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Equity and Teachers' Online Classroom Assessment Literacy in China: Insights from Parental Involvement during the COVID-19 Pandemic

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Title: Equity and Teachers' Online Classroom Assessment Literacy in China: Insights from Parental Involvement during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Language: English
Authors: Pu, Shi (ORCID 0000-0002-7647-0231), Xu, Hao (ORCID 0000-0002-6507-4436)
Source: Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education. 2023 51(4):381-394.
Availability: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 14
Publication Date: 2023
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Secondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Parent Participation, Online Courses, Evaluation Methods, Equal Education, Teacher Competencies, Formative Evaluation, Student Evaluation, Teacher Role, COVID-19, Pandemics, Elementary Secondary Education, Parent Role
Geographic Terms: China
DOI: 10.1080/1359866X.2023.2228217
ISSN: 1359-866X
1469-2945
Abstract: School teachers often involve parents to assist in online assessment, but parental involvement can violate equity principles when not carefully monitored. In this article, we analyse types of parental involvement in online classroom assessment resulting from teachers' requests, and discuss how such requests may impact on educational equity. Our data sets are interviews with 45 teachers and 33 parents, supplemented by recorded online teaching videos and students' written and oral works. The findings reveal that providing equal opportunities for students' learning is not yet at the forefront of teachers' minds when they make decisions regarding parental involvement. On that basis, we discuss the necessity and difficulties of incorporating the principle of equity into teachers' online classroom assessment literacy in contemporary China.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1398165
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0171926284;pjl01sep.23;2023Sep15.05:44;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0171926284-1">Equity and teachers' online classroom assessment literacy in China: insights from parental involvement during the COVID-19 pandemic </title> <p>School teachers often involve parents to assist in online assessment, but parental involvement can violate equity principles when not carefully monitored. In this article, we analyse types of parental involvement in online classroom assessment resulting from teachers' requests, and discuss how such requests may impact on educational equity. Our data sets are interviews with 45 teachers and 33 parents, supplemented by recorded online teaching videos and students' written and oral works. The findings reveal that providing equal opportunities for students' learning is not yet at the forefront of teachers' minds when they make decisions regarding parental involvement. On that basis, we discuss the necessity and difficulties of incorporating the principle of equity into teachers' online classroom assessment literacy in contemporary China.</p> <p>Keywords: Equity; online classroom assessment; assessment literacy; parental involvement; online teaching</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Classroom assessment literacy refers to teachers' ability of conducting classroom assessment for enhancing teaching and learning (Wiliam & Thompson, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref1">37</reflink>]; Xu, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref2">39</reflink>]). Sound classroom assessment practice can provide valid evidence for teachers to identify students' learning difficulties and to help students reach desired learning goals (Gu, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref3">18</reflink>]). Classroom assessment also plays a critical role in distributing educational resources. In a big classroom, classroom assessment outcomes can influence the amount of attention that a teacher gives to certain groups of students and the types of learning issues to which a teacher chooses to respond in limited classroom hours. Therefore, to ensure that all students, rather than a privileged few, can obtain sufficient learning opportunities, teachers should be able to conduct classroom assessment in an equitable way. While much research has discussed equity issues in standardised and/or high-stakes tests (e.g., Klenowski, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref4">23</reflink>]; Lingard et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref5">24</reflink>]), few studies have analysed equity-related issues from the perspective of teachers' classroom assessment literacy, especially in the context of online teaching.</p> <p>In Anglo-Western societies, equity in education touches upon various concepts and practices, such as the provision of equal learning opportunities, needs-based assessment, and the inclusion of students with disability (e.g., Gikandi et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref6">15</reflink>]). In contemporary China, the educational system is largely oriented towards economic and social development. It tends to prioritise the cultivation of elites, i.e., "talents" who can play a leading role in economic and social development. Schools tend to give more attention to high-achieving students, because those students' academic performance can enhance the reputation and status of a school and thus helps it obtain more resources. Against this background, the discourse surrounding educational equity in China mainly focuses on the provision of learning opportunities to socially and economically disadvantaged students (Chu, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref7">10</reflink>]).