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Comparing Balance Control between Soccer Players and Non-Athletes during a Dynamic Lower Limb Reaching Task

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Title: Comparing Balance Control between Soccer Players and Non-Athletes during a Dynamic Lower Limb Reaching Task
Language: English
Authors: Snyder, Natalie, Cinelli, Michael
Source: Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2020 91(1):166-171.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 6
Publication Date: 2020
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Psychomotor Skills, Motion, Athletes, Team Sports, Human Body, College Students, Training, Reaction Time
DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2019.1649356
ISSN: 0270-1367
Abstract: Background: Balance control is an essential element of locomotion that enhances biomotor abilities and physical performance. Individuals with extensive soccer experience display superior static single leg balance control compared to athletes of other sports as well as non-athletes. However, during a match, players often encounter greater challenges to single leg balance that require rapid decision-making skills and dynamic stability. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine if individuals with extensive soccer training demonstrate superior single-leg balance control compared to non-athletes during a dynamic lower limb reaching task. Method: 22 varsity soccer players were matched with 21 non-athlete controls. Single-leg balance control was assessed during a Go/No-Go lower limb reaching task. Centre of pressure displacement (dCOP) was measured for both the dominant and non-dominant feet and compared between groups. Results: Soccer players displayed reduced dCOP during All Go trials compared to non-athletes, particularly in the medial-lateral plane. Additionally, soccer players displayed reduced anterior-posterior dCOP during Go/No-Go trials compared to non-athletes, particularly on their dominant foot. Conclusion: Athletes with soccer-specific training demonstrate improved executive control and use of proprioceptive information, which results in an improved ability to maintain single-support balance and corral COP during a dynamic visuomotor lower limb-reaching task. As such, balance training may be a useful addition to athlete training regimes to improve sport-specific performance. Future research would compare these results to athletes of other sports to explore balance control during a visuomotor reaching task and how it may differ based on sport training history.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2020
Accession Number: EJ1243952
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0141770673;rqe01mar.20;2020Feb19.01:59;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0141770673-1">Comparing Balance Control Between Soccer Players and Non-Athletes During a Dynamic Lower Limb Reaching Task </title> <p>Background: Balance control is an essential element of locomotion that enhances biomotor abilities and physical performance. Individuals with extensive soccer experience display superior static single leg balance control compared to athletes of other sports as well as non-athletes. However, during a match, players often encounter greater challenges to single leg balance that require rapid decision-making skills and dynamic stability. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine if individuals with extensive soccer training demonstrate superior single-leg balance control compared to non-athletes during a dynamic lower limb reaching task. Method: 22 varsity soccer players were matched with 21 non-athlete controls. Single-leg balance control was assessed during a Go/No-Go lower limb reaching task. Centre of pressure displacement (dCOP) was measured for both the dominant and non-dominant feet and compared between groups. Results: Soccer players displayed reduced dCOP during All Go trials compared to non-athletes, particularly in the medial-lateral plane. Additionally, soccer players displayed reduced anterior-posterior dCOP during Go/No-Go trials compared to non-athletes, particularly on their dominant foot. Conclusion: Athletes with soccer-specific training demonstrate improved executive control and use of proprioceptive information, which results in an improved ability to maintain single-support balance and corral COP during a dynamic visuomotor lower limb-reaching task. As such, balance training may be a useful addition to athlete training regimes to improve sport-specific performance. Future research would compare these results to athletes of other sports to explore balance control during a visuomotor reaching task and how it may differ based on sport training history.