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School Engagement and Self-Esteem among Turkish Secondary School Students: A Moderated-Mediation Model for Academic Achievement and Gender

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Title: School Engagement and Self-Esteem among Turkish Secondary School Students: A Moderated-Mediation Model for Academic Achievement and Gender
Language: English
Authors: Karababa, Ali (ORCID 0000-0003-0458-3437)
Source: Psychology in the Schools. Jun 2022 59(6):1088-1104.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 17
Publication Date: 2022
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Secondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Learner Engagement, Academic Achievement, Self Esteem, Correlation, Secondary School Students, Gender Differences, Early Adolescents
Geographic Terms: Turkey
DOI: 10.1002/pits.22663
ISSN: 0033-3085
Abstract: The study aimed to examine the direct relationships between school engagement, academic achievement, and self-esteem, and whether academic achievement mediated the relationship between school engagement and self-esteem among Turkish secondary school students. An additional aim of the study was also to test whether these associations were moderated by gender. The study sample consisted of 402 adolescents (207 female-195 male) studying at the secondary school, aged from 11 to 14 years old. The study findings showed both the significant direct positive associations among the studied variables and the mediating role of academic achievement in the relationship between school engagement and self-esteem. It also found that the direction, strength, and structure of the direct and indirect relationships among the studied variables did not differ between the two gender groups. In conclusion, students who have higher levels of school engagement tend to show improvements in their academic achievement, and achieving better educational performance promotes higher self-esteem. Directions for future research and application were discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2022
Accession Number: EJ1334320
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0156658972;pis01jun.22;2022May05.09:21;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0156658972-1">School engagement and self‐esteem among Turkish secondary school students: A moderated‐mediation model for academic achievement and gender </title> <p>The study aimed to examine the direct relationships between school engagement, academic achievement, and self‐esteem, and whether academic achievement mediated the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem among Turkish secondary school students. An additional aim of the study was also to test whether these associations were moderated by gender. The study sample consisted of 402 adolescents (207 female–195 male) studying at the secondary school, aged from 11 to 14 years old. The study findings showed both the significant direct positive associations among the studied variables and the mediating role of academic achievement in the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem. It also found that the direction, strength, and structure of the direct and indirect relationships among the studied variables did not differ between the two gender groups. In conclusion, students who have higher levels of school engagement tend to show improvements in their academic achievement, and achieving better educational performance promotes higher self‐esteem. Directions for future research and application were discussed.</p> <p>Highlights: There were positively significant associations between school engagement, academic achievement, and self‐esteem among secondary school students.Academic achievement mediated the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem among secondary school students.The direction, strength, and structure of the direct and indirect relationships among the studied variables did not differ between female and male secondary school students.</p> <p>Keywords: academic achievement; school engagement; self-esteem</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-2">INTRODUCTION</hd> <p>Individuals develop commitment and investment in activities and persons in their living area following consistent experiences. One of the living environments in which individuals develop engagement is the school system with typical activities and communication styles (Catalano & Hawkins, 1996; Libbey, 2004). The school has a fundamental role in the individuals' holistic development, psychosocial adjustment, and psychological well‐being (Catalano et al., 2004; Eccles et al., 1993). In this respect, the quality of the link between the individual and school is quite important. One of the concepts which draw our attention to this importance is the term school engagement. School engagement that includes emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components, such as psychological involvement in learning, attending class works, participation in extracurricular activities, and the student's sense of identification with school, defines as a multidimensional construct (Fredricks et al., 2004).</p> <p>School engagement is closely associated with numerous behavioral, emotional, social, psychological, and academic outcomes (Libbey, 2004). Individuals with high school engagement are at lower risk for many negative experiences (Li et al., 2021; Wang & Fredricks, 2014; Wang & Peck, 2013; Zhu et al., 2019). In the study conducted by Millings et al. (2012) among adolescents aged from 11 to 16, they found that being connected with school served as a protective factor against depression. The literature has also indicated that students with higher school engagement have a lower level of anxiety (Lester et al., 2013), loneliness (Al‐Yagon et al., 2016), aggressive behavior (Chapman et al., 2011), suicidal ideation (Marraccini & Brier, 2017), delinquency (Lee et al., 2018), emotional stress (Resnick et al., 1997), dropout (Archambault et al., 2009), and internet addiction (Li et al., 2021). In addition to the negative relationship between school engagement and negative experiences, the literature has shown a positive relationship finding between school engagement and positive psychological outcomes. In the study carried out by Oldfield et al. (2018), adolescents with a higher level of school engagement were found to have a higher level of resilience compared to those with a lower level. The studies have also shown that students who are more engaged in school have a higher level of psychological well‐being (Sarkova et al., 2014), social skills (Catalano et al., 2004), and hope (Van Ryzin, 2011).