</p> <p>It is in this context that equity becomes the focus of our research. Prior research shows that school teachers are not always fully prepared, or supported, to prioritise the principle of equity, i.e., to ensure that all students enjoy relatively equal opportunities for learning (Chan & Lo, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]). When teaching was shifted online on an unprecedented scale due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Pu & Xu, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref9">29</reflink>]), this issue became more visible. In China, as teachers could no longer assess students' learning progress face to face, many teachers requested parents to help assess their children when they were learning from home. They intended for parents to collect more information for classroom assessment, but the way they engaged parents might have unintended consequences. In our research, we investigated how Chinese EFL (English as a Foreign Language) teachers in primary and secondary schools involved parents in online classroom assessment during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this article, by analysing patterns of parental involvement resulting from teachers' requests, we discuss the necessity and difficulties of incorporating the principle of equity into teachers' online classroom assessment literacy in the Chinese context.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-3">Equity in online classroom assessment: teachers' role in mediating parental involvement</hd> <p>Generally speaking, classroom assessment not only serves to support students' learning but can also consolidate community ethos and interaction rules in the classroom, affecting students' perceptions of learning and of themselves as learners (Camilli, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref10">7</reflink>]; Chen & Bonner, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref11">9</reflink>]). In an online environment, classroom assessment should be educative. It should follow principles of validity and reliability in order to accurately reflect students' learning progress (Akimov & Malin, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref12">1</reflink>]; Gikandi et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref13">15</reflink>]). It should also generate timely and formatively useful feedback for students to consolidate learned knowledge, to clarify learning goals, and to adjust strategies for future learning (Andrade & Brookhart, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref14">2</reflink>]). Ethically, it should follow the principle of fairness. Fairness is "the broad goal of achieving equality of opportunity" (Camilli, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref15">7</reflink>], p. 73) in a society. In classroom assessment, fairness can be demonstrated in technical properties of assessment methods and in the reporting and interpretation of assessment results. In online classroom assessment, individual fairness means that students should be treated comparably, with distributive, procedural and interactive justice (Rasooli et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref16">30</reflink>]). It does not always mean that all students should be treated in exactly the same way; in some cases, it means providing extra care for disadvantaged students "to offset conditions that prevent full demonstration of ability" (Camilli, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref17">7</reflink>], p. 105).</p> <p>Equity is part of the principle of individual fairness. It is a "qualitative concern for what is just" (Stobart, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref18">34</reflink>], p. 275). Equity can be demonstrated both <emph>in</emph> and <emph>through</emph> classroom assessment. Equity <emph>in</emph> classroom assessment refers to the provision of an impartial assessment condition where students are treated fairly and comparably in demonstrating learning achievements (Camilli, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref19">7</reflink>]). Equity <emph>through</emph> classroom assessment refers to the equity of learning opportunities distributed among students as prerequisites and consequences of classroom assessment, including equal access to facilities and resources for learning, equal access to teachers' attention and unbiased expectations, and equal opportunities for receiving feedback to enhance learning (Cumming, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref20">12</reflink>]; Hamp-Lyons, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref21">19</reflink>]; Klenowski, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref22">23</reflink>]; Littenberg-Tobias & Reich, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref23">25</reflink>]; Rasooli et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref24">30</reflink>]). All these criteria apply to classroom assessment in an online environment.</p> <p>Parental involvement is an inherent part of home-school dynamics in primary and secondary education. It is a social factor that teachers should not ignore when trying to maintain equity through pedagogical decisions. Although effective parental involvement can enhance students' learning and strengthen school-family partnerships (Gokturk & Dinckal, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref25">16</reflink>]), it can also widen the gap between students from different socio-economic backgrounds, reproducing existing educational inequalities (Head, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref26">20</reflink>]; Huang & Lin, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref27">22</reflink>]; Wu et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref28">38</reflink>]). For instance, middle-class parents are found more capable of exerting influence upon teachers' decision-making than working-class parents (Crozier et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref29">11</reflink>]; Smith, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref30">33</reflink>]). In China, while middle-class parents can often supply their children with rich educational resources beyond what schools can offer, working-class parents rely more on schools as the major provider for their children's education (Tsang & Lee, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref31">35</reflink>]). Thus, when teaching moves online during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is