</p> <p>Keywords: Single-leg balance control; soccer training; choice reaction time; kinetics</p> <p>Effective balance control during sport is important in preventing injury and enhancing biomotor abilities (i.e., explosive strength)(Yaggie & Campbell, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref1">28</reflink>]), and physical performance (i.e., agility) (Trecroci et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref2">26</reflink>]). To successfully perform these biomotor abilities, sensory input from the visual, vestibular, and somatosensory systems contribute to the maintenance of balance control (McCollum, Shupert, & Nashner, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref3">17</reflink>]). A commonly used assessment to evaluate balance control is static balance, which is often measured by calculating the centre of pressure (COP) while an individual maintains balance in single or double support (Asseman, Caron, & Crémieux, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref4">2</reflink>]). Regarding static stability, lower COP displacements (i.e. change in COP position over time) reflect better centre of mass (COM) control, which are considered desirable (Jancová, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref5">13</reflink>]). Balance control is often assessed by studying both anterior-posterior (AP) and medial-lateral (ML) COP displacement (dCOP). Deficits in the somatosensory system, often associated with aging, are associated with decreased ML stability (McIlroy & Maki, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref6">18</reflink>]), whereas vestibular deficits (e.g. caused by a concussion) are associated with decreased ML stability (Powers, Kalmar, & Cinelli, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref7">22</reflink>]).</p> <p>Balance control can be affected by a variety of factors including age-related changes (Nolan, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref8">20</reflink>]; Teasdale, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref9">25</reflink>]), challenges to executive control (Simmonds, Pekar, & Mostofsky, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref10">24</reflink>]), and sport training (Bieć, Giemza, & Kuczyński, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref11">4</reflink>]; Matsuda, Demura, & Nagasawa, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref12">15</reflink>]; Matsuda, Demura, & Uchiyama, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref13">16</reflink>]). In regards to sport training, swimmers have few opportunities to engage anti-gravity muscles during training, and therefore have a reduced effect of training on balance control (Matsuda et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref14">15</reflink>]). Conversely, athletes in sports such as soccer encounter specific sensorimotor challenges that improve their balance further, compared to athletes of other sports such as swimming, basketball, and non-athletes (Bressel, Yonker, Kras, & Heath, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref15">5</reflink>]; Matsuda et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref16">15</reflink>]). Soccer-specific training forces players to spend a significant amount of time maintaining single support while using their non-stance foot to manipulate a soccer ball, which affects their sensorimotor control. Continuous challenging of one's balance control is often reflected by improvements in dCOP in the AP and ML directions (Matsuda et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref17">16</reflink>]).</p> <p>Balance control can also be modulated by introducing a balance task which challenges executive control, or the ability to plan and execute motor tasks. Studies that test executive control often use a response inhibition paradigm such as a Stroop task or a Go/No-Go task. Traditionally, the Go/No-Go task is a visuomotor task involving two stimuli: a Go stimulus and a No-Go stimulus (Simmonds et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref18">24</reflink>]). Participants are instructed to respond rapidly to the Go stimulus, and withhold response to No-Go stimulus. A higher percentage of Go trials are included during the paradigm to build up prepotency, and therefore the No-Go trials require more inhibitory control to successfully complete the task (Simmonds et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref19">24</reflink>]). Where a Go/No-Go task challenges motor reactions to visual stimuli, athletes display significantly shorter reaction times and fewer errors (Ando, Kida, & Oda, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref20">1</reflink>]). Athletes' improvements in reaction time and accuracy are especially evident on tasks most similar to the their specific sport (Hiroki & Mori, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref21">12</reflink>]). Thus, introducing a visuomotor Go/No-Go task that can reproduce the common visuomotor challenges in soccer such as quick ball handling and kicking may highlight improvements in the executive control of soccer athletes.</p> <p>Matsuda et al. ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref22">16</reflink>]) first compared static one-legged balance control between soccer players, athletes of other sports, and non-athletes and found that soccer players demonstrated superior balance control compared to all other groups. Then, with the goal to evaluate dynamic balance in the same groups, single support balance was evaluated while soccer players and non-athletes moved their non-stance foot in a circle around a stationary soccer ball at a constant tempo (Matsuda et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref23">15</reflink>]). During the task, soccer players demonstrated superior balance control compared to non-athletes in both the AP and ML directions. However, during match play, players are likely to encounter greater challenges to dynamic stability and decision-making, which could affect their balance control. Therefore, evaluating balance control during a single support lower limb reaching task with a visuomotor Go/No-Go component would be functionally applicable and may better represent challenges to balance control in a game situation.</p> <hd id="AN0141770673-2">Purpose</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was to compare trained soccer player's balance control during a Go/No-Go lower limb reaching task compared to those untrained in soccer (non-athletes). It was hypothesized that individuals with soccer training experience would demonstrate less ML and AP COP displacement during a Go/No-Go single support lower limb reaching task compared to non-athletes. Further, footedness would only have an effect in a non-athlete population, such that balance performance would be better on the dominant limb.</p> <hd id="AN0141770673-3">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0141770673-4">Participants</hd> <p>Healthy athletes (<emph>n</emph> = 22; 11 female, 11 male) as well as sex- and age-matched non-athletes (<emph>n</emph> = 21; 11 females, 10 male) were recruited to participate in the study (Table 1). All athletes were senior athletes (second, third, fourth, or fifth year); no first-year athletes were included to maximize the soccer experience present in the sample. Non-athletes were excluded if they had ever played soccer, trained in dance, or participated in gymnastics at any level. These criteria were included to ensure that the non-athlete participants had not received balance-specific training that would present a confounding factor in this study. Further, non-athletes could not have played any sport higher than a recreational level (no varsity sport or competitive leagues; intramural sport was accepted) in the last four years. All participants self-reported normal or corrected-to-normal vision (i.e. with use of corrective lenses). This project was approved by the Institutional Research Ethics Board of the local university and all participants provided written informed consent.</p> <p>Table 1. Characteristics of soccer players and non-athletes (mean ± standard deviation).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Participants</td><td>N</td><td>Age (years)</td><td>Training (years)</td><td>Right foot dominant</td><td>Left foot dominant</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Soccer players</td><td>22</td><td>22 ± 1.19</td><td>14.7 ± 2.8</td><td>20</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Non-athletes</td><td>21</td><td>21 ± 1.5</td><td>0</td><td>21</td><td>0</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0141770673-5">Experimental design</hd> <p>To assess balance control during this lower limb reaching task, ground reaction forces were measured using a Wii Balance Board (WBB; Nintendo Co. Ltd., Redmond, WA, USA) at a sampling frequency of 100Hz. A recent systematic review of the WBB has confirmed the validity and reliability of the WBB for assessing standing balance (Clark, Mentiplay, Pua, & Bower, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref24">7</reflink>]). The Go/No-Go test was administered by the Fitlight Trainer system (Fitlight Corp., Aurora, ON, Canada). Five Fitlight LEDs were arranged in a semicircle at +60°, +30°, and 0° about the midline, fastened to a 63cm x 122cm board. The board was placed on the floor anterior to the WBB (Figure 1), and each Fitlight LED was placed at a distance equal to the length of each participant's lower leg.</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 1. Experimental setup of the WBB and fitlight trainer LED lights.</p> <hd id="AN0141770673-6">Procedure</hd> <p>All participants completed the Waterloo Footedness Questionnaire (WFQ-R; (Elias, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref25">9</reflink>]) to assess foot dominance prior to the start of data collection. Participants then stood barefoot in single support in the center of the WBB with their non-stance foot elevated slightly, not touching the stance foot or the WBB. During each trial, once the participant was stable in single support (5s), each of the five LEDs illuminated six times in random order. Participants were instructed to hover their non-stance foot over any green/Go LED as fast as possible while still maintaining balance in order to extinguish it, then return to their starting position. Participants were instructed to withhold movement during the illumination any red/No-Go LED. Trials were presented in two blocks: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref26">1</reflink>) All Go, where all LEDs illuminate green; and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref27">2</reflink>) Go/No-Go, where a random order of red (i.e. No-Go; 30%) and green (i.e. Go) LEDs illuminated. The block order was counter-balanced between participants. Each participant performed a total of 12 trials (3 trials per foot × 2 feet × 2 blocks), alternating feet between trials. Each trial took approximately 45s to complete.