</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-3">School engagement and self‐esteem</hd> <p>Another psychological construct positively affected by the extent to which students engage in school is self‐esteem (Sarkova et al., 2014; Scott et al., 1996). Self‐esteem is defined as the negative or positive way individuals globally feel about themselves (Rosenberg, 1965). While high self‐esteem is the favorable global evaluation of one's competence in subjectively important domains, low self‐esteem refers to an outcome of subjective weaknesses and negative assessments (Baumeister et al., 2003). Theories and studies support the assumption that positive self‐esteem promotes the development of psychological resilience and positive behavioral outcomes, and serves as a protective function by preventing negative experiences (Dumont & Provost, 1999; Mihalec‐Adkins & Cooley, 2020). Because individuals with high self‐esteem are confident in their ability to overcome troubles and to control their environment, they are less affected by stressors (Dumont & Provost, 1999; Tian et al., 2018). Accordingly, individuals with higher self‐esteem generally have better psychological and physical health than those with lower self‐esteem. Conversely, low self‐esteem is positively associated with delinquency, suicide, anxiety, depression, and other adjustment problems, especially in adolescence (Chung et al., 2020; Li et al., 2010; Soto‐Sanz et al., 2019; Sowislo & Orth, 2013). Self‐esteem is more than simply a reflection of how things are progressing in one's life and may even act as a causal force in determining future outcomes. The longitudinal study of Trzesniewski et al. (2006) showed that young adults with mental and physical adaptation problems and high levels of criminal behavior, compared with those with higher levels of adaptation and competence, tend to have lower levels of self‐esteem during adolescence.</p> <p>There is clear evidence for the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem in both theoretical and empirical contexts, with the mutual effects. Theories of adolescent development contend the central role of school life in shaping individuals' self‐esteem (Eccles et al., 1993). One of the theories that have the potential to explain the relationship between both may be the stage–environment fit theory (Eccles et al., 1993). According to the stage–environment fit perspective, when adolescents' social environments meet their changing developmental needs, they are more likely to experience a greater increase in positive outcomes. Accordingly, by concentrating on learning, adhering to school rules, and engaging in school activities, students not only develop greater intellectual skills and have more educational achievements but also feel more connected to school peers and professionals and have more opportunities to participate in school decision‐making, which in turn lead to a greater sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness satisfaction. In turn, the greater satisfaction of psychological needs would promote students' self‐esteem. Within the framework of the self‐determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), the satisfaction of the psychological needs is regarded to be an important predictor of positive self‐esteem. School is an important living environment that helps individuals fulfill their needs. Students engaged in the school reported more psychological needs satisfaction than students disengaged from school (Wang et al., 2019). The study by Liu et al. (2020) provides strong support for our assumption. This study found that students who engage in more prosocial behavior at school were more likely to fulfill their relatedness needs, which, in turn, enhanced their self‐esteem.</p> <p>Based on the cross‐sectional designs, researchers have noted that school engagement and self‐esteem are related, with the predicting impact of school engagement on self‐esteem. Harter (2003) stated that having high‐quality relationships with others (e.g., teachers and peers) at school, denoting quality school engagement, can contribute to adolescents' self‐worth because it enhances their perception of being valued and accepted by others. For example, in the longitudinal study that was based on a 4‐year, follow up of 1.008 adolescents whose age‐mean was 12.6, six‐measurement point and conducted by Morin et al. (2013), it was found that individual perceptions about organizational, instructional, and interpersonal components of school life affected shaping self‐esteem trajectories through gender‐differentiated. Likewise, a longitudinal study of secondary school students aged 11–14 demonstrated that higher school engagement predicted subsequent higher self‐esteem (Karababa, 2020).</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-4">The mediating role of academic achievement</hd> <p>School engagement uncovers many outcomes that are likely to contribute to the self‐esteem of students. One of these is academic achievement. School engagement is an important practical and theoretical cornerstone to the promotion of academic achievement (Fredricks et al., 2004; Wang & Eccles, 2012). On the other hand, according to James (1890), if individuals are competent, successful, and talented in the relatively important domains than others, they will develop high levels of self‐esteem. These relations may be more strongly pronounced in Turkish culture. Turkey contains a deeply rooted tradition to demand and emphasize academic achievement. Especially parents and teachers place particular importance on academic achievement. Learning activities such as formal academic examinations are the predominant activity for Turkish students. Thus, we expected that more highly engaged students displayed a high academic achievement, which would, in turn, promote their self‐esteem. Academic achievement is a significant outcome of school life (Eccles et al., 1993). Many studies have validated this finding that high school engagement is positively related to academic achievement (Chase et al., 2014; Fredricks et al., 2004; Wang & Eccles, 2012). Students with higher levels of school engagement exert more overall effort in school activities, display higher levels of interest in learning, and participate more in class discussions. These behaviors, thus, enhance educational success (Wang & Eccles, 2012; Wang & Peck, 2013). Failure to engage in school may lead adolescents to associate with deviant friends, fall afoul of their parents and teachers, seek solace in problem behaviors, and alienate from school, which may, in turn, exacerbate their academic achievement (Morrison et al., 2002; Wang & Dishion, 2012; Wang & Fredricks, 2014). According to Akey (2006), the students who feel personally respected and accepted by others, avoid disruptive behaviors, and adhere to school rules aspire for higher education and get better grades. The study of Wang and Eccles (2012) found that active engagement in school contributed to educational aspiration and academic performance after controlling for school and individual characteristics.