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Experiential Education Programs: Fertile Environments for Identity Formation

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Title: Experiential Education Programs: Fertile Environments for Identity Formation
Language: English
Authors: Meerts-Brandsma, Lisa (ORCID 0000-0002-9563-8220), Melton, Theresa, Sibthorp, Jim
Source: Journal of Experiential Education. 2023 46(4):412-432.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 21
Publication Date: 2023
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: High Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Context Effect, Experiential Learning, Self Concept, Student Attitudes, Profiles, Teacher Student Relationship, Self Concept Measures, High School Students, Social Values, Student Characteristics
DOI: 10.1177/10538259221146724
ISSN: 1053-8259
2169-009X
Abstract: Background: Understanding how contextual elements within educational environments relate to identity formation can help educators design experiences intended to support identity formation processes. Purpose: This study examined identity formation among students enrolled in immersion semester high schools and how contextual elements and identity formation actions influence identity formation process profiles. Methodology: Data were collected from middle to late adolescents using the Dimensions of Identity Development Scale, and analyzed using latent profile analysis, crosstabulation, and regression. Conclusions: The findings showed that thinking about values and beliefs in school is related to increased identity exploration and that the teacher-student relationship and novelty in these contexts facilitates thinking about values and beliefs. Students prone to rumination may particularly benefit from the supportive environment, which can increase the likelihood that they discuss their values and beliefs. Implications: Experiential educators working with middle to late adolescents who want to help their participants engage in identity formation should prioritize teacher-student relationships, novel experiences, and a supportive community.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1399342
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0173440025;8l501dec.23;2023Nov07.06:20;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0173440025-1">Experiential Education Programs: Fertile Environments for Identity Formation </title> <p>Background: Understanding how contextual elements within educational environments relate to identity formation can help educators design experiences intended to support identity formation processes. Purpose: This study examined identity formation among students enrolled in immersion semester high schools and how contextual elements and identity formation actions influence identity formation process profiles. Methodology: Data were collected from middle to late adolescents using the Dimensions of Identity Development Scale, and analyzed using latent profile analysis, crosstabulation, and regression. Conclusions: The findings showed that thinking about values and beliefs in school is related to increased identity exploration and that the teacher–student relationship and novelty in these contexts facilitates thinking about values and beliefs. Students prone to rumination may particularly benefit from the supportive environment, which can increase the likelihood that they discuss their values and beliefs. Implications: Experiential educators working with middle to late adolescents who want to help their participants engage in identity formation should prioritize teacher–student relationships, novel experiences, and a supportive community.</p> <p>Keywords: informal learning; identity development; teacher–student relationship; novelty; context</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-2">Introduction</hd> <p>While identity formation occurs across the lifespan ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref1">24</reflink>]), the greatest period of change begins during adolescence ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref2">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref3">23</reflink>]). In general, youth who delve into identity exploration and commitment-making show better outcomes on a variety of measures than youth who do not ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref5">36</reflink>]). Thus, understanding the types of experiences that encourage exploration and commitment, and how and for whom these experiences are helpful, can offer valuable insights into how to facilitate educational experiences that promote identity formation. This study explored how semester-length, educational programs that combine formal and informal learning and experiential education influenced identity formation processes for students. It also looked at how contextual elements of their educational experience prompted changes in identity formation actions and identity formation process profiles. This research addresses a gap in the literature by examining what about, how, and why experiential education contributes to adolescent identity formation.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-3">Review of Literature</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173440025-4">Identity Formation Processes in Adolescents</hd> <p>Identity formation is thought to occur through a dual-cycle process where individuals explore possible identity commitments and maintain the commitments through in-depth exploration (e.g., Luyckx, Schwartz et al., 2008; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref6">31</reflink>]). A five-factor model suggests that people explore in breadth, make a commitment, explore in-depth, identify with the commitment, and may engage in ruminative exploration where they hesitate to make a commitment ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref7">28</reflink>]). Because a person could be involved in all processes at once (rather than being in only one at a time), many researchers examine the intensity of an identity factor rather than its presence or absence to determine the predominant process in which a person is engaged ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref8">24</reflink>]). In this study, we use the term <emph>identity formation process profile</emph> to refer to the constellation of factors a person was most intensely engaged in at a time point (see "Latent Profiles" under "Results"). While identity formation occurs across multiple domains (e.g., educational identity) and a person can be in different processes within each domain, this study was concerned with psychosocial identity development ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref9">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>Many youths initially adopt their familial values and beliefs, but as they move into adolescence, they begin to individuate and question what aspects of those values and beliefs are truly part of their identity. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref10">31</reflink>] first proposed that identity developed in a linear fashion and suggested that a transition to an earlier stage of identity development could be seen as a backstep. Scholars now recognize that people move between processes (and thus, identity formation process profiles) based on their current developmental experiences and that these transitions are not necessarily indicative of regression ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref11">34</reflink>]). The literature on identity change in adolescence continues to evolve but suggests that changes to identity tend to occur gradually and progressively toward a committed identity ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref12">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>Western society generally values commitment whereby a person has developed a consistent sense of their identity that remains stable. Commitment is associated with benefits that include extroversion, emotional stability, academic achievement, and life satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref13">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref14">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref15">39</reflink>]). In contrast, exploration is associated with positive outcomes, such as being open to experiences, warm