natural that not all parents can provide good conditions at home to cater for their children's learning, such as good-quality internet connections, uninterrupted and comfortable learning spaces, and sufficient tools or extra learning facilities. Not all parents have the same amount of time, willingness, or level of skills to act on behalf of the teacher to discipline their children and to resolve learning issues (Head, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref32">20</reflink>]). Not all parents understand their role in children's learning in the same way (Auerbach, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref33">3</reflink>]), and not all parents are equally capable of using digital technology to communicate with teachers (Huang & Lin, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref34">22</reflink>]). Thus, if parents become more involved in children's learning, it means that students who do not have the most capable parents are likely to be disadvantaged.</p> <p>For teachers, these are important factors to take into account if equity is to be maintained in and through online classroom assessment. While the general principle has been well formulated in theory, i.e., to offset conditions where students cannot enjoy equal opportunities for learning and for demonstrating learning (e.g., Camilli, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref35">7</reflink>]), what exactly teachers have done in practice is hardly known. During the COVID-19 pandemic, how teachers mediated parental involvement provides a distinctive angle for investigating the extent to which equity is actualised in and through online classroom assessment. By analysing patterns of parental involvement resulting from teachers' requests, we shall discuss equity-related issues that arose. Specific research questions are:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> What types of assessment were parents requested to conduct for assisting in online classroom assessment?</item> <p></p> <item> What equity-related issues arose as parents were involved in assessment?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0171926284-4">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0171926284-5">Design</hd> <p>The study reported in this article is part of a larger project that investigated school teachers' online teaching practices during the COVID-19 pandemic. The project involved a large-scale questionnaire survey (involving 17,433 respondents who were primary and secondary EFL school teachers) towards the end of February, 2020. The current study focused on parental involvement in online assessment, which was a phenomenon that emerged during the pandemic. We adopted a qualitative research methodology to address the aforementioned research questions.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-6">Participants</hd> <p>Forty-five participant teachers were recruited as they showed willingness to be further interviewed in their response to the large-scale questionnaire survey. All 45 participants (9 males and 36 females) were EFL teachers. Twenty-six of them taught in secondary schools and 19 in primary schools. They were averagely 33.7 years old and had an average teaching experience of 10.4 years. They came from seven different regions of China: Northern (5 teachers), North-eastern (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref36">7</reflink>), North-western (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref37">5</reflink>), Eastern (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref38">7</reflink>), Southern (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref39">6</reflink>), South-eastern (<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref40">8</reflink>), and South-western (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref41">7</reflink>), thus making a vastly representable sample. Twenty teacher participants also helped us to contact 33 parents (29 mothers and 4 fathers) for brief interviews. The parents were the ones who supervised their children when they were learning from home. All teacher and parent participants gave clear and formal consent to their participation in the study during our first contact. Official ethical approval has also been obtained from the authors' institution.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-7">Data collection</hd> <p>The primary source of data in our study was interviews with teachers and parents. As the study aimed to examine teachers' online assessment practices that involved parents, interview questions that we asked teacher participants mainly focused on how they requested and encouraged parents to engage in the assessment of their children's learning. Below are examples of interview questions for teacher participants:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> What assessment tasks did you give students' parents? How did you give the tasks?</item> <p></p> <item> Why did you do so? How was it necessary or crucial to get parents involved in students' learning assessment?</item> <p></p> <item> What support or guidance did you give parents to get them better involved in assessment?</item> <p></p> <item> How did parents respond to your requests?</item> <p></p> <item> How and how well did parents do in helping to assess students' learning?</item> </ulist> <p>Interview questions that we asked parent participants were focused on similar issues from parents' perspective. Examples of interview questions for parents are:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> What assessment tasks did you receive from the teacher of your child? How were you given the tasks?</item> <p></p> <item> How did you find those tasks? Were they necessary, useful, or important?</item> <p></p> <item> How did you respond to the teacher as s/he gave you the tasks?</item> <p></p> <item> Were you given any support or specific guidance to carry out the given tasks?</item> <p></p> <item> How well do you think you completed the tasks?