</p> <p>The mediation role of academic achievement can be explained in light of the two basic developmental formulations of self‐esteem, which are, the intrapsychic process and the interpsychic process. From the former, intrinsic dynamics allow individuals to evaluate their worth of self through their own's success, with emerging cognitive abilities. According to self‐determination theory, self‐esteem, as mentioned above, develops as a result of the satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs, namely relatedness, competence, and autonomy (Ryan & Brown, 2006). Academic achievement is associated with the fulfillment of students' these needs, especially competence (Morin et al., 2013; Zhou et al., 2021), and influences the extent to which an individual develops his/her sense of self‐worth (Huang, 2011; Luo et al., 2020; Waters et al., 2009; Zheng et al., 2020). Classical theories also note that the satisfaction of the needs for success and competence is at the center of the development of self‐esteem (Marsh & Craven, 2006; Marsh & Shavelson, 1985). Also, in Turkish culture, students, parents, and teachers strongly devote themselves to academic achievement (Berberoğlu & Tansel, 2014). Therefore, students with higher academic performance are more likely to have a stronger sense of self‐endorsement of their behavior.</p> <p>On the latter, the sociological perspective (Mead, 1934) involving the interpsychic process contends that the self develops in a social context. Given that Turkish students generally show a collectivist culture; this perspective may be particularly pronounced in the development of self‐esteem compared to the previous. In the same vein, the sociometer theory views self‐esteem as an internal monitor that is sensitive to social clues (Leary & Baumeister, 2000). From this perspective, the approval and disapproval of significant others such as parents, teachers, and friends allow students to evaluate the self as positive or negative (Leary et al., 2003). Academic achievement will become quite determining the level of self‐esteem in both adolescence and Turkish educational culture in which educational performance increases in importance for both teachers and parents. Therefore, higher academic achievement as a clear outcome of higher school engagement leads to more positive feedback and more social support from significant others such as parents, teachers, and friends and social acceptance from friends and peers, which in turn may strengthen self‐esteem. The cross‐sectional studies support our assumption, by providing robust findings across the international level. For example, a longitudinal study indicated that students with higher academic achievement at the beginning of the school year reported more acceptance by their teachers and higher levels of teacher personal support at the end of the school year (Košir & Tement, 2014).</p> <p>The Turkish educational system context can not be overlooked in terms of the mediating role of academic achievement. Achieving educational success is an important developmental task for adolescents (Havighurst, 1972). The accomplishment of this task is not only a central indicator of the individuals' development and positive psychological functioning but also is a milestone for adjustment in adulthood (Eccles et al., 1993). Getting good grades and performing well on standardized central examinations are also meaningful for Turkish students. Not only students but also parents and teachers are deeply committed to academic achievement. It will not be wrong to say that examinations form the basis of the education system in Turkey. Transitions to both universities and high schools are actualized following the central examination scores. The secondary school period covers 5., 6., 7., and 8. grades, and there is compulsory school attendance obligation. By the end of secondary school education, 8th‐grade secondary students are being placed in high schools by a central examination called High School Transfer Exam (LGS). High academic achievement facilitates university entrance through high‐quality infrastructures and educational atmospheres, which, in turn, leads to lifelong developmental opportunities. Students' success is regarded as both a family victory and an indicator of teachers' professional competence. Overall, achieving higher grades from both teacher‐assigned and standardized tests and entering better schools would likely have more impact on their others. Turkish students displaying higher academic achievement would be more likely to be respected and appreciated by their parents, teachers, and friends.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-5">Gender differences</hd> <p>While we proposed that school engagement predicted self‐esteem via academic achievement, the present study also examined whether the proposed research model differed according to gender. Given the literature, previous studies posit that gender differences exist in school engagement among adolescents, with girls more engaged in school than boys in general (Wang et al., 2011). For example, a recent study of adolescents aged 14–15, which agrees with previous papers, found that boys display less active engagement in school than girls (Bang et al., 2020). Moreover, girls are generally more likely than boys to show higher levels of prosocial behavior (Li et al., 2020), to be academically more motivated (Bugler et al., 2015), to participate in extracurricular activities (Meier et al., 2018), and to report higher school connectedness (He et al., 2019). Boy students compared with girls are more likely to trespass school rules, reject school values, and be more laid back at school (Demanet et al., 2013). These findings also indicate girls' higher levels of school engagement. Accordingly, we hypothesized that all relationships among variables would be significantly stronger in female students than male students.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-6">The focus of the study</hd> <p>Evidence has shown that school‐related experiences influence academic and developmental outcomes during adolescence. More specifically, empirical results demonstrated that students engaged in school during the adolescence period reported both more academic achievement and higher self‐esteem than those disengaged from school (Karababa, 2020; Wang & Fredricks, 2014; Wang & Peck, 2013). High academic achievement also enhances self‐esteem (Huang, 2011; Zheng et al., 2020). To our best knowledge, however, there is a missing question in this context: Does academic achievement mediate the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem? Accordingly, the study purpose was determined as (a) to explore the direct relationships among school engagement, academic achievement, and self‐esteem (b) to test the mediating role of academic achievement in the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem. The current study also aimed (c) to assess whether gender moderated the relationships in the proposed model. Correspondingly, our hypotheses can be summarized as follows: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>) There are positively significant direct relationships among school engagement, academic achievement, and self‐esteem. (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>) Academic achievement would mediate the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem. (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>) Females would more engage in school in comparison with males, reporting higher self‐esteem via better academic achievement.