family relationships, and social responsibility but also negative outcomes, such as less emotional stability, anxiety, and more internalizing symptoms ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref16">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref17">18</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref18">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref19">28</reflink>]). Ruminative exploration has been associated with increased depression and anxiety ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref20">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref21">18</reflink>]). Whereas exploration could be perceived as something to avoid due to its association with less ideal outcomes, it is frequently considered an often difficult but productive phase that all people encounter ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref22">12</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-5">Identity Formation Actions</hd> <p>Despite these mixed associations, undergoing the process of identity formation ultimately leads one to develop their identity ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref23">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref24">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref25">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref26">32</reflink>]). Two <emph>identity formation actions</emph> are specifically linked to the process of identity formation: thinking about one's values and beliefs and discussing one's values and beliefs. Identity formation actions are the daily actions people take, which support the processes of exploration and commitment. Exploration is associated with the process of thinking about or reflecting on one's potential commitments ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref27">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref28">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref29">32</reflink>]). Discussion is another action where, in conversation with others, a person can evaluate potential identity commitments as they articulate their ideas to others and receive feedback about them ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref30">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref31">17</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref32">22</reflink>]). These types of identity formation actions are likely to be influenced by contextual elements within a given environment, such as an educational context.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-6">Contextual Elements Within Education and Identity Formation</hd> <p>Educational contexts have the potential to support identity formation in multiple ways. First, youth are exposed to <emph>novelty</emph>, both in experience and thought, which can promote exploration ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref33">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref34">45</reflink>]). The experience of interacting with new people, activities, and ideas challenges one's existing beliefs and allows a person to consider whether and how the new experience could be integrated into one's identity ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref35">43</reflink>]). Additionally, novel experiences may encourage periods of reflection, whereby a person thinks about new ideas stemming from the experience and uses reasoning to integrate these ideas about values and beliefs into their identity ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref36">12</reflink>]).</p> <p>Another important contextual aspect that can support identity formation in educational contexts is the community, which consists of relationships between students and between students and teachers ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref37">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref38">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref39">43</reflink>]). Youth who feel a greater <emph>sense of belonging</emph> may be more able to explore because they feel that they will be supported as they take risks with their identity ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref40">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref41">15</reflink>]). As one's identity evolves, a person may realize that beliefs and values that seemed important no longer are. However, the people around them may or may not willingly accept those changes, creating vulnerability. The people in the community around a person also provide feedback to them about their identity commitments, potentially providing support as a person embodies new commitments ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref42">35</reflink>]).</p> <p>While peer relationships play an important role, teachers may be even more likely to influence identity formation within an educational context. Teachers (to varying degrees) select the content that students learn within a class and, through this selection, can influence how meaningful the activities students complete are ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref43">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref44">40</reflink>]). Generally, content that is more meaningful to students is thought to be more likely to promote exploration ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref45">43</reflink>]). In designing their lessons, teachers can provide the trigger for exploration, a sense of safety in how they respond to students, and cultivate the classroom environment and scaffolding to facilitate learning and exploration ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref46">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref47">40</reflink>]). Thus, while content is one important aspect that teachers influence, the <emph>teacher–student relationship</emph> is another key factor that can determine how students engage with the learning experience because of the safety and willingness to explore that can be created ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref48">47</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-7">Experiential Education and Identity Formation</hd> <p>In addition to teacher–student relationship, the experiences students have are important to identity formation. Educational experiences that include formal and informal learning, require participants to leave home, and are grounded in experiential education have been shown to influence identity formation in adolescents ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref49">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref50">20</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref51">33</reflink>]). While the exact reasons are not fully understood, social dynamics and activities seem to support identity formation. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref52">20</reflink>], who studied adventure education settings, partially attributed the change in identity formation to the discussions that participants had in response to prompts about goals, personal values, communication, problem-solving, self-reliance, and self-responsibility. [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref53">33</reflink>] noted that the social environment cultivated in semester-long settings appeared to offer many students a strong social support system that they reported increased their confidence and willingness to be vulnerable while trying out new experiences. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref54">8</reflink>] identified seven contextual elements (e.g., novelty, challenge, supportive relationships) in an outdoor adventure program that contributed to identity development.</p> <p>In summary, the hands-on nature of experiential education may lend itself to blending informal and formal education more freely, which may help participants relate the content to their lives as they work in groups that encourage both thinking about and discussing potential lessons and what they mean. In addition, programs that require students to be separated from family and friends may accelerate the relationships students develop amongst themselves and with teachers, which in turn influence the dynamics in these settings, leading them to be fertile environments for identity formation.