</item> </ulist> <p>Interview questions were slightly modified to fit the context of each participant. In total, we conducted 129 teacher interviews with 45 teachers (approximately an average of 3 interviews with each teacher) and 33 brief interviews with 33 parents, all via online conferencing services as Tencent meeting and Wechat video chat. The 162 interviews totalled up to 672,229 Chinese characters and 4,910 English words (due to translingual practices). We also collected, from 20 teachers, 29 episodes of online teaching videos, 44 pieces of students' written assignments, and 12 video-recorded oral presentations completed by students.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-8">Data analysis</hd> <p>Following the strategy proposed by Miles et al. ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref42">26</reflink>]), we conducted three rounds of data analysis. In the first round, we carefully read through transcribed data obtained from interviews, videos and other protocols. We identified excerpts that contained information relevant to parents' actions in helping to assess their children's learning from home, such as "checking errors," "reporting results," and "ensuring consolidation." In the second round, we closely analysed codes that were identified in the first round to formulate tentative categories that represented different roles that parents played in assessment, for instance, "data collector for the teacher" and "teacher's collaborator." In the third round, we re-examined the tentative categories, and conceptualised them to better reveal the nature of different types of parental involvement in assessment. The two researchers first analysed the data independently, and then based on comparisons and discussions reached consensus about the various categories to be reported in this article. All data were analysed in original languages, mostly Chinese; excerpts were translated into English as they were presented in this article.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-9">Findings</hd> <p>Four major types of parental involvement in assessment were found resulting from teachers' requests: substitutional assessment, subsidiary assessment, sequential assessment, and synergetic assessment. In this section, we analyse how these types of parental involvement were likely to affect equity <emph>in</emph> and <emph>through</emph> online classroom assessment.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-10">Equity in assessment affected by parental involvement</hd> <p>Equity <emph>in</emph> assessment is usually maintained as teachers create an impartial assessment condition by using consistent assessment methods and criteria, so that students can have equal opportunities for demonstrating learning achievements. The impartiality of assessment condition can enhance the validity of the student-level data elicited by teachers as evidence for making instructional decisions. In this study, the assessment condition of online classrooms was found to be affected by parental involvement in substitutional and subsidiary assessment, reducing the chances for students to demonstrate their learning achievements in a comparable way.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-11">Substitutional assessment</hd> <p>In substitutional assessment, parents conducted assessment on total behalf of the teachers. They were asked to substitute teachers as the assessors, following assessment guidelines provided by teachers and generating assessment results for teachers to collect. Substitutional assessment took place entirely at home, as is shown in the following extracts:</p> <p>Because I cannot check every student's work online, I ask their parents to do the check after class ... I assign a quiz and give parents the key. They will rate their children's work and let me know the scores. And I'll be able to know how well the students have learnt in class (teacher interview).</p> <p>We have a workbook with plenty of exercises that correspond to different sections of the textbook ... I will assign certain exercises to the students, and ask their parents in the Wechat Group [an online platform that connects teachers and parents] to check their work ... The work is not difficult to check, because most exercises are multiple choice questions (teacher interview).</p> <p>The teachers sounded quite positive, without being fully aware of the challenges for parents, or of the potentially inequitable assessment condition created for students. This could explain why parents expressed divided views concerning their own eligibility for conducting such assessment to fulfil the teacher's role:</p> <p>I majored in English in university, so I think I'm more than competent ... I'm not only checking my son's homework but also his classmates', to help their parents. Some of them do have difficulty in doing such work (parent interview).</p> <p>I totally disagree with this kind of arrangement ... Parents are parents; teachers are teachers. How can we parents be responsible for things that teachers are <emph>professionally</emph> responsible for? As to me, I can only do the most rudimentary work, say, checking the A/B/C/D answers. Even a fill-in-the-blank question goes beyond my competence (parent interview).</p> <p>As can be seen, by requesting parents to be assessors, teachers assumed that parents should have a minimum amount of professional knowledge. In reality, however, not all parents were equipped with that knowledge. Parents' differences in the level of such knowledge means that their assessment methods and criteria could hardly be consistent. Consequently, some parents' assessment results would be more valid than others' in reflecting their children's learning achievements.