Social Inclusivity for Children with Severe Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: Development of a 1950s School Community Programme
Saved in:
| Title: | Social Inclusivity for Children with Severe Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: Development of a 1950s School Community Programme |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Takako Homma (ORCID |
| Source: | Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education. 2023 59(6):1035-1053. |
| Availability: | Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 19 |
| Publication Date: | 2023 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Descriptive |
| Descriptors: | Severe Disabilities, Intellectual Disability, Developmental Disabilities, Interpersonal Relationship, Inclusion, Social Life, Community Programs, Social Development, Educational History, Students with Disabilities, Parent Teacher Cooperation, Daily Living Skills |
| Geographic Terms: | New York (New York) |
| DOI: | 10.1080/00309230.2022.2092761 |
| ISSN: | 0030-9230 1477-674X |
| Abstract: | This study examines the development of a 1950s educational programme for the inclusion of children with severe intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) -- those with IQ scores of less than 50, referred to as "trainable" or "dependent" children -- into community life. Conducted by the American Association of Parents of Retarded Children (AHRC) in New York City, the programme clarified the social life expectancies of children with severe IDD who had historically been segregated from society. The programme aimed to have these children be accepted within their communities and families, broaden their lives, and help their parents understand them appropriately. It affirmed the notion that children with severe IDD and their families could live in society with support. In other words, the goal was not just vocational independence but also the pursuance of a social life while receiving community services. The intended outcomes of the programme included personal independence, housework, good relations with others, physical movement, and literacy, among others. Although the programme was unique and thus different from traditional academic learning content, it was emphasised that the original goals of education for children with severe IDD and that of mainstream education are the same in the sense of realising democracy. The education and guidance necessary for them to grow to their fullest potential and integrate into community life could also lead to academic and vocational outcomes. The development of the school programme represented the beginning of what became known as social inclusion, thereby bringing diversity to social life and education. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Entry Date: | 2024 |
| Accession Number: | EJ1405959 |
| Database: | ERIC |
|
Full text is not displayed to guests.
Login for full access.
|
|
| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwF1Tklb_ZLCN5iQlfFdGAn8AAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDFOS8HmkbvS-zPgfgwIBEICBm_HjqV6h5Kx8d7JiJq_6CcV7NzykhclcY9rsr1ldnnzNmynvuCNS-WE4xZIzHBZUHIWe0aR-BEx2hp7Smuc-oXrLp7NU79uW6ynju4gAetAkf5OIngjzuBlaRIadD09H6Q6zBa1B6lEnqaiTnxRlDF0oCRBS808_aUzGgIzhYwMmVhezBxP2xIDQJRFBymYb3KO1gBYQ0HxlHbyn Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0174099720;j5401dec.23;2023Dec12.05:25;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0174099720-1">Social inclusivity for children with severe intellectual and developmental disabilities: development of a 1950s school community programme </title> <p>This study examines the development of a 1950s educational programme for the inclusion of children with severe intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) – those with IQ scores of less than 50, referred to as "trainable" or "dependent" children – into community life. Conducted by the American Association of Parents of Retarded Children (AHRC) in New York City, the programme clarified the social life expectancies of children with severe IDD who had historically been segregated from society. The programme aimed to have these children be accepted within their communities and families, broaden their lives, and help their parents understand them appropriately. It affirmed the notion that children with severe IDD and their families could live in society with support. In other words, the goal was not just vocational independence but also the pursuance of a social life while receiving community services. The intended outcomes of the programme included personal independence, housework, good relations with others, physical movement, and literacy, among others. Although the programme was unique and thus different from traditional academic learning content, it was emphasised that the original goals of education for children with severe IDD and that of mainstream education are the same in the sense of realising democracy. The education and guidance necessary for them to grow to their fullest potential and integrate into community life could also lead to academic and vocational outcomes. The development of the school programme represented the beginning of what became known as social inclusion, thereby bringing diversity to social life and education.</p> <p>Keywords: Children with severe IDD; school programmes; parent groups; community life; life experience education</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-2">Introduction</hd> <p>In the United States, children with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) – previously called "mentally retarded" or "feeble-minded" – had lived in state-sponsored boarding schools (or residential institutions) since the nineteenth century. These state facilities grew in size and functioned as the core of service delivery operations until the 1980s. In 1987, New York State made a clear policy shift from a system of custodial care in institutions to the deinstitutionalisation of the provision of services within communities. Six of the state's 20 largest facilities were slated for closure that year. This was evaluated as "the largest and most rapid closure of large institutions for the care of people with IDD in the United States".