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-8">Current Study</hd> <p>Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore how contextual elements in a semester-length, experiential educational setting shaped identity formation processes for middle to late adolescents. To achieve this purpose, we examined the following research questions:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> RQ1: Does a student's identity formation process profile change after they attend an immersion semester high school?</item> <p></p> <item> RQ2: Are identity formation actions related to changes in identity formation processes profiles?</item> <p></p> <item> RQ3: Do variations in contextual elements relate to identity formation process profiles and identity formation actions?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0173440025-9">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173440025-10">Participants and Setting</hd> <p>Data were collected from students aged 14–18 (<emph>M</emph> = 16.40, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.54) who attended an immersion semester high school in either Fall 2018 or Spring 2019. Immersion semester high schools are designed primarily for high school sophomores, juniors, or seniors. Students attend schools for roughly a three-month period where they focus on a curriculum centered on a theme, such as sustainable farming or outdoor adventure education. The themes vary by school, but all schools employ experiential education to deliver the curriculum. Cohorts have between 16 and 60 students and live in shared accommodations. They spend most of their time in and out of the classroom interacting primarily with other students, faculty, and staff, which creates a bounded social system for the duration of the semester. The cost to attend immersion semester high schools is similar to attending a boarding school ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref55">42</reflink>]), although financial assistance is available from most schools.</p> <p>Participants completed a survey at two-time points: two weeks before they attended their immersion semester high school and two weeks after their immersion semester high school ended. In the survey taken before their immersion semester high school, they answered questions about the school they currently attended, and in the survey after, they answered questions about their immersion semester high school. Table 1 presents demographic information for the sample, which was predominantly female and White before and after.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table 1. Demographics.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left">Before (<italic>N</italic> = 459<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">a</xref>)</th><th align="left">After (<italic>N</italic> = 359<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">a</xref>)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Gender</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Female</td><td>70.4%</td><td>75.6%</td></tr><tr><td> Male</td><td>26.8%</td><td>21.5%</td></tr><tr><td>Gender non-conforming, another gender identity, or prefer not to answer</td><td>2.9%</td><td>2.6%</td></tr><tr><td> Race</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>American Indian or Alaskan Native</td><td>0.5%</td><td>0.4%</td></tr><tr><td>Asian</td><td>3.8%</td><td>5.1%</td></tr><tr><td>Black or African American</td><td>3.5%</td><td>4.0%</td></tr><tr><td>White</td><td>79.7%</td><td>82.2%</td></tr><tr><td>Another race</td><td>2.8%</td><td>1.5%</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Complete demographic data were not available for all participants.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-11">Measures</hd> <p>The questionnaire contained three main sections. The first section was the Dimensions of Identity Development Scale (DIDS), which we used to operationalize the <emph>identity formation processes</emph> and create <emph>identity formation process profiles</emph>. The DIDS has five subscales, each with five items. The subscales examine commitment-making ("I have decided on the direction I want to follow in life"; α =.93), identification with commitment ("Because of my future plans, I feel certain about myself"), exploration in breadth ("I think actively about different directions I might take in my life"; α =.89), exploration in depth ("I talk with other people about my plans for the future"; α =.64), and ruminative exploration ("I keep looking for the direction I want to take in my life"; α =.84) ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref56">28</reflink>]). Items were scored from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). These Cronbach's alphas fall within the range of high reliability ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref57">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>The second section focused on <emph>contextual elements</emph> that could affect how a person engaged in identity formation processes. Five items assessing teacher–student relationship ("If you came back to visit your school three years from now, how many of your teachers would be excited to see you?"; α =.85) and five items assessing sense of belonging ("How connected do you feel to others at your school?"; α =.88) came from the Panorama Student Survey ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref58">38</reflink>]). They were rated on a 5-point scale from 1 (none of my teachers) to 5 (all my teachers) for teacher–student relationship, and 1 (do not belong at all) to 5 (completely belong) for sense of belonging. Novelty ("I tried doing new things"; α =.72) was assessed using three items from the Youth Experiences Survey 2.0 ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref59">16</reflink>]), and scored from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).</p> <p>The third section of the questionnaire assessed two <emph>identity formation actions</emph>: (a) whether participants thought about or (b) discussed their values and beliefs. Six items focused on thinking about values and beliefs ("I thought about what I want from my life"; α =.84), and seven items focused on discussing values and beliefs ("I discussed who I want to be"; α =.82). Items were scored on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (once a week or less) to 7 (daily) and were generated from previous research on immersion semester high schools ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref60">33</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-12">Procedure</hd> <p>This study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Utah. All students who were enrolled for an immersion semester high school at one of 11 schools during either Fall 2018 or Spring 2019 were invited to participate in the study. Following parental consent and student assent, participants completed the first questionnaire two weeks before the start of their immersion semester high schools. They completed the questionnaire a second time two weeks after they completed their immersion semester. Most students completed the surveys online. However, some students who did not have access to technology during their immersion semester high school completed the survey on paper.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-13">Data Analysis</hd> <p>Since RQ1 and RQ2 required latent profiles, latent profile analysis (LPA), a person-centered statistical approach, was utilized to identify latent subgroup profiles ("identity formation process profiles") using participants' scores on the DIDS ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref61">26</reflink>]). This method can be utilized to identify subgroup profiles that are present within the sample and to assign participants to each identified profile based on probability. LPA was conducted utilizing the "mclust" and "tidyverse" packages in R Studio (version 1.4.1106) and guided by syntax offered by Hipson (2019). A total of 459 youth responded before their immersion semester high school, and 359 youth responded after.