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-12">Subsidiary assessment</hd> <p>In subsidiary assessment, parents helped teachers arrange assessment data before teachers conducted the most crucial part of assessment. They acted as assistants rather than agents of assessment. For example, in a writing assignment, a senior high school teacher asked parents to examine students' writing by using a spelling-grammar checker software and to urge students to make corrections before submitting assignments. The teacher, upon receiving the revised drafts, provided further feedback on more complex issues such as idea development and stylistic appropriateness (based on written protocol data and teacher interview). The following extract shows another typical instance:</p> <p>The English teacher would give assignments in the Wechat Group. Sometimes she also attached a form for parents to fill in. She asked us to keep a record of the time that our children spent on each task ... When she collected our forms, she would advise us on the learning problems revealed in the amount of time spent on each task (parent interview).</p> <p>The teacher who involved this parent participant in assessment explained in an interview that she "needed the 'time' data to assess how well [her] students achieved the learning targets," and that "if a student spent far more time than normal on a task, it would probably indicate poor learning." For this, she felt grateful to the parents, because "they provided key information for drawing further conclusions about students' learning." (teacher interview) However, another teacher who also asked parents to conduct subsidiary assessment confessed:</p> <p>Parents actually did part of my job which I would have done if it were in a normal classroom ... Their contribution reduced my workload, but didn't fundamentally enhance assessment in its own right (teacher interview).</p> <p>As can be seen, parents facilitated the assessment process and reduced teachers' workload. Although subsidiary assessment did not seem to pose obvious stress on parents, it was likely to affect the equity of assessment condition for students. Students with the most devoted and competent parents were likely to have their learning achievements reflected most accurately in assessment results. As such results formed the basis for teachers to adjust teaching objectives, materials, and activities, their learning issues are more likely to receive attention, while students with less devoted or competent parents were likely to be excluded – their learning issues might be left unnoticed or unattended to.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-13">Equity through assessment affected by parental involvement</hd> <p>Equity <emph>through</emph> assessment means that students should enjoy equal opportunities for receiving feedback based on assessment results to enhance their learning. The present study reveals that parental involvement in sequential and synergic assessment was likely to make learning opportunities more inequitable for students. It might also affect the development of classroom learning community in the long term.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-14">Sequential assessment</hd> <p>In sequential assessment, parents conducted assessment at home after teachers conducted assessment in an online class. Parents were supposed to check students' remedial learning to see if students resolved learning issues identified by teachers in class. This extract demonstrates how sequential assessment was carried out:</p> <p>When I'm able to conduct classroom assessment online, I'll certainly do that, because that's an indispensible part of teaching ... However, I always run short of time when teaching online. I can't make sure that students could make things <emph>right</emph> after I identify their problems ... I need parents to help ... They can help me see to the matter as I'll be giving specific assignments to help students make things right and consolidate what they've learnt. Parents are often willing to take such responsibilities ... They can ask their children about the results of classroom assessment, and then check if problems have been solved after more exercises or drills (teacher interview).</p> <p>Some parents were happy about the sequential assessment that they were requested to conduct, as one parent said:</p> <p>This provided me with an opportunity to get involved in my child's learning ... Under the specific guidance of the teacher, I've also learnt a lot about common problems in English learning and effective solutions (parent interview).</p> <p>Other parents believed such assessment to be "conspicuous buck-passing," exempting teachers from their own responsibilities. One parent remarked:</p> <p>I'd be very happy to supervise my daughter at home, if that meant ensuring that she's got all assignments finished ... I'm not a trained guy to understand where she needs improvement, and then to provide remedies accordingly ... The teacher says that students need to be more fluent as they make a dialogue, but I don't know what it means to be "more fluent" (parent interview).</p> <p>As can be seen, not all parents felt equally competent in sequential assessment. As most parents were "not trained to professionally utilise assessment results to make [their children] learn better" (parent interview), not all students could obtain equal amounts of feedback following sequential assessment. In addition, while most parent participants expressed the willingness to engage in their children's learning, those who were keen to learn the subject matter together with their children could potentially provide their children with more support.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-15">Synergetic assessment</hd> <p>In synergetic assessment, parents and teachers worked together, communicating and collaborating in various ways to assess students' learning. Although synergetic assessment occurred far less frequently, it was an innovative form of assessment, or of teacher-parent collaboration, characterised by parents and teachers playing equal and interactive roles. Below is an example coming from the teacher and parents of the same group of students:</p> <p>A very important thing is to equip parents with necessary techniques of conducting assessment ... When this [getting parents involved in assessment] is utterly necessary, say when I'm unable to conduct assessment online, I'll make a video to train parents to assess their children on a particular language task. For example, in a role-playing activity, what is outstanding performance like? What is the average like? What are commonly anticipated problems? ... I invite parents to join us in short extracurricular sessions where I conduct assessment on one student's performance as a demo, and then encourage a parent to have a go ... A boy in my class told me that he thought his mother was more capable of "being a teacher at home" after the "training" (teacher interview).