities, cultivating students' skills and commitments to give back to their communities, and persistence and graduation (Museus et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref31">20</reflink>]; Nguyen et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref32">21</reflink>]). While there is an emerging body of knowledge about how federally funded AANAPISIs utilize their resources to better serve AAPIs, the process of them becoming a federally designated and supported AANAPISI is not well understood.</p> <hd id="AN0136999824-5">A Case Study of Five AANAPISIs</hd> <p>The current analysis is part of a larger embedded collective case study that focused on understanding how, if at all, AANAPISIs promote success for AAPI students. An embedded case study design explores multiple subunits (e.g., faculty, staff, and students) embedded within each case (e.g., AANAPISI program) (Yin, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref33">31</reflink>]). Collective case studies refer to multiple cases being examined through the investigation (Baxter & Jack, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref34">1</reflink>]). Accordingly, we examined five AANAPISI programs. The following research question guided this specific analysis: What conditions led institutional agents[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref35">1</reflink>] at AANAPISIs to seek federal designation and funding?</p> <p>We used purposeful sampling to select AANAPISI initiatives according to three criteria (Patton, 2002): (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref36">1</reflink>) they received federal funding from the Department of Education's AANAPISI program, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref37">2</reflink>) they utilized culturally relevant and responsive approaches when working with AAPI students, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref38">3</reflink>) they demonstrated positive outcomes of their efforts. After releasing a national call for proposals and participation, five AANAPISI programs responded. All five programs met the aforementioned criteria and were included in the study. The program director at each institution and research team collaborated to arrange a campus visit. Participants selected were recognized as those who were actively involved with the AANAPISI program on campus.</p> <p>We conducted individual interviews, focus group interviews, and observations, as well as gathered relevant documents. Individual interviews were conducted with administrators, staff, and faculty while focus groups were conducted with students and alumni. Interviews were designed to gain more insight into how participants experienced the AANAPISI effort during the duration of their involvement in it. Observations provided a better understanding of the context of participants' experiences, and relevant documents provided more insight into AANAPISI program initiatives and how they aimed to better serve AAPI students. Data provided by those involved in mobilizing members of the campus to seek AANAPISI designation and funding were extracted and examined for this analysis.</p> <p>For this specific analysis, we borrowed analytic methods from grounded theory (Charmaz, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref39">2</reflink>]). We created a database to organize information collected at each institution (Yin, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref40">31</reflink>]). In the database, we kept transcriptions, institutional documents, and field notes. We used Dedoose software to organize and code our transcripts. Open coding was used to form initial categories and concepts surrounding the phenomenon being studied. Then, axial coding was employed to focus on the development of the categories identified in open coding (Charmaz, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref41">2</reflink>]). We also generated and reviewed memos throughout the data collection and analysis process to document understanding and interpretation of the data.</p> <hd id="AN0136999824-6">Findings</hd> <p>Our analysis revealed five conditions that led key agents to seek AANAPISI status and funding to better serve AAPI students. We provide an overview of these conditions herein. Before doing so, however, it is important to note that we do not include key institutional agents as a distinct theme in these findings because they were our participants, and our analysis was focused on their perceptions of larger campus conditions that led to them seeking and acquiring AANAPISI status. Yet, each of these campuses had a core group of institutional agents—many AAPIs themselves—who had significant knowledge of AAPI communities, experiences, and issues. This expertise was instrumental in understanding how to highlight challenges of AAPI communities to justify pursuing AANAPISI status and constructing plans to address them through resulting initiatives. Moreover, on each of these campuses, key agents intentionally cultivated positive relationships with senior leadership to ensure that key decision‐makers were in support of the AANAPISI effort. Thus, these agents' leadership was instrumental in recognizing the following conditions and leveraging them to mobilize the campus to pursue the designation and funding.</p> <hd id="AN0136999824-7">Initial Evidence of Inequities</hd> <p>Key institutional agents disaggregated institutional data by race and ethnicity to facilitate discussions about inequities that their AAPI students faced and justify investing energy in seeking AANAPISI designation and funding to address them. For example, institutional agents on one campus obtained data showing a relatively high percentage of AAPI students were not fulfilling the writing proficiency requirement for graduation compared to other groups, which both helped justify seeking AANAPISI funding and led them to include plans to hire a culturally responsive writing specialist to address this problem in their proposal for federal funds. On another campus, key agents used disaggregated data to show that some AAPI ethnic groups, including Pacific Islanders and Cambodian Americans, faced significant disparities. Again, these data helped justify seeking AANAPISI status and informed the plan to use federal funds to hire cultural specialists to lead culturally relevant study groups for these populations.