</p> <p>Prior to LPA, we examined any potential multivariate outliers using Maholanobis Distance. Seven outliers were detected and removed from the sample before attending, and 12 after attending. As the "mclust" package requires complete data, individuals with missing data on any of the DIDS subscales were removed from the sample. Little's Missing Completely at Random (LMCR) test indicated that data were missing at random both before and after attending an immersion semester high school (<emph>p</emph> =.489; Li, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref62">27</reflink>]). The final sample for LPA included 416 participants before attending an immersion semester high school, and 282 after attending an immersion semester high school. Analysis was conducted using average scores on each of the five subscales from the DIDS. The final number of profiles were selected based on statistical fit indices and theoretical interpretability, specifically Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), with smaller values indicating a better fitting model ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref63">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref64">46</reflink>]).</p> <p>To address RQ1, profiles were estimated at both time points and latent transition analysis was utilized. This statistical approach analyzes "shifts between discrete stages" using multiple quantitative dimensions and follows under the assumption that an individual's profile membership may not be stable across development ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref65">26</reflink>], p. 60). Therefore, identity formation process profile membership was estimated before and after attending an immersion semester high school separately, then transitions between groups were evaluated using the crosstab function in SPSS (version 27). For the latent transition analysis, we only included participants that had profiles established at both time points (<emph>n</emph> = 184). Students that remained in the same identity formation process profile before and after their immersion semester high school were classified as "stable" whereas students that changed identity formation process profiles were considered "changing."</p> <p>To address RQ2 and RQ3, we examined how contextual elements related to identity formation actions, and how identity formation actions related to identity formation process profiles using the full sample (before <emph>n</emph> = 459; after <emph>n</emph> = 359). For RQ2, logistic regression was utilized with the full sample to determine whether identity formation actions predicted membership in any profile after they attended an immersion semester high school. Finally, to address RQ3, Ordinary Least Squares regression analysis was utilized to explore whether any contextual elements before attending an immersion semester high school or after attendance predicted scores on identity formation actions.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-14">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173440025-15">Latent Profiles</hd> <p>RQ1 and RQ2 required the development of latent profiles. Based on the review of the BIC plot before attending an immersion semester high school, a three-profile solution was the best fitting. Results of the BIC and AIC confirmed a three-profile solution. This resulted in fairly equal identity formation process profile groups, with 148 students identified as "committing," 139 students as "exploring," and 129 students as "ruminating" (see Figure 1 for before and after identity formation process profiles, and Table 2 for descriptive statistics for the process profiles).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. DIDS identity dimensions by identity formation process profiles before and after attending an immersion semester high school.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table 2. Descriptive Statistics by Profile Before and After Attending Immersion Semester High School.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left" colspan="2">Committing</th><th align="left" colspan="2">Exploring</th><th align="left" colspan="2">Ruminating</th></tr><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left">Mean</th><th align="left">Standard deviation</th><th align="left">Mean</th><th align="left">Standard deviation</th><th align="left">Mean</th><th align="left">Standard deviation</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="7">Before immersion semester high school</td></tr><tr><td>Commitment making</td><td>3.02</td><td>.601</td><td>2.21</td><td>1.028</td><td>1.08</td><td>.735</td></tr><tr><td>Exploration in breadth</td><td>2.90</td><td>.632</td><td>3.90</td><td>.128</td><td>2.92</td><td>.508</td></tr><tr><td>Exploration in depth</td><td>2.71</td><td>.644</td><td>2.72</td><td>.663</td><td>2.21</td><td>.628</td></tr><tr><td>Identification with commitment</td><td>2.96</td><td>.601</td><td>2.64</td><td>.881</td><td>1.82</td><td>.520</td></tr><tr><td>Ruminative exploration</td><td>2.06</td><td>.822</td><td>2.62</td><td>1.024</td><td>2.67</td><td>.914</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">After immersion semester high school</td></tr><tr><td>Commitment making</td><td>3.38</td><td>.462</td><td>2.72</td><td>.756</td><td>2.01</td><td>.729</td></tr><tr><td>Exploration in breadth</td><td>3.06</td><td>.586</td><td>3.96</td><td>.083</td><td>3.06</td><td>.438</td></tr><tr><td>Exploration in depth</td><td>2.74</td><td>.693</td><td>3.09</td><td>.564</td><td>2.45</td><td>.585</td></tr><tr><td>Identification with commitment</td><td>3.42</td><td>.441</td><td>2.92</td><td>.776</td><td>2.25</td><td>.556</td></tr><tr><td>Ruminative exploration</td><td>1.42</td><td>.657</td><td>2.50</td><td>.842</td><td>2.43</td><td>.730</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>After comparing the BIC and AIC for each model, along with considering the theoretical assumptions and interpretability, a three-profile solution was also adopted after attending an immersion semester high school. This resulted in a total of 60 participants as "committing," 131 as "exploring," and 91 as "ruminating".</p> <p>Students categorized in the <emph>committing process profile</emph> reported the highest scores on commitment-making and identification with commitment and lower scores on exploration in breadth, exploration in depth, and ruminative exploration. People categorized in the <emph>exploring process profile</emph> reported the highest scores on exploration in breadth followed by exploration in depth while the remaining three variables were similarly scored. People categorized in the <emph>ruminating process profile</emph> had above-average scores on the ruminative exploration subscale and below-average scores on the four additional DIDS factors. While the DIDS is intended to capture five identity formation factors, variation in our sample showed covariation among some of these factors, resulting in three underlying latent groupings in our data.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-16">Changes in Identity Formation Process Profiles (RQ1)</hd> <p>Roughly half of the participants in the study remained stable in their identity formation process profile (52%) before attending an immersion semester high school while the remainder (48%) changed into a different identity formation process profile after attending an immersion semester high school. Of participants who started as in the <emph>committing process profile</emph>, 31% were stable while 42% changed into exploring and 27% into ruminating. Of participants who started in the <emph>exploring process profile</emph>, 72% were stable while 17% changed into committing and 12% changed into ruminating. Of participants who began the semester in the <emph>ruminating process profile</emph>, 59% were stable while 11% changed into committing and 30% changed into exploring. Before attending an immersion semester high school, students were similarly distributed across the three profiles. After attending an immersion semester high school, more students were categorized as in the <emph>exploring process profile</emph> (48%) than any other profile. While the number of students in the <emph>ruminating process profile</emph> was similar at two-time points, the <emph>committing process profile</emph> had about half as many students after they attended their immersion semester high school (see Figure 2).</p> <p>DIAGRAM: Figure 2. Sankey diagram demonstrating changes in profiles identity formation process profile after attending immersion semester high school.