</p> <p>The teacher warmly encourages us to share with her information about our children's learning behaviour at home. We then discuss in video conferences possible causes of typical learning problems ... I think as a parent, in the first place, I contribute information like a patient describing her symptoms ... I also contribute solutions, but that is not what a patient would do – you have to be a half doctor to do that (parent interview).</p> <p>The "half-doctor" metaphor revealed that parents were collaborators in synergetic assessment. Arguably, as parents and teachers synergised their efforts, they could maximise the support received by at least a certain number of students, making up for the disadvantage of online learning. When the entire learning community is taken into consideration, however, intense parent-teacher collaboration might make students' learning conditions more inequitable, as parents differed immensely in their competence of understanding guidelines provided by teachers, of identifying learning issues of their children, and of communicating with teachers. In the long term, parents who collaborated most with the teacher were likely to insert more influence upon the learning community, and their children might have more opportunities to develop a sense of belonging as community members, or to establish confidence and identity (Gottlieb, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref43">17</reflink>]). Students whose parents participated less in such collaboration, by contrast, might experience a certain level of exclusion.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-16">Discussion and conclusion</hd> <p>In line with existing research findings that parents are expected to play important pedagogical roles in supporting their children's learning (Bruin, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref44">6</reflink>]; Popkewitz, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref45">28</reflink>]), the present study reveals that during the COVID-19 pandemic, school EFL teachers in China involved parents intensely in online classroom assessment, to the extent that parents were sharing responsibilities for teachers' work. Parental involvement could be an effective means of collecting additional student-level data for teachers to assess students' learning, making up for the disadvantage of online teaching where teachers could not supervise students in person. However, in order to complete assessment tasks requested by teachers, parents were expected to have certain knowledge and competence to act as assessors, assistants or collaborators. They were expected to identify their children's learning issues, communicate with teachers, provide feedback for their children, and push them to meet learning goals. Differences among parents in such respects meant that students were not provided with equal opportunities for demonstrating learning achievements or for further enhancing their learning. It means that parental involvement as was identified in this study made it more difficult to maintain equity both <emph>in</emph> and <emph>through</emph> online classroom assessment. While prior research shows that parental involvement influences children's learning behaviour and outcome (Head, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref46">20</reflink>]; Ribbens McCarthy & Edwards, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref47">32</reflink>]; Vincent, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref48">36</reflink>]), the present study suggests that it may potentially exacerbate the unequal distribution of educational resources in classrooms, favouring students whose parents have a higher level of education and stronger capabilities for collaborating with teachers.</p> <p>Our findings also reveal that providing equal opportunities for students' learning is not yet at the forefront of teachers' minds when they make decisions regarding parental involvement. They rarely considered providing more support for or attending more to students who did not have the most capable parents. Faced with difficulties brought by the unexpected shift to online teaching, they increased parental involvement with the intention of supporting students' learning. Their requests for parents, however, reflected a subconscious lack of attention to the principle of equity in pedagogical decision-making, which was evident when examined from the parents' perspective. Such lack of attention to equity, in the long term, would be detrimental to students and the classroom learning community.</p> <p>From a broader perspective, however, it is not fair to claim that teachers alone should shoulder the responsibility for maintaining educational equity. What teachers do in classroom reflects certain school ethos, shaped by structural inequalities in wider society (Reay, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref49">31</reflink>]). While existing research has investigated teachers' classroom assessment literacy as certain knowledge and skills (e.g., Brookhart, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref50">5</reflink>]; DeLuca & Klinger, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref51">13</reflink>]; Xu & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref52">40</reflink>]), to maintain equity <emph>in</emph> and <emph>through</emph> online classroom assessment, at least in our research context, is not merely a matter of enhancing teachers' knowledge and skills. It is also a social issue. In a society where education is mainly geared towards economic development, schools tend to put a premium on strategies to win competitions, much more so than it claims accountability for equity issues (Nussbaum, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref53">27</reflink>]). In our study, we found that