</p> <hd id="AN0141770673-7">Data analysis</hd> <p>Ground reaction forces were analyzed to calculate dCOP in the anterior-posterior (AP) and medial-lateral (ML) directions for both conditions (All Go and Go/No-Go). The first 5s of quiet standing at the start of each trial was used as a position bias and was removed from the data to calculate the root mean square (RMS) of the task dCOP using the following equation:</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><msub><mi>x</mi><mrow><mi>r</mi><mi>m</mi><mi>s</mi></mrow></msub></mrow><mo>=</mo><msqrt><mrow><mfrac><mn>1</mn><mi>n</mi></mfrac></mrow><mo stretchy="false">(</mo><msubsup><mi>x</mi><mn>1</mn><mn>2</mn></msubsup><mo>+</mo><msubsup><mi>x</mi><mn>2</mn><mn>2</mn></msubsup><mo>+</mo><mo>...</mo><mo>+</mo><msubsup><mi>x</mi><mi>n</mi><mn>2</mn></msubsup><mo stretchy="false">)</mo></msqrt><mo>.</mo></math> </ephtml> </p> <p>A trial was successful if the participant was able to maintain single support throughout the trial, without touching their non-stance foot to the force plate at any point. Trials where a step down occurred were removed from the data, and a repeat trial was completed. Unsuccessful trials were identified by researcher observations.</p> <hd id="AN0141770673-8">Statistical analysis</hd> <p>All data was assessed for normality and unsuccessful trials (i.e. non-stance foot contacted force plate) were removed. Separate repeated measures mixed ANOVAs (between factor: group (athlete vs. non-athlete) x within factor: foot (dominant vs. non-dominant)) were conducted. All-Go trials and Go/No-Go trials were compared independently between the blocks of trials. Analysis was conducted using SPSS version 23. Statistical significance was set at <emph>p</emph> <.05.</p> <hd id="AN0141770673-9">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0141770673-10">All go condition</hd> <p>Results revealed that athletes demonstrated significantly lower ML dCOP RMS (<emph>p</emph> =.005, F<subs>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref28">1</reflink>, 41)</subs> = 8.72,</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msubsup><mi>η</mi><mi>p</mi><mn>2</mn></msubsup></math> </ephtml> = 0.17) compared to non-athletes (Figure 2a), and both groups demonstrated lower ML dCOP RMS with their non-dominant foot (<emph>p</emph> =.003, F<subs>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref29">1</reflink>, 41)</subs> = 10.32,</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msubsup><mi>η</mi><mi>p</mi><mn>2</mn></msubsup></math> </ephtml> = 0.21) compared to their dominant foot (Figure 2b). There were no significant main effects of group (<emph>p</emph> >.05) or foot (<emph>p</emph> >.05, Figure 2b) as well as no significant interaction between group and foot for AP dCOP RMS.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Average center of pressure displacement (dCOP) root-mean square (RMS) across participants for: (a) All Go condition medial-lateral displacement (dCOP), (b) All Go condition anterior-posterior dCOP, (c) Go/No-Go condition medial-lateral dCOP, (d) Go/No-Go condition anterior-posterior dCOP. Each figure displays data for trained soccer athletes (SOC) and non-athletes (NA). Error bars indicate standard deviation of mean of each group. *indicates significant difference (p <.05) from controls.</p> <hd id="AN0141770673-11">Go/no-go condition</hd> <p>There was a significant interaction for AP dCOP RMS, such that soccer players demonstrated significantly lower AP dCOP RMS on their dominant foot (<emph>p</emph> =.02, F<subs>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref30">1</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref31">41</reflink>)</subs> = 5.59, <emph>p < </emph>.05,</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msubsup><mi>η</mi><mi>p</mi><mn>2</mn></msubsup></math> </ephtml> = 0.12) compared to non-athletes (Figure 2d). However, there was no significant interaction between group and foot for ML dCOP RMS differences (Figure 2c). Further, there were no significant main effects of group (<emph>p</emph> >.05) or foot (<emph>p</emph> >.05, Figure 2b). Interestingly, Soccer players demonstrated significantly lower AP dCOP RMS than non-athletes (<emph>p</emph> =.02, F<subs>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref32">1</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref33">41</reflink>)=</subs>6.06; Figure 2a).