[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>]</p> <p>In reality, community life for children with IDD had gradually been progressing since the early twentieth century. With the establishment of special classes in public schools, children with moderate IDD (IQ of 50–75) were given the freedom to expand their social interactions from institutions to the community. When it became clear that the graduates of these special classes were living within the community in the 1920s, institutions for people with IDD also became both indirectly and directly involved in facilitating the transition to community life. They offered special teacher-training courses and developed a halfway system aimed at easing the transition for previously institutionalised residents.[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>]</p> <p>During the period from the Great Depression to the Second World War, the issue of institutions for the intellectually disabled was not a matter of public concern or a policy priority; there was thus a shift towards institutionalisation in large-scale facilities. Quality of life was severely diminished in such institutions due to insufficient staff and a lack of educational and recreational facilities.[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>] Even so, in the 1940s, vocational education and career guidance for mildly intellectually disabled children were strengthened through special classes aiming at employment in the community. However, children with severe IDD (those with an IQ of lower than 50) were not included in school education. In other words, until the 1940s, the possibility of community life was only open to children with mild IDD. Children and adults with severe IDD were thus excluded from society at the time. Their only options were to enter a large-scale institution or remain at home without education.</p> <p>Attention turned to the treatment of children and adults with severe intellectual disabilities after the Second World War, in the 1950s. This was triggered by accusations of appalling treatment (including routine abuse) at facilities for the intellectually disabled by caregivers who had refused military service during the war. Accordingly, a critical eye was once again turned to institutional treatment.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>] These large-scale institutions reminded social activists and parents of eugenics and the problems of social adjustment experienced by refugee women and children. Accordingly, the need for a critical re-evaluation of institutional care and social exclusion was demanded.[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>]</p> <p>In addition, the successive publication of books such as <emph>The Child Who Never Grew</emph> (1950) by Pearl S. Buck,[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>] and <emph>Angel Unaware</emph> (1953) by Dale Evans Rogers,[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>] led to some parents of intellectually disabled children becoming aware that having such a child was not a reason to be ashamed. They began to express their own ideas about the education and treatment of their children.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>] Founded in 1950, the National Association of Parents and Friends of Retarded Children (NARC) provided information to parents of children with IDD and the general public to help them deal with the various challenges they faced.[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>] However, parents' opinions varied. Some asserted their right to place their children in institutions, believing that such facilities were supposed to provide relief for families despite the poor conditions, while others were hesitant to do so and preferred community-based services. The 1950s and 1960s saw the simultaneous emergence of both a movement towards large and overcrowded institutions for the intellectually disabled and a rapid increase in the number of children attending special classes within the community.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>]</p> <p>This study focuses on the latter trend that emerged in the 1950s (that is, the group of parents that desired an expansion of services in the community) and the emergence of a particular school programme by the Association for the Help of Retarded Children (AHRC).[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>] Established in New York in 1948, the AHRC was founded by parents of children with severe IDD who had hitherto placed their children in New York State institutions. Led by executive director Joseph T. Weingold (1904–1987), it grew into one of the largest parent groups in the United States and was open to all denominations and races. According to Goode, who reviewed the development of the AHRC from 1948 to 1998, the AHRC developed school education programmes, clinics, employment training centres, sheltered workshops, recreational services, parent education programmes, information services, and other pilot projects in the 1950s.[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref12">12</reflink>]</p> <p>This study analyses the AHRC's school programme for children with severe IDD. In a previous study, Goode found from interviews with teachers in its early years that the programme's classroom instructions were practical and guided children to normal experiences such as shopping and interacting with others in the community.