</p> <p>The current study focused on secondary school students (i.e., early adolescents) to access these targets. It is possible to talk about the importance of the sample in terms of the current aims. Primarily, each of the three constructs involving all domains, as stated above, is important for positive future development. With the transition into secondary school, early adolescents face academically and socially rising differentiation of school context and the increasing academic demands. Academic education is a major developmental task. With the rising significance of self‐views, they desire to identify themselves in multiple ways outside of their role. Therefore, it is important to focus on whether how early adolescents adjust to secondary school affects self‐esteem that varies depending on environmental and developmental differences, via academic achievement. It is expected that the findings of the study will contribute to the growing body of the literature and close the gap in the literature by identifying the underlying basic determinants in the school context playing role in self‐esteem among early adolescents. This study that focuses on the interaction between school context and the development of self‐esteem can also help school psychologists, counselors, teachers, and administrators to better understand the effect and importance of students' experiences in the school on their self‐esteem development and to develop plausible implications that increase the students' self‐esteem levels.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-7">METHODS</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0156658972-8">Participants</hd> <p>In line with the purpose of the research, the study was conducted by the cross‐sectional model. The participants of the study were recruited by convenience sampling. The study sample consisted of 402 early adolescents (207 female–195 male) aged from 11 to 14 years old, from a secondary school in the west of Turkey. Participation was voluntary and anonymous. The participants' age mean was 12.6 (<emph>SD</emph> = 0.7). Of the participants, 84 (20.9%) were fifth grade, 102 (25.3%) were sixth grade, 110 (27.4%) were seventh grade, and 106 (26.4%) were eigth grade.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-9">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0156658972-10">School engagement</hd> <p>The participants' school engagement level was measured using the School Engagement Measure which is developed by Fredricks et al. (2005) and adapted to Turkish culture by Cengel et al. (2017). This scale comprises 19 items and three subdimensions as cognitive engagement (8 items; e.g., "I read extra books to learn more about things we do in school"), emotional engagement (6 items; e.g., "I feel excited by my work at school"), and behavioral engagement (5 items; e.g., "I pay attention in class"). All items are on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (<emph>not at all true</emph>) to 5 (<emph>very true</emph>). In this study, Cronbach's alpha was 0.80 for cognitive engagement, 0.77 for emotional engagement, 0.75 for behavioral engagement, and 0.82 for overall scale.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-11">Self‐Esteem</hd> <p>To measure the participants' self‐esteem levels, the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale which was developed by Rosenberg (1965) and adapted to Turkish culture by Cuhadaroğlu (1986) was used in the current study. This scale contains 10 items that assessed self‐esteem with each item rated on a 4‐point scale with the responses ranging from 1 (<emph>strong disagree</emph>) to 4 (<emph>strongly agree</emph>). The scale has one dimension; higher scores indicate more self‐esteem. Sample items of the scale are, "On the whole, I am satisfied with myself" and "I am able to do things as well as most other people". In the adaptation study, Cronbach's alpha was calculated as 0.71 and 0.75 for test‐retest correlation value. In this study, the Cronbach's alpha of the scale was 0.78. The items of the scale were converted into three parcels by randomly assigning items to create indicators for the latent factor of self‐esteem. It was seen that the standardized factor loadings related to the scale ranged from 0.58 to 0.77.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-12">Academic achievement</hd> <p>To determine the participants' academic achievement levels, the cumulative grade point average (GPA), which can range from 0 to 100, was used. The current grade point average (GPA) was obtained through the participants' statements. Grade point average (GPA) is calculated based on the students' grades for the previous semesters in the following academic subjects: Literature, maths, social studies, science, one foreign language, physical education, education of religion and ethics, information technologies, and visual arts.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-13">Procedure</hd> <p>First, permission was received from the school administration to carry out the study. The data of the research was obtained from secondary school students on a volunteer basis. Signed informed consent was obtained from the participants. Before data collection, students were enlightened about the study's aim and the process. The data collecting instruments were administered collectively in the classroom by the researcher during school hours. The participants completed the surveys of the study in approximately 5 min. The participants were free to withdraw from the current research at any time. All participants were asked to express their cumulative grade point average (GPA) via the question of "What is your cumulative grade point average (GPA)? The instruments of the study were administered to all students in the school. The students who did not know their cumulative grade point averages (GPA) were not included in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-14">Data analysis</hd> <p>Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted using AMOS 20.0 to analyze the proposed relationships in the current study. SEM, which is also called casual modeling, is a multivariate statistical analysis technique. SEM is a technique that involves the combination of multiple regression analysis and factor analysis. It is used to analyze the structural relationship between measured variables and latent constructs. Because SEM can allow more rigorous tests of hypothesized relationships among the unobservable constructs because of its capability to handle both structural components and measurement error simultaneously compared to more traditional alternatives such as regression analysis (Byrne, 2006), it may be a better approach in testing our proposed model. The item parceling method was used to control possible inflated measurement errors caused by multiple items for latent variables (Bandalos, 2008). The academic achievement variable was