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-17">Identity Formation Actions and Process Profiles (RQ2)</hd> <p>We examined the relationship between two identity formation actions while enrolled in an immersion semester high school and one's identity formation process profile membership after attending an immersion semester high school. Table 3 shows the probability of identity formation process profile classification after attendance based on a one-point increase in identity formation actions.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table 3. Probability of Process Profile Classification After Attendance Based on a One-Point Increase in Identity Formation Action.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left" colspan="2">Committing</th><th align="left" colspan="2">Exploring</th><th align="left" colspan="2">Ruminating</th></tr><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left">Prob.</th><th align="left">Sig.</th><th align="left">Prob.</th><th align="left">Sig.</th><th align="left">Prob.</th><th align="left">Sig.</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Thinking about values and beliefs</td><td><bold>−.685</bold></td><td><bold>.022</bold></td><td><bold>.879</bold></td><td><bold><.001</bold></td><td><bold>−.750</bold></td><td><bold>.048</bold></td></tr><tr><td>Discussing values and beliefs</td><td>.239</td><td>.130</td><td>.207</td><td>.110</td><td><bold>−.678</bold></td><td><bold>.002</bold></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 <emph>Note</emph>. Bold indicates significant at <emph>p</emph> <.05.</p> <p>The more students thought about their values and beliefs, the less likely they were to be classified in the committing process profile but the more likely they were to be classified in the exploring process profile. Additionally, the more youth reported thinking about and discussing their values and beliefs, the less likely they were to be classified in the ruminating process profile.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-18">Identity Formation Actions and Contextual Elements (RQ3)</hd> <p>For this analysis, we identified relationships between identity formation actions and contextual elements (teacher–student relationship, sense of belonging, and novelty). Due to a lack of variability in student race, gender was the only covariate utilized in the regression analysis. This analysis allowed us to consider differences in how contextual elements related to identity formation actions before versus when they attended their immersion semester high school.</p> <p>After controlling for gender, teacher–student relationship at the school they attended before their immersion high school was not significantly related to either identity formation action. Sense of belonging before immersion school attendance was associated with a significant decrease in thinking about values and beliefs whereas novelty predicted higher thinking about and discussing values and beliefs scores. Yet, teacher–student relationship at their immersion high school had a significant positive relationship with both identity formation actions, and sense of belonging had a positive relationship with discussing values and beliefs. Novelty during the immersion semester had a positive relationship with thinking about values and beliefs (see Table 4).</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table 4. Relationship Between Contextual Elements and Identity Formation Actions Before and After Attendance.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left" colspan="3">Thinking About Values and Beliefs</th><th align="left" colspan="3">Discussing Values and Beliefs</th></tr><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left">β</th><th align="left">Standardized β</th><th align="left">Sig</th><th align="left">β</th><th align="left">Standardized β</th><th align="left">Sig</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="7">Before</td></tr><tr><td>Teacher–student relationship</td><td>.025</td><td>.015</td><td>.781</td><td>.121</td><td>.084</td><td>.108</td></tr><tr><td>Sense of belonging</td><td><bold>−.205</bold></td><td><bold>−.112</bold></td><td><bold>.034</bold></td><td>.083</td><td>.055</td><td>.291</td></tr><tr><td>Novelty</td><td><bold>.392</bold></td><td><bold>.235</bold></td><td><bold><.001</bold></td><td><bold>.342</bold></td><td><bold>.247</bold></td><td><bold><.001</bold></td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">After</td></tr><tr><td>Teacher–student relationship</td><td><bold>.318</bold></td><td><bold>.147</bold></td><td><bold>.023</bold></td><td><bold>.520</bold></td><td><bold>.197</bold></td><td><bold>.002</bold></td></tr><tr><td>Sense of belonging</td><td>.164</td><td>.096</td><td>.139</td><td><bold>.379</bold></td><td><bold>.183</bold></td><td><bold>.004</bold></td></tr><tr><td>Novelty</td><td><bold>.293</bold></td><td><bold>.154</bold></td><td><bold>.008</bold></td><td>.222</td><td>.096</td><td>.084</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 <emph>Note</emph>. Bold indicates significant at <emph>p</emph> <.05.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-19">Summary</hd> <p>These results showed that before immersion school attendance and after attendance, our participants could be categorized into three identity formation process profiles: committing, exploring, and ruminating. After the semester ended, about half the students remained in the same process profile as when they started but the other half changed into a different process profile. More students finished the semester <emph>exploring</emph> than any other process profile.</p> <p>Next, we examined how identity formation actions related to one's identity formation process profile. We found that students at an immersion semester high school who thought about their values and beliefs more frequently were significantly more likely to be classified as <emph>exploring</emph> and significantly less likely to be classified as <emph>committing</emph>. We also found that students who thought about and discussed values and beliefs less frequently were significantly more likely to be classified as <emph>ruminating</emph>.</p> <p>Finally, we examined how contextual elements related to identity formation actions. Teacher–student relationship was related to an increase in identity formation actions at an immersion semester high school, but not before attendance. Sense of belonging was related to thinking about values and beliefs less frequently before attending the immersion semester high school but was related to discussing values and beliefs more after attendance. Novelty was related to both thinking about and discussing values and beliefs before attending the immersion semester high school but was only related to thinking about beliefs after attendance.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-20">Discussion</hd> <p>While there is no one pathway to identity formation, it is generally accepted that youth ought to explore and consider multiple commitments throughout adolescence before consolidating their identity ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref66">31</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref67">34</reflink>]). What remains less understood is how different experiences, specifically semester-length, experiential education programs, promote identity formation processes, although scholars are interested in effective interventions for identity formation ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref68">4</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref69">8</reflink>] identified both contextual elements and processes that promoted identity formation in adventure recreation, which has similar qualities to semester-length, experiential education programs. This study extends that research into educational environments, which have the potential to be important drivers of identity formation because students are often exposed to new ideas and new people, including teachers and peers, who can influence and change their understanding of themselves and the world around them ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref70">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref71">43</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref72">45</reflink>]). To inform how experiential educators in semester-length, immersive environments might best facilitate identity formation, this study examined the relationship between a student's identity formation process profile, identity formation actions, and contextual elements. This allowed us to understand which contextual elements and identity formation actions appeared to support change or stability in terms of a student's identity formation process profile, which represents different identity formation processes.