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref13">13</reflink>] However, Goode does not provide details of the content structure of the programme; in particular, his study does not analyse the data published in papers by Louis Rosenzweig (1910–1979)[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>], who served as a consultant for the AHRC's school projects and led the development of the programme, which is the main focus of this study. From 1955 to 1957, Rosenzweig, a former CRMD (Children with Retarded Mental Development) classroom teacher and Brooklyn College Assistant Professor, oversaw the education department as Vice President of the American Association on Mental Deficiency, the nation's largest professional association for the study of intellectual disability at the time. Through the development of the AHRC's school programme, Rosenzweig explored and argued for the significance of education for children with severe IDD who, before 1950, had not lived in society and been recognised as worthy of schooling. He published a book in 1960 based on the AHRC's school pilot project titled "Understanding and Teaching the Dependent Retarded Child" (1960). His efforts only lasted for the decade of the 1950s; however, in 1960, New York State had made the education of children with severe IDD compulsory from the age of 5 to 21. The 1950s was a time in which the attempt to provide equitable opportunities for children with severe IDD was a trend in public education.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>] Given these factors, clarifying the actualisation of the AHRC and Rosenzweig's school programmes is a means by which to examine the relationship between education, society, and schooling for intellectually disabled children. Therefore, this study aims to analyse the concept and reality of the AHRC school programme to identify the uniqueness of education for children with severe IDD and its commonality with mainstream education; further, this study aims to clarify the social and educational significance of this particular educational programme for children with severe IDD.</p> <p>The analysis in this study comprises two periods: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref16">1</reflink>) from 1951 to 1955 and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref17">2</reflink>) from 1955 to around 1960. Rosenzweig was instrumental in the trial development of an educational programme for children with severe IDD from 1951 to 1960; however, the qualities of these efforts differed somewhat between the two periods. During period (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref18">1</reflink>), Rosenzweig started their educational trials at the request of a group of parents, and summarised the results of these trials in dissertations in 1954 and 1955. During period (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref19">2</reflink>), government-led surveys were conducted; one example is the New York State Interdepartment Health Resources Committee beginning a life survey for children with severe IDD. These surveys illustrated the possibilities and challenges of incorporating the education of children with severe IDD into the school system. Such an incorporation was an urgent issue, and as such, Rosenzweig examined and organised specific measures such as curriculum development and detailed teaching methods to implement the education of children with severe IDD at the school level based on the above-mentioned research. He summarised these efforts and published them in a book in 1960. We describe the details of both periods in this text, and consider period (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref20">1</reflink>) as a trial period in response to requests from parents, and period (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref21">2</reflink>) as a period in which the curriculum was systematically examined, with the goal of incorporating it into the school system. Each period is analysed from the viewpoints of (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref22">1</reflink>) background/philosophy, and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref23">2</reflink>) the actual situation surrounding the education programme (goals, content, evaluations/results), with these elements corresponding to the chapters of Rosenzweig's book.</p> <p>In this study, the following materials are used for analysis. The first are papers written by Rosenzweig including "Report of a School Programme for Trainable Mentally Retarded Children" (1954), "A Work-Play Programme for the Trainable Mental Deficient" (1955; co-authored with Dorothy Cleverdon, a consultant of the Play Schools Association), and the book <emph>Understanding and Teaching the Dependent Retarded Child</emph> (1960). These will be used to determine the actual state of the programme at the time.</p> <p>The second is the AHRC newsletter, "Our Children's Voice". From this selection of documents, we are better able to position the pilot project in terms of the AHRC's amendments to the state's Education Law and its approach to the Department of Mental Hygiene.</p> <p>The third are the 1950s reports on the education and community life of children with severe IDD conducted by NARC a national parent group organisation founded in 1950, and the New York State Interdepartmental Health Resources Board.</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-3">Trial of a school programme (circa 1951–1955)</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0174099720-4">Collaboration among parents, teachers, and university researchers (Background/principles)</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0174099720-5">Parents' wishes</hd> <p>The number of students admitted to state schools for the intellectually disabled in New York State continued to grow since their founding in the nineteenth century: from around 1,000 in the early twentieth century to 20,091 in 1950, a nearly 20-fold increase.