included in the model as it is. Subscale scores of school engagement (cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement) were used as indicators of the latent variable with SE1, SE2, and SE3 parcels respectively. However, since the self‐esteem latent variable is unidimensional, it was represented by three observed variables as SE1, SE2, and SE3 by randomly assigning items. In the current study, a two‐step structural equation analysis recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988) was used as a measurement model for the first step and a structural equation model for the second step. First, the measurement model was tested to assess the extent to which each of the latent variables was represented by its indicators. After the measurement model, the structural equation model was conducted to explore the mediating role of academic achievement in the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem among early adolescents. The goodness of fit of the measurement model and structural equation model was evaluated within the values of Chi‐square/df ratio (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>/<emph>df</emph>)  <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits22663:pits22663-math-0001" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mo>≤</mo></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex"> $\le $</annotation></semantics></math> </ephtml>  5.0 = acceptable model fit; Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Goodness of Fit Indicator (GFI), Normative Fitness Index (NFI), and Incremental Fit Index (IFI)  <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits22663:pits22663-math-0002" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mo>≥</mo></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex"> $\ge $</annotation></semantics></math> </ephtml>  0.90 = acceptable model fit; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA)  <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits22663:pits22663-math-0003" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mo>≤</mo></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex"> $\le $</annotation></semantics></math> </ephtml>  0.08 acceptable model fit (Anderson & Gerbing, 1984; Kline, 2005). To test the indirect role of academic achievement in the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem, the bootstrapping mediation method was used with 5000 re‐samples and bias‐corrected bootstrap 95% confidence intervals (MacKinnon et al., 2002; Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Also, the multigroup analysis in SEM was used to determine if the proposed model would statistically vary between female and male early adolescents for each path coefficient. To estimate the path coefficients in a moderated–mediation model, the multigroup analysis can test a proposed model for its applicability to different groups simultaneously. The multigroup analysis enables a direct test of measurement invariance as well as structural invariance across conditions. It ensures that the observed differences in structural relationships across conditions are uncontaminated by neither measurement differences nor measurement errors (Byrne, 2006). Therefore, this approach would allow testing of the moderating hypothesis more formally. Before the multigroup analysis, measurement invariance must be tested for meaningful comparisons by ensuring that the same attributes are associated with the same set of observations in the same way in each group.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-15">RESULTS</hd> <p>Table 1 provided the values of the means, standard deviations, kurtosis, skewness, Cronbach alpha, and correlations related to all measures. Considering descriptive statistics in Table 1, there were no identified outliers (<emph>z</emph> = ≤±3), and all variables were normally distributed (skewness and kurtosis ≤±2). Given the bivariate correlations, it was seen that school engagement was significantly positively associated with academic achievement (<emph>r</emph> = 0.46, <emph>p</emph> < .001); it was positively and significantly associated with self‐esteem (<emph>r</emph> = 0.32, <emph>p</emph> < .01). There was also a positive and significant relationship between academic achievement and self‐esteem (<emph>r</emph> = 0.34, <emph>p</emph> < .001).</p> <p>1 TableThe correlations among the study variables</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th align="left">Variables</th><th align="left">1</th><th align="left">2</th><th align="left">3</th><th align="left"><italic>α</italic></th><th align="left"><italic>M</italic></th><th align="left"><italic>SD</italic></th><th align="left">Skew.</th><th align="left">Kurt.</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1. School engagement</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td>0.82</td><td>48.90</td><td>6.62</td><td>0.27</td><td>−0.44</td></tr><tr><td>2. Academic achievement</td><td>0.460001</td><td>–</td><td /><td>0.79</td><td>82.75</td><td /><td>0.27</td><td>−0.44</td></tr><tr><td>3. Self‐esteem</td><td>0.320001</td><td>0.340001</td><td>–</td><td>0.78</td><td>30.68</td><td>4.26</td><td>0.42</td><td>−0.23</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 *** <emph>p</emph> <.001.</p> <p>In the current study, as a pre‐condition of the structural equation model (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988), the measurement model of the study was conducted to evaluate the extent to which the latent variables were represented by its indicators. The measurement model of the study including three latent variables (school engagement, academic achievement, and self‐esteem) and seven observed variables was tested. The result of the analysis showed that the measurement model had acceptable fit indexes: ( <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits22663:pits22663-math-0004" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><msup><mi mathvariant="normal">χ</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex"> ${{\rm{\chi }}}^{2}$</annotation></semantics></math> </ephtml> /<emph>SD</emph> = 3.12, <emph>p</emph> < .001, CFI = 0.96, GFI = 0.97, NFI = 0.97, IFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.062). It was seen that the latent variables were significantly represented by their respective indicators and all standardized factor loadings ranged from 0.58 to 0.77.