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-21">Committing</hd> <p>Half of the students who had arrived in the committing profile switched to a different identity formation process profile by the end of the semester (RQ1). While commitment is often viewed positively, premature commitment is not generally viewed as ideal ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref73">34</reflink>]). Most youth benefit from periods of exploration that allow them to determine how aspects of their identity either align or differ from the people with whom they grew up, and to consider multiple possibilities for themselves and their future ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref74">2</reflink>]). If students in the committing process profile had not yet undergone significant exploration, the change that occurred at the immersion semester high school could be seen as a benefit, particularly if it encouraged exploration in breadth.</p> <p>About 27% of students in the committing process profile who changed ended in the ruminating process profile, raising the possibility that their commitments were premature and that they are now unsure how to proceed. If the students previously had a foreclosed identity where they committed without significant exploration (cf., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref75">31</reflink>]), a period of ruminating may be a transition stage as they move toward exploring. Another possibility is that students were confident in their commitments, but their ideas are undergoing significant transition and they have not yet reconciled how to integrate their current experience into their past experience.</p> <p>Some students who were committing transitioned to exploring, potentially as a consequence of their immersion semester high school. Previous research suggests that students in semester-length experiential education programs undergo a process of exploration through which they better understand the justifications for their values and beliefs, even though the values and beliefs may remain the same ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref76">33</reflink>]). Consequently, some students who entered committing may be deepening their commitments while still going through an exploratory process (Luyckx, Schwartz, et al., 2008).</p> <p>Our findings showed that the more students thought about their values and beliefs during the semester, the less likely they were to be categorized in the committing profile afterward (RQ2). Students in this profile showed no significant relationship to discussing values and beliefs. Committing may be more related to another type of daily action that was not assessed in this study. Both identity formation actions had significant relationships to contextual elements (RQ3), which will be addressed in the exploring and ruminating sections below.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-22">Exploring</hd> <p>The exploring process profile increased the most in size, which could be related to the contextual elements of immersion semester high schools and the developmental stage of the population (RQ1). Given that students were middle to late adolescents, exploration is still common and developmentally appropriate ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref77">24</reflink>]). This period of exploration could be viewed as a positive outcome of semester-length experiential education programs if students eventually commit. That so many students finished their immersion semester high school exploring also suggests that these programs may be particularly effective at supporting exploratory processes.</p> <p>Our findings showed that the more students thought about their values and beliefs during the semester, the more likely they were to be categorized in the exploring profile (RQ2). These findings support that thinking, or reflection, is an essential process for identity formation ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref78">13</reflink>]) and that it may specifically be related to exploring rather than committing. Education is designed to encourage thinking through a variety of means. Teachers may develop class activities so that students engage with the content in meaningful ways, and they often expose them to ideas and experiences for the first time ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref79">17</reflink>]). Most immersion semester high schools report that teachers lead activities and create assignments that ask students to identify what is important to them and justify their beliefs ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref80">33</reflink>]). However, activities alone may not be enough. The combination of activities and group dynamics may interact to create an advantageous environment for identity formation.</p> <p>Novelty was associated with a significant increase in thinking about values and beliefs at both an immersion semester high school and for students in their home environment (RQ3). It may be an essential element to promote thinking, and consequently, exploring (c.f., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref81">12</reflink>]). However, the role of the teacher and sense of belonging to thinking was more complicated. The teacher–student relationship was only significantly associated with thinking about values and beliefs at an immersion semester high school whereas sense of belonging only had a significant negative relationship at home. The relationships with both teachers and peers may function differently across these environments. At home, students may have stable, established relationships where novel content is more rarely introduced. Thus, the stronger their sense of belonging, the less likely they are to think about their values and beliefs. At an immersion semester high school, they have less time to connect with their teachers, Thus, it may be more important during that limited time that they have a strong relationship with teachers to be receptive to the novel content teachers can provide. In addition to providing opportunities to try new things, a strong teacher–student relationship may be necessary for an immersion semester high school to be an effective agent of identity formation.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-23">Ruminating</hd> <p>Our sample included a surprising number of students in the ruminating process profile. Both before and after their immersion semester high school, almost one-third of students were categorized as ruminating (RQ1). People view rumination negatively because youth in rumination are often unable to move forward in their identity formation ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref82">29</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref83">30</reflink>]). A counter argument proposes that while rumination is often negative, it may be appropriate under certain conditions ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref84">24</reflink>]). For example, a youth whose gender identity does not align with their sex assigned at birth may not be able to safely share that information. In this case, rumination serves as a protective measure. Although 60% of ruminating students were stable, 40% of students who started in the ruminating process profile changed to the exploring (30%) or committing (10%) profiles.</p> <p>The large percentage of students who were ruminating brings up questions about the type of students who attend immersion semester high schools. In the United States, it is not common to leave home for a semester, especially later in high school when students may be on varsity sports teams, excited about social events, or taking advanced classes to prepare for college. A subset of students who attend immersion semester schools may do so because they struggle to fit into their current environment. Immersion semester high schools report that they attract high-performing students ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref85">42</reflink>]), so perhaps these students are wrestling with the need to meet or satisfy others' expectations versus being authentic to their true self ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref86">30</reflink>]). If so, these semester-length, experiential education programs may provide an outlet where students can consider their values and beliefs outside of their established social and familial systems. This possibility could be explored in future research on adolescents who choose educational programs that allow them to temporarily leave home during the academic year. Similarly, future research could examine what conditions allowed students who started in rumination to change to committing or exploring, which could identify effective interventions for students who are ruminating.