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref24">16</reflink>] As of 1948, all state facilities except Willowbrook (opened in 1948) in the New York City suburbs had an excess of admissions, averaging 130.08% of actual capacity, with the facility with the largest excess having 1,174 students above capacity.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref25">17</reflink>] Irving Haberman's photographs of Letchworth Village, New York, in the late 1940s were dismal depictions of intellectually disabled people crammed into unsanitary and drab recreation rooms.[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref26">18</reflink>] Not only in New York State, but all over the United States, institutions for the intellectually disabled lost their function of halfway houses after the Great Depression and the Second World War, and became custodial institutions.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref27">19</reflink>] Most children with severe IDD were either in institutions for the intellectually disabled – which lacked the facilities, personnel, and resources to provide specialised education – or were at home without any education or specialised support.[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref28">20</reflink>]</p> <p>From the early days of the AHRC, the aim had been for children with severe IDD with an IQ below 50 to not simply be placed in institutions or remain at home, but to have the opportunity to grow through training, education, and professional support. The realisation of training and education was inseparable from the realisation of meaningful community life. Weingold noted they did not want to merely be "a custodial dumping ground",[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref29">21</reflink>] and the AHRC later argued to change the purpose of institutions for the intellectually disabled in the Mental Hygiene Law from "Custodial and Care" to "Training and Education".[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref30">22</reflink>] This was based on the belief that even children with severe IDD would thrive if they receive guidance.</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-6">The meaning of community life</hd> <p>In 1951, the AHRC opened a pilot class for children with severe IDD (IQ under 50) who were not eligible for CRMD classes (for children with an IQ of 50–75) in public schools with a $5,000 grant from the Joshua Orphan Aid, a New York non-profit corporation. Four teachers were hired for the programme and there were eight professionals on the Professional Advisory Board. The members of the group did not include physicians who were directors of institutions for the intellectually disabled – as would have been the case in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century – but rather researchers who taught at universities: Ernest Harms, a child psychologist; Lawrence Slobody, a paediatrician; Joseph Wortis, a psychiatrist; the aforementioned Rosenzweig, formerly of the public school Bureau of CRMD and then a professor at the Brooklyn College Education Department; Chris DeProspo, then a teacher at the Bureau of CRMD and later a professor at the City College of New York; Edna Baer, a social worker; and Doris Trepel, a speech therapist.</p> <p>Possible reasons as to why the AHRC sought the help of university faculty and community-based clinical practitioners rather than the directors of institutions for the intellectually disabled include the following. First, in the late 1940s and 1950s, medical professionals were largely advocates on the side of parents who wanted to help the intellectually disabled and their families; most of them, however, recommended institutionalisation based on the idea that parents should be able to leave their children in institutions without a sense of guilt. Many parents actually listened to the advice of their doctors and were willing to put their children in such residential facilities. In New York State, infants and toddlers were admitted to the Letchworth Village facility in 1948, and by the 1960s, the number of admissions to the facility had increased, thereby accelerating the trend towards larger facilities.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref31">23</reflink>] Nevertheless, the advice of doctors who recommended institutionalisation was not satisfactory to groups of parents like the AHRC, who wanted to provide community life for their children and the education and training necessary to enable it. Thus, this school project did not envisage relying on doctors at institutions for the intellectually disabled.</p> <p>Second, the educators who had been responsible for educating the intellectually disabled in public schools since the early twentieth century were those who had, until the 1940s, devoted themselves primarily to the education of <emph>mildly</emph> intellectually disabled children and who had discovered that education enabled such children to thrive and experience community life in the future. Low-IQ classes in New York City public schools for children with severe IDD were limited to a small number of students with IQs between 40 and 50 who were able to care for their own physical needs.[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref32">24</reflink>] However, even if those teachers had thought that "severely mentally retarded children are not ready to receive or assimilate that part of the curriculum dealing with academic subjects", "to teach these children to live in a normal social environment is far more important than to teach them to read", and teaching them "good habit formation, sensory and motor training, speech improvement, emotional control, personal hygiene, manual training, drawing, and the performance of such physical activities" would be of benefit to them in enabling them to live at home, in the classroom, and in the community.