</p> <p>The structural model also provided acceptable fit indexes ( <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits22663:pits22663-math-0005" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><msup><mi mathvariant="normal">χ</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex"> ${{\rm{\chi }}}^{2}$</annotation></semantics></math> </ephtml> /<emph>SD</emph> = 3.03, <emph>p</emph> < .001, CFI = 0.97, GFI = 0.96, NFI = 0.98, IFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.051). The structural model related to the analysis was presented in Figure 1. First, school engagement positively predicted self‐esteem (<emph>β</emph> = 0.23, <emph>p</emph> < .01). After academic achievement was included in the model as mediating variable, the predictor role of school engagement in self‐esteem decreased (<emph>β</emph> = 0.12, <emph>p</emph> < .01). Moreover, school engagement positively predicted academic achievement (<emph>β</emph> = 0.36, <emph>p</emph> < .01), and academic achievement positively predicted self‐esteem (<emph>β</emph> = 0.30, <emph>p</emph> < .01). The coefficients of the direct and indirect pathways resulting from the bootstrapping analysis showed the indirect effect from school engagement to self‐esteem through academic achievement was significant (<emph>β</emph> = 0.11, <emph>p</emph> < .01) (CI<subs>95</subs> = 0.04–0.20, <emph>p</emph> < .001). According to this result, we see that academic achievement has a partial mediating role in the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem. Lastly, the multigroup analysis in SEM was used to see if all proposed paths would vary across different conditions of the moderating variable (gender). A chi‐square difference test was employed by comparing the unconstrained model with the fully constrained model of each group. A nonsignificant <emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups> difference would serve as evidence for the equivalency across groups (Byrne, 2006). The multigroup model comparison of the study was not significant <emph>p</emph> = .175 (<emph>p</emph> > .05). The outcomes of the analysis supported the model fit ( <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits22663:pits22663-math-0006" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><msup><mi mathvariant="normal">χ</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex"> ${{\rm{\chi }}}^{2}$</annotation></semantics></math> </ephtml> /<emph>SD </emph>= 3.37, <emph>p</emph> < .001, CFI = 0.95, GFI = 0.96, NFI = 0.95, IFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.047, <emph>p</emph> < .05). Therefore, the direction, strength, and structure of the relationships between the variables did not differ between the two gender groups (Figure 1).</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01jun22/pits22663-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits22663-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 The mediating model of academic achievement in the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem. Note: The factor loadings were standardized. SE1‐SE2‐SE3 three parcels of self‐esteem; CE cognitive engagement, EE emotional engagement, BE behavioral engagement. (The italic values in the parentheses are for female and male sub‐groups, respectively). *p <.05, **p <.01, ***p <.001" /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0156658972-17">DİSCUSSİON</hd> <p>The current study aimed to determine the direct associations among school engagement, academic achievement, and self‐esteem, as well as the mediating role of academic achievement with a sample of Turkish secondary school students. It was also examined whether the direct and indirect relationships among the studied variables differed according to gender. The findings of the study, as it was expected, demonstrated both the significant direct positive associations among the studied variables and the mediating role of academic achievement in the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem. In other words, the effect of school engagement on self‐esteem occurs via academic achievement. Contrary to expectations, however, the direction, strength, and structure of the direct and indirect relationships among the studied variables did not differ between the two gender groups. Overall, these results may contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem, with the mediating role of academic achievement.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-18">School engagement and academic achievement</hd> <p>Consistent with the hypothesis (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref4">1</reflink>), the analyses indicated that school engagement directly predicted academic achievement. In parallel with the research finding, a vast number of studies have demonstrated that students who are more engaged in school engagement show a higher academic performance (Chen et al., 2020; Estavez et al., 2021; Fredricks et al., 2004; Wang & Peck, 2013). Although this result is not surprising, the social development model (SDM; Catalano & Hawkins, 1996) may provide more explanation for this relationship. According to the social development model, problem and prosocial behaviors develop as a result of negative or positive socialization with substantive life spaces such as school, family, and friends. School bonding as a prosocial socialization domain plays a central role in adolescents' positive development (Catalano et al., 2004). The social development model emphasizes that school engagement motivates students to adhere to school norms preventing students from engaging in problematic behaviors (Catalano & Hawkins, 1996). In this context, engaged students pay more concentration on learning, show more involvement in school activities, and adhere to the rules of the school, by avoiding school misbehaviors (Bae, 2020; Fredricks et al., 2004), which may, in turn, lead to higher levels of academic achievement. Consistent with this explanation, the literature has documented that antisocial behavior styles (or conduct engagement and delinquency) that are not consistent with the values and norms of the school reduce academic achievement, with the reverse reported as well. To underscore a few among adolescents, the more that students exhibit low levels of prosocial behaviors (Carlo et al., 2018), feel disconnected from their school (Niehaus et al., 2012), and experience school‐related delinquencies (Himelfarb et al., 2014), the more that they have poor academic achievement.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-19">The mediation role of academic achievement</hd> <p>Consistent with our Hypothesis (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref5">2</reflink>), the findings demonstrated that school engagement predicted self‐esteem indirectly through academic achievement. That is, secondary school students who are more engaged in the school reported higher levels of academic achievement, which in turn predicted higher levels of self‐esteem. This model result is consistent with both theoretical and empirical literature. Within the Sociometer theory context (Leary & Baumeister, 2000), one key concept that can explain this relationship may be the reflected appraisal. Two basic features get us to this conclusion. The first is that parents, teachers, and significant others are sensitive to school‐related behaviors, especially academic achievement. Given the importance of academic achievement in the Turkish educational system, that sensitivity increases more (Berberoğlu & Tansel, 2014). The second is that adolescents are sensitive to integrating the social feedback from teachers, peers, and friends into global self‐view in light of the rising significance of the need for identity formation (Burke & Stets, 2009). Accordingly, getting better academic achievement is supposed to promote positive feedback from significant others such as parents, teachers, and administrators, and thereby foster self‐esteem. Previous studies support this assumption, suggesting that teachers are more likely to foster achieving, motivated, and engaged students, and these students are more likely to be accepted by their peers (Košir & Tement, 2014; Véronneau et al., 2010; Wentzel et al., 2010).