teachers were already juggling with multiple goals and roles to manage the teaching job. Arguably, if schools cannot provide substantial support for teachers to maintain equity in classrooms, teachers are in effect put into a rather difficult position. Prior research shows that parental involvement in children's education is becoming all the more intense in well-off families in the Global North (Vincent, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref54">36</reflink>]). In the UK, parental involvement is encouraged by educational policy makers for the purpose of reducing teachers' workload, but its actual impact upon children's learning is not a primary concern (Head, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref55">20</reflink>]). Similar trends are found in today's China, especially in urban schools in relatively affluent cities. In such circumstances, whether parental involvement can be mediated by teachers in an equitable way is largely determined by the extent to which schools adhere to an egalitarian view of education to respond to prevailing social trends.</p> <p>Education is "indispensable for the full exercise of people's capabilities, choices and freedoms in an information-driven age" (Baker et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref56">4</reflink>], p. 141). It plays a central role in "mediating access to a host of social, political and economic goods in society" (Baker et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref57">4</reflink>], p. 142). While economic development is arguably a legitimate goal of education, promoting educational equity should also be an important concern. This poses a challenge for China's educational system. Although the principle of equity can hardly produce tangible short-term benefits such as generating immediate financial returns, increasing students' test scores, or elevating school rankings, it can shape the classroom atmosphere, including community ethos and interaction rules (Camilli, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref58">7</reflink>]; Fan et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref59">14</reflink>]). It also influences students' self-efficacy, their attributions of success, their social positionings, their beliefs about the value of learning, and their interests in learning (Andrade & Brookhart, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref60">2</reflink>]; Chen & Bonner, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref61">9</reflink>]; Rasooli et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref62">30</reflink>]). The negligence of equity issues in classrooms and schools on a day-to-day basis may lead students to accept structural inequalities without questioning it or contemplating different possibilities. The impact of such tacitly inherited mentalities would be revealed at a later point of time when students grow up as fully capable adults managing social affairs. Ultimately, it would constrain possibilities for social development and individual growth.</p> <p>It is therefore necessary to incorporate the principle of equity into teachers' online classroom assessment literacy. Such conceptualisation has implications for pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes. On the one hand, teacher education programmes should raise teachers' awareness of inequitable assessment and learning conditions that may reproduce existing social inequalities (Hill et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref63">21</reflink>]; Rasooli et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref64">30</reflink>]). They should also inspire teachers to explore methods of making online classroom assessment equitable, such as using multiple approaches of assessment for collecting student-level data rather than solely relying on information collected by parents, interpreting assessment results by taking into account external factors that may influence students' performance, and attending to students disadvantaged by poor learning environments or inadequate parental support (Andrade & Brookhart, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref65">2</reflink>]; Cumming, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref66">12</reflink>]; Fan et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref67">14</reflink>]; Klenowski, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref68">23</reflink>]; Littenberg-Tobias & Reich, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref69">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>On the other hand, to maintain equity in classroom assessment is not simply a matter of enhancing teachers' knowledge and skills, and is not a responsibility of teachers alone. Thus, in teacher development programmes, more opportunities should be created for teachers and school managers to communicate equity issues and to exchange perspectives, especially on how equity can be maintained in relation to the pursuit of excellence. Teacher education programmes could work towards the formation of a professional community, by cultivating a common vision for enhancing educational equity and by generating more concrete understanding of how equity can be maintained through pedagogical activities on a day-to-day basis. The present study is based on a large-scale survey; it was not initially designed as a situated or in-depth analysis of interactions between parents, teachers, and students, and therefore cannot offer more specific suggestions based on insights into students' learning experiences. Future studies can address equity issues in online classroom assessment from multiple perspectives, including perspectives of teachers, parents, students, schools, and policy-makers. They can extend their participants to teachers and learners of curriculum areas other than EFL courses. They can also analyse specific assessment events with greater depths or through longitudinal studies.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-17">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>We thank the editors and the anonymous reviewers for their critical and constructive feedback.</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-18">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <hd id="AN0171926284-19">Ethics statement</hd> <p>All teacher and parent participants gave clear and formal consent to their participation in the study during our first contact. 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Her research interests include foreign language curriculum and instruction, critical thinking, and academic literacy.</p> <p>Hao XU is Professor at Beijing Foreign Studies University. His research interests include second language acquisition and language teacher education.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref63"></nolink>