[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref33">25</reflink>] As such, public school teachers who saw hope in integrating intellectually disabled children into community life were able to work with parents on the project.</p> <p>Third, along with the expansion of education on intellectual disability in public schools, teacher training programmes were developed in universities. When universities thus began to train teachers of intellectually disabled children, the influence of university teachers on the treatment of such children was thereby increased. The editor of the <emph>American Journal of Mental Deficiency</emph> (AJMD), which was at the time the largest professional journal dealing with the problem of the intellectually disabled in the United States, had previously been a physician who headed an institution for the intellectually disabled; however, in 1948, this position was taken over by Richard Hungerford, an educator who served as the director of the New York City Bureau of CRMD until 1959. Hungerford had developed and directed the Occupational Education Program, which aimed for the community employment of mildly intellectually disabled children, in New York City public schools in the 1940s. Rosenzweig worked with Hungerford on the development of the Occupational Program and served as associate editor on the journal. During Hungerford's editorship of the AJMD, professors, teachers, and parents expressed their views on the treatment of children with severe IDD, including the AHRC's Weingold.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref34">26</reflink>]</p> <p>Fourth, in terms of the historical background, there was a growing momentum in the United States around 1950 to reform the education and welfare sectors, which had been put on the back burner during the Second World War. It was said that "Peace and democracy, which were themes of national concern, were the underlying themes at all grade levels and in the variety of other educational programmes offered by the Board of Education of The City of New York". In education, the main focus was placed on private and civic life as well as the personal and social development of children, rather than the pursuit of teaching each respective subject.[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref35">27</reflink>] Against the background of this educational climate, the movement for the education of the severely intellectually disabled, with its primary focus on the realisation of community life, was more easily understood by professionals, educators, and citizens than had been the case during the war.</p> <p>In addition, a movement in which parent groups collaborated with university researchers to realise education for children with severe IDD was spreading throughout the country. NARC stated: "Since the early 1930s parents and others deeply concerned with the retarded have been increasingly active on their behalf, and the need for such community training programmes has been brought ever more strongly to the fore."[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref36">28</reflink>] At NARC, parents and university faculty worked together.[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref37">29</reflink>]</p> <p>In this way, one of the features of the 1950s parent group movement was its collaboration between university and public-school teachers; the AHRC's projects developed in the context of such a collaboration. The AHRC were also attempting to have legislation put in place based on a shared understanding of the significance of daily life and education. The AHRC aimed to amend the New York State Education Law by demonstrating the significance of education for children with severe IDD through its School Program Project. This was positioned as a project that would provide a basis for amending the law (i.e. a legislative programme).[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref38">30</reflink>] In 1953, although not approved by Congress, the AHRC proposed the following[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref39">31</reflink>]:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> More adequate facilities for children with IQs between 50 and 75 (the so-called "educable"). Under the law as it exists there are many gaps through which they fall. For example, although the law speaks of minors, there is almost no provision for their education anywhere in the state beyond the age of 17 or 18.</item> <p></p> <item> Make public school facilities mandatory for children with IQs between 25 and 50 (the so-called "trainable").</item> <p></p> <item> Provide for increased state aid to special classes.</item> <p></p> <item> Provide for a differential of $480 per year in pay for all teachers of the handicapped.</item> <p></p> <item> Provide for home teaching where found necessary for the mentally retarded as is now required for the physically handicapped.</item> </ulist> <p>It can be seen from the above that the AHRC was aiming for a wide range of improvements not only in the community programmes for children with severe IDD but also making provisions in education for those with an IQ 50 and above beyond the age of 18, ensuring improvements in the salaries of teachers involved in special education, and the provision of home education for the physically handicapped.