</p> <hd id="AN0136999824-8">Urgency of Improving Campus Environments for AAPI Students</hd> <p>While key agents who participated in the study did not seem to have substantial and high‐quality institutional data on their campus environments specifically, data they collected through course assignments (e.g., personal reflections) and students' stories allowed them to conclude that the overall campus environment was invalidating for AAPI students. They observed that many AAPI students felt isolated at these institutions. Key agents associated these environments with the lack of visible dedicated physical resources, such as central spaces or named resource centers for AAPI students, where they could gather, share their experiences, learn about their cultural backgrounds, and build community with each other. Thus, these agents were driven to garner resources to create more supportive environment for AAPIs.</p> <hd id="AN0136999824-9">Need to Increase Awareness of AAPI Students' Needs</hd> <p>Despite the fact that institutional agents recognized that AAPIs faced the aforementioned challenges, these students remained invisible in larger campus conversations and efforts to more effectively serve marginalized populations. Leaders and educators across the campuses often lacked knowledge about AAPI students. As a result, many of these leaders and educators rejected the notion that AAPI students faced any challenges or warranted targeted support and resources. Such perspectives were often fueled by comparisons of communities of color and conclusions that AAPIs are more privileged than other marginalized populations. These realities allowed the disparities and challenges that AAPI students faced to go unaddressed.</p> <hd id="AN0136999824-10">Commitment to Make Support Structures More Culturally Relevant and Responsive</hd> <p>Key agents identified that existing structures, such as learning communities and counseling services, were not effectively tailored to meet the needs of their AAPI students. As a result, these agents were already providing trainings to help administrators and staff become more culturally competent and creating new partnerships to better support AAPI and other diverse student populations. However, while these trainings and partnerships helped improve support for AAPI students, it was to a limited degree. Recognizing this reality led key institutional agents to conclude that seeking AANAPISI status and resources could help them expand the institutions' capacity to create new or further improve existing support structures. Once this recognition occurred, key agents who were AAPI themselves and advocates for pursuing AANAPISI status helped facilitate crucial conversations with other administrators about the experiences of AAPI students and the AANAPISI grant competition. These other administrators often became part of the group of key agents that led the efforts to seek AANAPISI designation and funding as a way to improve the support structures at their institutions.</p> <hd id="AN0136999824-11">Recognition of the Potential of AANAPISI Status to Advance Institutional Mission</hd> <p>Key institutional agents recognized that the purpose of the AANAPISI grant aligned with their institutional mission and corresponding values. First, institutions in our study emphasized having core values, such as diversity and equity, and expressed a commitment to providing quality education to diverse student populations. Second, several of these campuses espoused a duty to the local community and commitments to community‐engagement programs and outreach efforts. For example, one key institutional agent expressed that the AANAPISI grant could help strengthen their institutions' connections with local high schools through outreach and ramp up their efforts to serve AAPI communities. Overall, key institutional agents saw an opportunity to more effectively pursue their institutional missions by becoming an AANAPISI.</p> <hd id="AN0136999824-12">Recommendations</hd> <p>The preceding findings have several implications for institutional leaders, policymakers, practitioners, and researchers. However, we focus on providing recommendations for professionals at institutions that might be thinking about becoming an AANAPISI or re‐evaluating their approach to seeking AANAPISI designation and funding herein.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <emph>Identify AAPI Challenges and Disparities</emph>. Uncovering the challenges and disparities that AAPI college students face can provide critical evidence to demonstrate the needs of these students. Highlighting such challenges and disparities can also justify the effort that is required to seek AANAPISI designation and funding, as well as inform strategies to improve the experiences and outcomes of AAPI students. More specifically, these challenges and disparities can inform efforts to design AANAPISI initiatives that can help improve these experiences and outcomes. Disaggregating institutional data can be one especially useful tactic in revealing challenges and disparities, including ethnic and socioeconomic class disparities, among AAPI student subpopulations. However, other sources of data, such as class reflection assignments, can also inform understandings of these challenges and disparities.</item> <p></p> <item> <emph>Cultivate and Leverage Networks of Key Administrators and Equity Advocates</emph>. Key mid‐ and senior‐level administrators who support equity agendas can play an important role in securing AANAPISI designation and funding. Given these leaders' knowledge of organizational contexts and connections to various campus leaders and units, they can help increase awareness of AAPI issues and motivate people across campus to support new initiatives to serve these populations. In addition, institutional agents who are already doing work to support diverse or marginalized student populations can be instrumental in expanding awareness of AAPI issues and strategizing how to approach initiatives to better serve AAPI populations. Therefore, it is important to mobilize these voices to collectively strategize, design AANAPISI initiatives, and ensure their successful implementation.