</p> <p>Students who thought about and who discussed their values and beliefs less frequently during the semester were more likely to be categorized as ruminating (RQ2). Ruminating students appear more disengaged from the daily actions of identity formation compared to peers who are committing or exploring. If educators can figure out how to engage these students in thinking about and discussing their values and beliefs, they may be able to help these students change to a different identity formation process. To engage students in semester-length, experiential education programs, educators could consider how the contextual elements encourage identity formation actions (RQ3). As described above, they could promote thinking about values and beliefs by fostering a strong teacher–student relationship and creating opportunities for novelty. Discussing values and beliefs was significantly related to teacher–student relationship and sense of belonging at an immersion semester school but not at home where only novelty was significantly related to discussing values and beliefs. Again, for semester-length, experiential education programs to be effective, educators likely need to ensure that students have a supportive community with both teachers and peers. This finding differs at home where students have more ability to find their own community rather than needing to fit into the bounded social system of an immersion semester high school.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-24">Limitations</hd> <p>Experiential education opportunities like immersion semester high schools tend to be expensive, and most students who can access them are likely financially privileged. The majority are also White. Consequently, readers should be careful about how they generalize findings from this study as the experiences of students from lower socioeconomic status or marginalized populations could be quite different. While immersion semester high schools share many similarities, each school ultimately has many differences that could impact the data. It is also important to note that we observed participant attrition between data collection points. Although the results of the LMCR suggest that missing was completely at random, it is possible that unmeasured variables contributed to missingness. Likewise, the sample size in this study was not large enough to split the sample during analysis, and therefore, there are additional concerns over the empirical reliance of these profiles, despite the connection with theory. We recommend that this analysis is replicated in larger and more diverse samples to strengthen our understanding and confidence in the generalizability of results. Relatedly, the internal consistency of our measures ranged from.64 to.93. Although standards indicate that alpha at around.70 is good, higher values are better ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref87">37</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref88">44</reflink>]), and one of our reliability estimates were right at the border of acceptable. As we mentioned earlier, immersion semester high schools focus on a theme that varies by school, and school-level effects are possible. Future research should utilize either direct effect or multilevel models to estimate school-level effects, as well as the different processes within a school that can contribute to outcomes. Finally, the data about contextual elements was retrospective recall data, and this study did not utilize an experimental design.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-25">Conclusion and Implications</hd> <p>Many students who attend experiential education programs like immersion semester high schools will experience a change in their identity formation process profile, and they are most likely to be exploring after their program ends. This research showed that thinking about values and beliefs in school is related to increased identity exploration, and that the teacher–student relationship and novelty in these contexts facilitate thinking about values and beliefs. While students had a variety of experiences, this type of educational environment seemed to encourage exploration because of contextual elements that drive students to think about their values and beliefs. Administrators may want to consider how they can help teachers build caring relationships with their students and may want to emphasize novel experiences within a supportive community if their aim is to support identity formation, and specifically, identity exploration in adolescents. Contexts, where informal and formal learning, are combined may be especially good at encouraging students to engage in identity formation processes because of the relationships that develop with peers and teachers. Additionally, for students in rumination, it may be useful to consider how to increase their sense of belonging and relationships with teachers so that they are more likely to participate in discussions and potentially transition out of rumination. Ultimately, the actions, elements, and contexts common in experiential education appear well suited to encouraging identity formation processes, an essential task of adolescent development.</p> <hd id="AN0173440025-26">Appendix</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173440025-27">Supplementary Information on Profile Selection</hd> <p>Model fit indices, including BIC and ICL, were reviewed to assess the best-fitting model. Smaller scores for BIC and ICL indicate a relatively better fit ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref89">41</reflink>]). In addition, visual inspections of the profiles, theoretical assumptions, and interpretability were considered, as described below.</p> <p>For the data collected before attending an immersion semester high school (Before attendance), review of BIC and ICL indicated that a two-, three-, or four-profile solution might fit the data (see Table A1 for fit indices). The two-profile solution (BIC = −5,449.67; ICL = −5,526.40) resulted in profiles with 174 and 242 individuals. A three-profile solution (BIC = −5,438.51; ICL = −5,586.18) resulted in three groups consisting of 129, 139, and 148 individuals. A four-profile solution (BIC = −5,436.04; ICL = −5,586.86) resulted in profiles with 44, 96, 125, and 151 individuals. Based on a review of the plots, the three-profile solution connected more closely with the theories driving these research questions, and since the model fit indices were very close, this model was adopted for analysis. While the DIDS does include five subscales, we did not anticipate that they functioned independently. Consequently, we anticipated fewer than five profiles for our data. Given the common understanding in the identity literature about the roles of commitment and exploration, we anticipated a minimum of three profile (driven by differences in commitment, exploration, and rumination). We were uncertain if the breadth and depth subscales would empirically function as we anticipated. Thus, we were open to more than three profiles if supported by the data.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table A1. Model Fit Indices by Number of Profiles for Before Attendance Data.