</p> <p>The AHRC was aiming to revise the law and so it needed to gain public understanding. Rosenzweig, who had led the development of the educational programme since 1952, also recognised this point, stating, The achievements of this pioneer effort should be seen from the perspective of how much farther advanced the A.H.R.C. is toward the goal of creating community schools that can be utilized to prove the thesis that low grade children with IDD can benefit from such care and instruction and that the benefits are valuable enough to merit public support and subsidization.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref40">32</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-7">Adaptation to family and community life (actual conditions surrounding education)</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0174099720-8">Acceptance as an educational goal</hd> <p>A sub-committee of the AHRC's School Advisory board carefully considered the admission criteria to the school programme for children.[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref41">33</reflink>] A total of 46 children were enrolled in 1954; their physical age ranged from 5 years and 1 month to 15 years and 4 months (median: 7 years and 11 months), mental age from 1 year and 4 months to 4 years and 7 months (median: 2 years and 8 months), and IQ from 25 to 52 (median: 38) (two were not measurable). Only 2 of the 46 had a mental age of 4 or older, and most were in the 1 to 3 age range.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref42">34</reflink>] Many children were what was termed "mongoloid" but is currently diagnosed as having Down's Syndrome.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref43">35</reflink>]</p> <p>The two characteristics of the AHRC School Project's concept and purpose in Rosenzweig's 1954 and 1955 papers are as follows. First, this project was part of a larger programme aimed at the total well-being of the severely intellectually disabled, including not only their education but also their general daily life and families. Accordingly, the services included family support. To smoothly implement the educational programme in the community for children with severe IDD, it was necessary that the individual be accepted into both family and community life as a happy person. This notion was key to supporting parents in understanding their children appropriately. The AHRC School Project also established goals for the parents as part of the programme. These were "To see the child grow in self care, in self direction, in ability to understand the society around him and in ability to participate and contribute to that society". Parents could assist this process in three ways: "[by] accepting and understanding the child's true assets and liabilities", "[by] directing the child's growth at home and in society", and "[by] assisting the school in carrying out its goals and purposes". The school was, conversely, to help parents "reach an objective and sympathetic appraisal of (their) child", "develop insight into the child's developmental pattern", and to provide parent training.[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref44">36</reflink>]</p> <p>Secondly, "the AHRC's school advisory committee was unanimous in its opinion that the school should not be a duplication of any existing publicly sponsored service for retarded children".[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref45">37</reflink>] In other words, it was believed that the duplication of such a system for children with IQs of 50 to 75 would not be conducive to their education. At the time, CRMD classes for children with IQs of 50 and above emphasised the development of vocational and social competence and envisioned the education of "high-grade morons" and "borderline" children who would be able to manage themselves without supervision in adulthood if they received special education from an early age within a good environment.[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref46">38</reflink>] As discussed later, rather than an education that places vocational and economic independence after graduation as its central objective, Rosenzweig aimed for them to be active within a supported home and sheltered community environment.[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref47">39</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-9">Self-care, relationship formation, physical development, and community life skills as the cor...</hd> <p>Rosenzweig's notion of education was based on the idea that the focus should be on the further development of positive changes in children's lives as a result of the founding of the community schools.[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref48">40</reflink>]</p> <p>The content of the 1954 programme included the following. (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref49">1</reflink>) Life skills: developing habits of dressing, eating, and elimination; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref50">2</reflink>) cognitive aspects: to respond to their own names, recognise their own belongings and other children's names and follow simple commands; (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref51">3</reflink>) group games; and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref52">4</reflink>) finger painting and colouring-in activities. "A noteworthy technique that was attempted in all sections was the use of music and rhythm as an instructional device."