</p> <hd id="AN0141770673-12">Discussion</hd> <p>The aim of this study was to determine whether individuals with extensive soccer training experience exhibited superior balance performance during a sport-specific Go/No-Go lower limb dynamic reaching task compared to untrained individuals. Results were consistent with our expectations, such that soccer players demonstrated significantly lower ML dCOP RMS in single support during the All Go trials compared to non-athletes on both the dominant and non-dominant foot. Additionally, soccer players demonstrated lowest AP dCOP RMS compared to non-athletes during Go/No-Go trials, specifically when standing on their dominant foot. No differences were found in ML dCOP during Go/No-Go, or for AP dCOP during All Go trials.</p> <p>During double support static balance, ML stability is maintained by shifting one's weight between the feet and AP stability is facilitated by plantar- and dorsiflexors from both feet (Winter, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref34">27</reflink>]). However, during single support balance, ML stability depends on proprioceptive information (i.e. muscle length changes) from ankle inverters and everters, and therefore is a relevant measure of dynamic stability (Winter, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref35">27</reflink>]). The first key finding of this study was that soccer players exhibited superior balance control on both dominant and non-dominant feet compared to non-athletes during the All Go condition (Figure 2a). In individuals who have undergone extensive soccer training, ankle proprioception becomes more sensitive (Paillard et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref36">21</reflink>]), and is processed more reliably and efficiently in the CNS (Han, Waddington, Adams, Anson, & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref37">11</reflink>]). This improved single-support ML balance control observed in soccer players can be attributed to their soccer training background, which includes prolonged practice of balance control during time spent in single support (Matsuda et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref38">15</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref39">16</reflink>]). Contrary to this finding, there were no significant ML dCOP differences between groups during Go/No-Go trials (Figure 2c), consistent with previous work that used a similar lower limb Go/No-Go reaching task (Mitchell & Cinelli, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref40">19</reflink>]). All Go trials elicited constant AP dCOP when participants moved in the AP plane to complete the task. Comparatively, the Go/No-Go task inherently included brief moments of No-Go (i.e. minimal AP movement). These brief moments of quiet stance allowed time for "top-down" anticipatory control in both groups, to recover ML stability (i.e. limit dCOP) and prepare for subsequent movement (Prince, Winter, Stergiou, & Walt, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref41">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>The second key finding in the current study was that both groups demonstrated smaller ML dCOP on their non-dominant foot during All Go trials compared to their dominant foot (Figure 2a). Although seemingly counter-intuitive, Gabbard and Hart ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref42">10</reflink>]) observed that people used their dominant foot to complete an action (i.e. the <emph>mobilizing limb</emph>), while preferring to use their non-dominant foot as a stance foot to support their movements (i.e. the <emph>non-preferred limb</emph>)(Gabbard & Hart, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref43">10</reflink>]). Barone ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref44">3</reflink>])found similar results among highly experienced soccer players who completed a static single leg balance task. As such, during the All Go Fitlight task performed in the current study, both trained and untrained athletes performed consistently with past literature.</p> <p>Regarding the insignificant difference in AP dCOP during All Go trials (Figure 2b), reaching anteriorly with the non-stance foot was inherent to the task, as all participants moved their COP anteriorly each time they reached forward to deactivate a Fitlight. Additionally, the Fitlights were arrayed at a distance equal to the leg length of each participant, therefore the AP dCOP was normalized between participants, and can explain the lack of differences found during AP dCOP for All Go trials. However, when considering AP Go/No-Go results, further consideration of results is required, as the Go/No-Go task presents unique challenges compared to All-Go trials. On their dominant foot, trained soccer players demonstrated superior balance control (i.e. had the least AP dCOP) overall compared to untrained players during Go/No-Go trials (Figure 2d). This relationship was not observed for the non-dominant foot. There are two likely contributors to this observed difference. First, during past sport-specific Go/No-Go tasks, experienced athletes consistently performed better, recording reduced reaction time and incidence of error (Di Russo, Taddei, Apnile, & Spinelli, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref45">8</reflink>]; Hiroki & Mori, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref46">12</reflink>]; Kida, Oda, & Matsumura, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref47">14</reflink>]). Further, the Go/No-Go condition inherently requires inhibitory control (i.e. an executive function) when withholding movement (Brown, Johnson, Sohl, & Dumas, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref48">6</reflink>]), and in response to the increased challenge to cognitive processing, soccer players demonstrated superior performance compared to non-athletes. As such, the reduction in dominant foot AP dCOP during Go/No-Go trials suggest soccer players are better able to control single leg balance and withhold movement during a sport-specific Go/No-Go task, an indication of an improvement in executive function. The second contributor to this difference may be that non-athletes performed poorly on the Go/No-Go task on their dominant limb, as it is the non-preferred limb for stabilizing support, thus causing significantly increased AP dCOP compared to trained athletes. The fact that only soccer athletes were tested in this study presents a limitation, as it is unclear whether their superior balance ability is due to physical activity and general athlete training, or specifically because of a soccer training background. Therefore, future research may benefit from comparing trained soccer athletes to trained athletes in other sports such as swimming or gymnastics, to determine sport-specific changes in performance on a dynamic lower limb reaching task across athletes of other sports.</p> <hd id="AN0141770673-13">Conclusion</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was to determine if trained soccer athletes exhibit greater balance control during a lower limb dynamic reaching task compared to untrained young adults. The Go/No-Go task was implemented as a greater challenge to single leg balance control, as it required greater use of executive control. However, the All Go trials also elicited interesting differences in neuromuscular control between the two populations. Trained soccer players not only show improved control balance, but also refined proprioception and use of somatosensory information, and enhanced executive control. This allows for superior performance on lower limb reaching tasks, which translates to improved performance during sport competition. This can be attributed to the fact that during practice and competition, soccer players spend a significant amount of time in single support, performing dynamic visuomotor tasks with their non-stance foot, such as manipulating a soccer ball. Consequently, balance training using a lower limb reaching task with a visuomotor component (i.e., Go/No-Go) may be a useful adjunct to normal training regimes to complement and improve performance during sport competition.</p> <ref id="AN0141770673-14"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref20" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at <ulink href="http://www.tandfonline.com/urqe">www.tandfonline.com/urqe</ulink>.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0141770673-15"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Ando, S., Kida, N., & Oda, S. (2001). Central and peripheral visual reaction time of soccer players and nonathletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 92, 786 – 794. doi: 10.2466/pms.2001.92.3.786</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref4" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Asseman, F. B., Caron, O., & Crémieux, J. (2008). Are there specific conditions for which expertise in gymnastics could have an effect on postural control and performance? Gait & Posture, 27 (1), 76 – 81. doi: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2007.01.004</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref44" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Barone, R. (2010). Soccer players have a better standing balance in nondominant one-legged stance. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 1. doi: 10.2147/OAJSM.S12593</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref11" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Bieć, E., Giemza, C., & Kuczyński, M. (2015). Changes in postural control between 13- and 19-year-old soccer players: Is there a need for a specific therapy? Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 27 (8), 2555 – 2557. doi: 10.1589/jpts.27.2555</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref15" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Bressel, E., Yonker, J. C., Kras, J., & Heath, E. M. (2007). 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Neural correlates of fast stimulus discrimination and response selection in top-level fencers. Neuroscience Letters, 408 (2), 113 – 118. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2006.08.085</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref25" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Elias, L. J. (1998). Footedness is a better predictor than is handedness of emotional lateralization. Neuropsychologia, 36 (1), 37 – 43.