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left">Number of profiles</th><th align="left">BIC</th><th align="left">ICL</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>2</td><td>−5,449.67</td><td>−5,526.40</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>−5,438.51</td><td>−5,586.18</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>−5,436.04</td><td>−5,586.86</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>For the data collected after attending an immersion semester high school (after attendance), we considered a three-, four-, and five-profile solution (see Table A2 for after attendance model fit indices). Although the four-factor solution resulted in the smallest values for BIC and ICL (BIC = −3,809.05; ICL = −3,953.32), some of the profiles included very few participants; profile sizes included 28, 34, 91, and 129 individuals. Since the BIC and ICL for the three- and five-profile solutions were relatively small as well, we looked at those profile sizes. With the five-profile solution (BIC = −3,770.97; ICL = −3,854.01), the profiles included 28, 34, 91, and 129 individuals. However, with the three-profile solution (BIC = −3,696.62; ICL = −3,746.87), the profile sizes included 60, 131, and 91 individuals. Given the relatively close nature of the model fit indices, we explored the theoretical connection. The three-profile solution aligned well with the solution identified before attending an immersion semester high school and aligned with the processes of commitment, exploration, and rumination (Table 2).</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table A2. Model Fit Indices by Number of Profiles After Attending an Immersion Semester High School.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="left" /><col align="left" /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left">Number of profiles</th><th align="left">BIC</th><th align="left">ICL</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>3</td><td>−3,696.62</td><td>−3,746.87</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>−3,809.05</td><td>−3,953.32</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>−3,770.97</td><td>−3,854.01</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Based on the combination of model fit indices and theory, we ultimately settled on a three-profile solution. 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B., Johnson H. E., Deutsch N. L., Varga S. M. (2018). "She calls me by my last name": Exploring adolescent perceptions of positive teacher-student relationships. Journal of Adolescent Research, 33(3), 332–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558416684958</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0173440025-29"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was partially supported by funding from the Semester School Network.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lisa Meerts-Brandsma https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9563-8220</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Lisa Meerts-Brandsma; Theresa Melton and Jim Sibthorp</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Lisa Meerts-Brandsma is an assistant professor in the Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism at the University of Utah. Her research focuses on youth development, and how recreation experiences, such as outdoor education, can promote positive youth development and well-being.</p> <p>Theresa Melton is currently an assistant professor in Youth Development Leadership at Clemson University. Her research focuses on examining how contexts can pro-mote positive youth development, with a specific interest in applied research methodology and supporting researcher-practitioner partnerships.</p> <p>Jim Sibthorp is a professor in the Department of Park, Recreation, and Tourism at the University of Utah, where he teaches courses in outdoor recreation, experiential education, youth development, and research design and analysis. His research focuses on youth in recreation settings, including outdoor expeditions, summer programs, and camps. His lab group studies the impacts of outdoor education and recreation on youth and emerging adults.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref83"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref89"></nolink>
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  Data: Experiential Education Programs: Fertile Environments for Identity Formation
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Meerts-Brandsma%2C+Lisa%22">Meerts-Brandsma, Lisa</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9563-8220">0000-0002-9563-8220</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Melton%2C+Theresa%22">Melton, Theresa</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sibthorp%2C+Jim%22">Sibthorp, Jim</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Experiential+Education%22"><i>Journal of Experiential Education</i></searchLink>. 2023 46(4):412-432.
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  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
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  Data: 21
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  Data: 2023
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Label: Education Level
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
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  Label: Descriptors
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Context+Effect%22">Context Effect</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Experiential+Learning%22">Experiential Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept%22">Self Concept</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Profiles%22">Profiles</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Student+Relationship%22">Teacher Student Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept+Measures%22">Self Concept Measures</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+School+Students%22">High School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Values%22">Social Values</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Characteristics%22">Student Characteristics</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1177/10538259221146724
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  Data: 1053-8259<br />2169-009X
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
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  Data: Background: Understanding how contextual elements within educational environments relate to identity formation can help educators design experiences intended to support identity formation processes. Purpose: This study examined identity formation among students enrolled in immersion semester high schools and how contextual elements and identity formation actions influence identity formation process profiles. Methodology: Data were collected from middle to late adolescents using the Dimensions of Identity Development Scale, and analyzed using latent profile analysis, crosstabulation, and regression. Conclusions: The findings showed that thinking about values and beliefs in school is related to increased identity exploration and that the teacher-student relationship and novelty in these contexts facilitates thinking about values and beliefs. Students prone to rumination may particularly benefit from the supportive environment, which can increase the likelihood that they discuss their values and beliefs. Implications: Experiential educators working with middle to late adolescents who want to help their participants engage in identity formation should prioritize teacher-student relationships, novel experiences, and a supportive community.
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  Data: 2023
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        Value: 10.1177/10538259221146724
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        StartPage: 412
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      – SubjectFull: Experiential Learning
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      – SubjectFull: Self Concept
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      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
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      – SubjectFull: Profiles
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      – SubjectFull: Teacher Student Relationship
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      – SubjectFull: Self Concept Measures
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      – SubjectFull: High School Students
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      – SubjectFull: Social Values
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      – SubjectFull: Student Characteristics
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