[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref53">41</reflink>]</p> <p>The 1955 Work-Play Program was implemented by Rosenzweig together with Dorothy Cleverdon of the Play Schools Association. They reflected that "although play existed in the program it was not planned or organized play and was subsidiary to the academic phases of the program". They summarised its most salient points to make it a "highly structured work-play program". Its aims were as follows. (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref54">1</reflink>) Provide intellectually disabled children with a series of repetitive experiences, thereby giving them the opportunity to form concepts and enjoy activities; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref55">2</reflink>) provide a flexible timetable, ensuring an appropriate distribution of quiet and active play, and indoor and outdoor play; (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref56">3</reflink>) do not rush or confuse children. In this regard, "the teacher must never lose sight that this is experimental learning through numerous repetitious play experiences".[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref57">42</reflink>]</p> <p>Furthermore, the curriculum was organised into the following nine areas.</p> <p>Self-care: the ability to put on, zip, button, and take off outdoor clothing and wash hands, etc.</p> <p>Household duties: the ability to handle silverware and plates, wash and dry dishes, set the table, and make their own beds, etc.</p> <p>Working and playing with others to build a concept of "self", enjoying associating with others, and developing skills that will contribute to social development, etc.</p> <p>Skills in getting around the community: to know the safety rules, recognise red and green signals and stop and go signs, and travel on public transport, etc.</p> <p>Recognising numbers: to understand the concepts of "add", "in", "all", and "altogether"; the meaning of "biggest" and "smallest"; the ability to add and subtract with numbers 1–5; and an understanding of monetary values like "10 cents".</p> <p>Communication skills to acquire breath control, make simple requests, make needs known, develop new concepts, and enlarge their vocabulary, etc.</p> <p>Enjoying living: appreciating music and holidays, making their parents aware of their play interests, developing new skills, making social adjustments.</p> <p>Physical and motor development and muscular coordination (running/throwing/grabbing, etc.).</p> <p>Emotional development, which is facilitated by providing an environment free from unproductive frustrations and planning suitable experiences adjusted to the child's level of understanding.</p> <p>The above educational content was implemented throughout the school syllabus. During "talk time" after their arrival at school, teachers discussed their plans for the day and the children narrated what they had done at home. The children also prepared and cleaned up the space after the playtime that followed. The morning then ended with time to drink juice, listen to stories, and play outside. After eating lunch, they rested. The children then engaged in more activities and play in the afternoon, and reflected on the day before returning home.[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref58">43</reflink>] Activities within the community were also emphasised, not just at school. School outing experiences were repeated and expanded, and a transportation programme was established.[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref59">44</reflink>]</p> <p>The teaching was carried out by a teacher with an assistant. Parents offered to take on the role of assistant teachers, but Rosenzweig did not think this was a good idea; he thus gave the role to students from Brooklyn College and New York University as a practicum.[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref60">45</reflink>]</p> <p>The teacher's job comprised the following four main areas. (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref61">1</reflink>) Assessing the child's needs: their disability type; physical development; mental, social, and chronological ages; intelligence quotient; motor dexterity; emotional development; toileting abilities, among others. (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref62">2</reflink>) Setting goals and creating individualised programmes based on every child's need, experience, and ability. (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref63">3</reflink>) Planning and implementing lessons: once the teacher identified the above characteristics of the class, group and individual programme plans were devised and individual progress was documented.[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref64">46</reflink>] The teacher also provided close indirect support to the children, demonstrated desirable social behaviours in contrast to inappropriate ones, and helped them develop social skills.[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref65">47</reflink>] (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref66">4</reflink>) Group meetings were had with parents as well as regular home visits and making suggestions for practices that could be carried out at home. Teachers were expected to be highly professional and engaged members of the team to develop their teaching skills.[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref67">48</reflink>]</p> <p>In this way, the teachers did not follow respective subject textbooks but individually assessed the children, creating programmes to meet individual needs and preparing suitable activities. They were involved in guiding all aspects of life, not only at school but also in society. They were able to make suggestions for learning that could be carried out at home, such that the lessons could be applied to real-life situations.</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-10">Improvement of community life skills as an indicator of educational outcomes</hd> <p>An improvement in the children's IQ scores was not observed as a result of the 1954–1955 programme, but they nevertheless showed significant growth in their life skills, including toileting, eating, and dressing as well as in their emotional control, play and exercise, and speech.