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  Data: Equity and Teachers' Online Classroom Assessment Literacy in China: Insights from Parental Involvement during the COVID-19 Pandemic
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Pu%2C+Shi%22">Pu, Shi</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7647-0231">0000-0002-7647-0231</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Xu%2C+Hao%22">Xu, Hao</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6507-4436">0000-0002-6507-4436</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Asia-Pacific+Journal+of+Teacher+Education%22"><i>Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education</i></searchLink>. 2023 51(4):381-394.
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  Data: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: 14
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  Data: 2023
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Label: Education Level
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Secondary+Education%22">Elementary Secondary Education</searchLink>
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  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Participation%22">Parent Participation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Online+Courses%22">Online Courses</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Evaluation+Methods%22">Evaluation Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Equal+Education%22">Equal Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Competencies%22">Teacher Competencies</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Formative+Evaluation%22">Formative Evaluation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Evaluation%22">Student Evaluation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Role%22">Teacher Role</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22COVID-19%22">COVID-19</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pandemics%22">Pandemics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+Secondary+Education%22">Elementary Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Role%22">Parent Role</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22China%22">China</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1080/1359866X.2023.2228217
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  Data: 1359-866X<br />1469-2945
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
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  Data: School teachers often involve parents to assist in online assessment, but parental involvement can violate equity principles when not carefully monitored. In this article, we analyse types of parental involvement in online classroom assessment resulting from teachers' requests, and discuss how such requests may impact on educational equity. Our data sets are interviews with 45 teachers and 33 parents, supplemented by recorded online teaching videos and students' written and oral works. The findings reveal that providing equal opportunities for students' learning is not yet at the forefront of teachers' minds when they make decisions regarding parental involvement. On that basis, we discuss the necessity and difficulties of incorporating the principle of equity into teachers' online classroom assessment literacy in contemporary China.
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  Data: 2023
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  Data: EJ1398165
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        Value: 10.1080/1359866X.2023.2228217
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      – Text: English
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      Pagination:
        PageCount: 14
        StartPage: 381
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Participation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Online Courses
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Evaluation Methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Equal Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Competencies
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Formative Evaluation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Evaluation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Role
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: COVID-19
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pandemics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary Secondary Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Role
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: China
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Equity and Teachers' Online Classroom Assessment Literacy in China: Insights from Parental Involvement during the COVID-19 Pandemic
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
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      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Pu, Shi
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Xu, Hao
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      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2023
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1359-866X
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1469-2945
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 51
            – Type: issue
              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education
              Type: main
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