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gabbard, C., & Hart, S. (1996). A question of foot dominance. The Journal of General Psychology, 123 (4), 289 – 296. doi: 10.1080/00221309.1996.9921281</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Han, J., Waddington, G., Adams, R., Anson, J., & Liu, Y. (2016). Assessing proprioception: A critical review of methods. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 5 (1), 80 – 90. doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2014.10.004</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hiroki, N., & Mori, S. (2015, March). Sport-specific decision-making in a Go/NoGo reaction task : Difference among nonathletes and baseball and basketball players. Perceptual and Motor Skills. doi: 10.2466/PMS.106.1.163-170</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Jancová, J. (2008). Measuring the balance control system–Review. Acta Medica (Hradec Kralove)/Universitas Carolina, Facultas Medica Hradec Kralove, 51 (3), 129 – 137. doi: 10.14712/18059694.2017.14</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kida, N., Oda, S., & Matsumura, M. (2005). Intensive baseball practice improves the Go/Nogo reaction time, but not the simple reaction time. Cognitive Brain Research, 22 (2), 257 – 264. doi: 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.09.003</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Matsuda, S., Demura, S., & Nagasawa, Y. (2010). Static one-legged balance in soccer players during use of a lifted leg. 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Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20 (2), 422 – 428. doi: 10.1519/R-18325.1</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Natalie Snyder and Michael Cinelli</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref47"></nolink>
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  Data: Comparing Balance Control between Soccer Players and Non-Athletes during a Dynamic Lower Limb Reaching Task
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Snyder%2C+Natalie%22">Snyder, Natalie</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cinelli%2C+Michael%22">Cinelli, Michael</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Research+Quarterly+for+Exercise+and+Sport%22"><i>Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport</i></searchLink>. 2020 91(1):166-171.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychomotor+Skills%22">Psychomotor Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Motion%22">Motion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Athletes%22">Athletes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Team+Sports%22">Team Sports</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Human+Body%22">Human Body</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Training%22">Training</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reaction+Time%22">Reaction Time</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1080/02701367.2019.1649356
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  Data: 0270-1367
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  Label: Abstract
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  Data: Background: Balance control is an essential element of locomotion that enhances biomotor abilities and physical performance. Individuals with extensive soccer experience display superior static single leg balance control compared to athletes of other sports as well as non-athletes. However, during a match, players often encounter greater challenges to single leg balance that require rapid decision-making skills and dynamic stability. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine if individuals with extensive soccer training demonstrate superior single-leg balance control compared to non-athletes during a dynamic lower limb reaching task. Method: 22 varsity soccer players were matched with 21 non-athlete controls. Single-leg balance control was assessed during a Go/No-Go lower limb reaching task. Centre of pressure displacement (dCOP) was measured for both the dominant and non-dominant feet and compared between groups. Results: Soccer players displayed reduced dCOP during All Go trials compared to non-athletes, particularly in the medial-lateral plane. Additionally, soccer players displayed reduced anterior-posterior dCOP during Go/No-Go trials compared to non-athletes, particularly on their dominant foot. Conclusion: Athletes with soccer-specific training demonstrate improved executive control and use of proprioceptive information, which results in an improved ability to maintain single-support balance and corral COP during a dynamic visuomotor lower limb-reaching task. As such, balance training may be a useful addition to athlete training regimes to improve sport-specific performance. Future research would compare these results to athletes of other sports to explore balance control during a visuomotor reaching task and how it may differ based on sport training history.
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      – SubjectFull: Motion
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      – SubjectFull: Athletes
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