</p> <p>Concerning the research findings, it is valuable to draw attention to cultural context. Perhaps the most influential way for that is to consider it in tandem with the educational tradition. When given both the culture and the educational climate of Turkey, it is not surprising that the path from school engagement to self‐esteem occurs through academic achievement. Unlike the independent or the autonomous self which is emphasized in individualistic cultures, cultures considered to be collectivistic, such as Turkey (Kağitçibaşi, 1996), promote relatedness and interdependence (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Although a connection to the family is a distinguishing characteristic of collectivistic cultures, it also extends to other people with whom an individual shares close relationships (Tamis‐LeMonda et al., 2008). Others become an integral part of the context in an interdependent formulation of the self and participate continuously in the development of the self (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Therefore, self‐esteem development is becoming more sensitive to social influences in collectivistic cultures (Li, 2012). On the other hand, in Turkey where the central examinations are dominant, there is a deeply rooted tradition to emphasize and demand academic achievement. Academic achievement is generally accepted as one of the powerful measures of a student's educational success. Given the country's traditional culture and economic and political conditions, it is plausible that Turkish students strive for getting good grades and doing well in standardized achievement tests. Because, high academic achievement facilitates to access subsequent educational resources including high‐quality infrastructures, teachers, and academic atmospheres, which in turn leads to subsequent entrance examinations for higher education, gaining employment opportunities, greater financial payoffs in future careers, and eventually lifelong developmental opportunities. In addition to students' personal development, academic achievement is also regarded as both a family glory and an essential way to bring esteem to teachers. Overall, it is possible to talk that there is a strong relationship between the self and others, and teachers and parents traditionally are strongly committed to academic achievement in Turkey. Therefore, it is likely that Turkish students' academic achievement has more impact on their environment beyond the expectations, with the reflected positive appraisals and feedback from a vast array of significant others, ranging from parents and teachers to relatives, thus, which may contribute to higher self‐esteem.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-20">The moderating role of gender</hd> <p>Contrary to our expectation (Hypothesis 3), the findings showed that relationships among the studied variables were not significantly different for gender. Parents' school involvement may explain the reason underlying this result. We expect the higher amounts of his parents' school involvement may protect male adolescents from school disengagement. Parental involvement that establishes a bond between family and school contexts is an antecedent of school engagement (Li et al., 2010). When parents held high aspirations for their children's achievement, participate in extracurricular activities with their children, and are in touch with their children's teachers, it is more likely that students more actively engage in school (Dotterer & Wehrspann, 2016; Fan & Williams, 2010). A study of urban secondary school students found that more parent involvement was associated with more school engagement, resulting in greater academic competence (Dotterer & Wehrspann, 2016). High‐income, more highly educated, higher SES, and displaying positive parenting styles parents are more likely to participate in their children's schooling (Amani et al., 2020; Hill et al., 2004). In the west of Turkey, where the data of the study are collected, socioeconomic conditions, education levels, and positive approaches towards their children are higher than in the middle and east areas of Turkey (Aycicegi‐Dinn & Sunar, 2017). Therefore, parents having these characteristics may eliminate the possible significant difference by supporting the relation between male students and school.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-21">Limitations and future studies</hd> <p>The present study has certain limitations, and we cannot rule out that it is essential to evaluate the study results in light of these limitations. These are limitations that I find important to highlight: First, since the data of the study was collected by cross‐sectional model, the results do not provide evidence for causality. To identify a causal relationship between the variables of the study, experimental and longitudinal studies should be conducted. Future studies should adopt these designs to explore casual relationships among the studied variables. Second, the data of the study was based only on self‐report scales. Self‐esteem is an amorphous psychological construct (Scott et al., 1996). Therefore, future qualitative studies will be helpful to reveal more in‐depth conceptual information about their behaviors, perceptions, and experiences relating to school engagement and academic achievement and how these relate to self‐esteem. Third, as mentioned above, given the factors leading to the increased importance of school achievement in both the cultural and educational context, the present findings have the potential risks for being generalized to other societies in which central examinations and collectivistic culture are not dominant. More specifically, these results are limited to early adolescents aged from 11 to 14 years old studying at a secondary school in the west region of Turkey. Therefore, in similar studies, the findings can be compared with those in the different grades (such as elementary or high school), central and east regions of Turkey, individualistic cultures, and societies where the central examinations are not dominant. Finally, the present study determined their academic achievement level using the participants' self‐reported GPA. Although self‐reported GPA is highly correlated with actual GPA (Credé & Kuncel, 2013), future studies may profit from including more objective school achievement measures, such as school records, teacher ratings, and test scores.