</item> <p></p> <item> <emph>Assess the Capacity of Existing Targeted Support Structures to Serve AAPI Students</emph>. Some institutions already house targeted efforts to support AAPI students. For example, Asian American studies and Pacific Islander Studies programs, AAPI ethnic student organizations, and student affairs programs targeted at AAPI students often intentionally construct culturally relevant and responsive spaces, curricula, and programs to help AAPI students thrive in college. Identifying what support systems currently exist and are effective at serving AAPIs on campuses and assessing their current levels of effectiveness illuminating existing gaps in current support structures can inform understanding of how acquisition of AANAPISI designation and funding can fill these gaps.</item> <p></p> <item> <emph>Consider How to be More Culturally Relevant and Responsive to AAPI Students</emph>. While the aforementioned targeted supports often serve significant numbers of AAPI students on college campuses, their capacity and reach are always limited. Outside of these targeted spaces, mainstream academic and social support structures seldom sufficiently take AAPI and other students' backgrounds into account and provide culturally relevant and responsive learning environments and support services. Yet, a substantial and growing body of evidence suggests that culturally relevant and responsive environments are critical to the success of AAPI and other college students (Museus, 2014). Key institutional agents at AANAPISIs should consider how they can provide professional development opportunities for faculty, staff, and administrators so that they are better equipped to fully engage students' communities and identities in learning environments and the provision of support services.</item> <p></p> <item> <emph>Align the Purpose of AANAPISI Program With Institutional Mission and Values</emph>. Advocates who seek to mobilize their campuses to pursue AANAPISI status should make clear and explicit connections between these efforts and their institutions' missions and values, such as diversity and equity or service to the community. Such convergence can be a point of leverage for efforts to seek AANAPISI designation and funding by clarifying the symbolic and broader value of AANAPISI status to the larger institution. If the purpose of the AANAPISI designation does not align with the values of the institution, there may be an opportunity to revisit the institutions' values in an effort to better reflect and serve their AAPI and other historically marginalized students.</item> </ulist> <ref id="AN0136999824-13"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref34" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> For the purposes of this study, we define institutional agents broadly to refer to faculty members, administrators, or staff members who belong to and engage in AANAPISI efforts.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0136999824-14"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. The Qualitative Report, 13 (4), 544 – 559.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref37" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Charmaz, K. (2010). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA : SAGE.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref23" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Contreras, F. E., Malcolm, L. E., & Bensimon, E. M. (2008). Hispanic‐serving institutions: Closeted identity and the production of equitable outcomes for Latino/a students. In M. Gasman, B. Baez & C. S. V. Turner (Eds.), Understanding minority‐serving institutions (pp. 71 – 90). Albany, NY : State University of New York.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref20" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Garcia, G. A. (2017). Defined by outcomes or culture? Constructing an organizational identity for Hispanic‐serving institutions. American Educational Research Journal, 54 (15), 111S – 134S.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref25" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Gasman, M., Samayoa, A. C., Boland, W. C., & Esmieu, P. (2018). Preface. In M. Gasman, A. C. Samayoa, W. C. Boland & P. Esmieu (Eds.), Educational challenges at minority serving institutions (pp. ix – xii). New York : Routledge.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref7" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Kim, Y. K., Chang, M. J., & Park, J. J. (2009). Engaging with faculty: Examining rates, predictors, and educational effects for Asian American undergraduates. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 2 (4), 206 – 218.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref8" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Kodama, C. M., & Huynh, J. (2017). Academic and career development: Rethinking advising for Asian American students. 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Museus</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Jacqueline Mac is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Education Leadership and Policy Studies at Indiana University, Bloomington.</p> <p>Adrianne D. Sarreal is a doctoral student in the Department of Education Studies at the University of California, San Diego.</p> <p>Amy C. Wang is a doctoral student in the Department of Education Studies at the University of California, San Diego.</p> <p>Samuel D. Museus is professor in the Department of Education Studies at the University of California, San Diego.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref33"></nolink>
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  Data: Conditions That Catalyze the Emergence of Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions
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  Data: Increased knowledge about the conditions that have catalyzed and enabled institutions to seek and effectively acquire federally recognized and supported Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions (AANAPISI) status can inform the work of potential and emerging AANAPISIs.
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