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-22">Strengths, implications, and conclusion</hd> <p>Despite these limitations, the current research provides some theoretical contributions to the literature. To our best knowledge, this study is the first attempt that has been designed to examine the mediating role of academic achievement in the relationship between school engagement and self‐esteem. From this aspect, we hope the current findings will enable us to develop our understanding of self‐esteem by contributing to the current knowledge repository in the literature. This study can also help educators and school counselors to better understand the effect and importance of students' experiences in the school on their self‐esteem development and enable them to create practical and important implications that increase the students' self‐esteem levels. First, improving secondary school students to actively engage in school attendance represents a promising objective and focus for programs that aim to enhance both their academic achievement and self‐esteem. It is important to prompt preventive attempts that integrate students' emotional, behavioral, and cognitive engagement aspects. Second, damaged self‐esteem and academic failure may not always stem from school disengagement. Therefore, rather than focusing on identifying only students who are less engaged in school, this study also highlights the need to intervene with secondary school students at risk, who display academic failure and low self‐esteem. Third, when parents are more involved in their child's schooling, students develop higher school engagement (Dotterer & Wehrspann, 2016). Also, school engagement is not only related to students being more motivated to achieve academically (Fredricks et al., 2004). Accordingly, it is important to activate persons and extracurricular activity opportunities that have the potential to strengthen the bond between student and school, such as parents, sports programs, cultural events, and the safety of the school environment.</p> <p>Our results also have significant implications for policymakers. In the Turkish context, the current research provides substantive empirical evidence that uncovers concerns around the low school engagement in terms of their both academic and self‐esteem development. Turkish education system builds on the examinations. Because students' relationship to school and their academic achievement is critical to not only them but also parents and teaches, the focus of everybody is on the educational outcome, that is academic achievement. The examinations shape most of the activities in schools. Teachers who are committed to the principle of centralized educational policy‐making make effort to give more homework and tests. The schools do not have enough equipment and opportunities for extra‐curriculum activities. Therefore, it is not substantially possible to promote students' holistic development by implementing all the necessary pedagogical activities. Also, given that students have different abilities and interests, such schools are deprived of promoting the value, needs, and potential inherent in students. Accordingly, it is needed for efforts to by providing more extracurricular opportunities such as sport, art, and technology activities and thus matching students' potential and school's opportunities, resulting in the student being more actively engaged in school.</p> <p>In conclusion, in addition to the positive associations among the studied variables, the most important finding that came out from this study was that school engagement had a predictive role in self‐esteem via academic achievement regardless of Turkish secondary school students' gender. This result, thus, both provides a promising objective for attempts that aim to enhance self‐esteem and reveals the need for forming intervention and prevention efforts for secondary school students who are at risk for school disengagement.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-23">ACKNOWLEDGMENT</hd> <p>This current study was not supported by a foundation or person.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-24">CONFLICT OF INTERESTS</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflict of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-25">ETHICS STATEMENT</hd> <p>Informed Consent: All participants confirmed informed consent. Ethical Approval: All procedures in the current study were conducted by considering the assumptions that human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.</p> <hd id="AN0156658972-26">DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT</hd> <p>The data sets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.</p> <ref id="AN0156658972-27"> <title> REFERENCES </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Akey, T. M. (2006). School context, student attitudes and behavior, and academic achievement: An exploratory analysis. MDCR.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Al‐Yagon, M., Kopelman‐Rubin, D., Klomek, A. B., & Mikulincer, M. (2016). 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  Data: School Engagement and Self-Esteem among Turkish Secondary School Students: A Moderated-Mediation Model for Academic Achievement and Gender
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Karababa%2C+Ali%22">Karababa, Ali</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0458-3437">0000-0003-0458-3437</externalLink>)
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  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Learner+Engagement%22">Learner Engagement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Achievement%22">Academic Achievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Esteem%22">Self Esteem</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+School+Students%22">Secondary School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Early+Adolescents%22">Early Adolescents</searchLink>
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  Data: The study aimed to examine the direct relationships between school engagement, academic achievement, and self-esteem, and whether academic achievement mediated the relationship between school engagement and self-esteem among Turkish secondary school students. An additional aim of the study was also to test whether these associations were moderated by gender. The study sample consisted of 402 adolescents (207 female-195 male) studying at the secondary school, aged from 11 to 14 years old. The study findings showed both the significant direct positive associations among the studied variables and the mediating role of academic achievement in the relationship between school engagement and self-esteem. It also found that the direction, strength, and structure of the direct and indirect relationships among the studied variables did not differ between the two gender groups. In conclusion, students who have higher levels of school engagement tend to show improvements in their academic achievement, and achieving better educational performance promotes higher self-esteem. Directions for future research and application were discussed.
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