[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref68">49</reflink>] Improvement in community life skills was thus regarded as the educational outcome indicator for the education of children with severe IDD.</p> <p>In 1954, New York State Governor Thomas E. Dewey expressed the hope that the AHRC's class of children with IQs lower than 50 might devise the education and training necessary for children with severe IDD to unlock their full potential. He also allocated funds to New York City and suburban public schools as well as state institutions under the authority of the State Department of Mental Hygiene to provide twelve additional classes for children with an IQ lower than 50.[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref69">50</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-11">Commonality between severely intellectually disabled and mainstream education (circa 1955–196...</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0174099720-12">Establishing the significance of education for the severely intellectually disabled (backgrou...</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0174099720-13">Survey of children with severe IDD</hd> <p>The "Our Children's Voice" newsletter (August 1957) reported that while classes for intellectually disabled children with IQ scores of 50 and above had increased from 1,206 to 1,348 in the previous year, classes for children with severe IDD with IQs lower than 50 had only increased from 46 to 67 and the number of attending students from just 607 to 928. The newsletter expressed concern that the number of classes fell below that required for the number of students out there.[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref70">51</reflink>] The August 1958 issue also reported that the AHRC was seeking an explanation from the relevant administrative bodies regarding the situation wherein the budget for employing teachers was not being sufficiently used for intellectually disabled classes.[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref71">52</reflink>] Thus, there were inadequate classes and teachers for children with severe IDD.</p> <p>Despite this, the AHRC continued to work with university faculty and public school teachers to improve the education and lives of intellectually disabled children. In 1958, what was termed "The Teacher's Point of View" in the pedagogy of mentally retarded children was explored during a two-day nationwide conference of "Administrators, Supervisors and Teachers of Classes for Trainable Mentally Retarded Children". This was held under the auspices of Professor Ignacy Goldberg, Educational Consultant to NARC (1956–1957) at Colombia University, who discussed his impressions of an eight-month survey during which he visited over 150 classes for "trainables".[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref72">53</reflink>]</p> <p>In the late 1950s, several other studies on the education and life of children with severe IDD were conducted and the results published. The New York State Interdepartmental Health Resources Board conducted the following studies: "Public school provisions for severely retarded children: A survey of practices in the United States" by Kirk (1957);[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref73">54</reflink>] "Research project on severely retarded children" by Johnson and Capobianco of Syracuse University (1957);[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref74">55</reflink>] and "A study of former pupils of low IQ classes held by the Board of Education of the City of New York" by Saenger of New York University (1957).[<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref75">56</reflink>] Kirk's study identified the issues underlying the education of the nation's severely intellectually disabled, and Johnson et al. showed that the life skills of children with severe IDD improved through education. Saenger revealed the situation of many such children in their respective communities after graduating from low IQ classes (see below). Saenger's multifaceted investigation into this question led parents, educators, and university faculty (i.e. researchers) to try to assert the significance of education and community life for children with severe IDD.</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-14">The significance of supported community life</hd> <p>The results of the above survey suggested what is required in the social lives of children with severe IDD and what kind of education should be provided for them to achieve this aim.</p> <p>Saenger's follow-up study of 17–40-year-olds who graduated from low IQ classes at New York City public schools (1957) found that 66% lived in the community, 26% had been institutionalised, and 8% had since died.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref76">57</reflink>] Of those who were living with their families in the community, 52% did not experience difficulties in communicating with their families who sometimes helped them. Nineteen per cent were responsible for some tasks at home, 36% performed odd jobs on a daily basis, and 22% did so on an occasional basis. Fifty per cent cleaned their own rooms.[<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref77">58</reflink>] Those working for wages in the community (either full- or part-time) accounted for about 27% of the group, while those working in sheltered workshops accounted for about 15%. The work included running errands such as cleaning, washing dishes, taking care of children.[<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref78">59</reflink>] Of those who had graduated from low IQ classes, about 80% went outdoors (for about two hours a day, with half that time spent walking around the neighbourhood).[<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref79">60</reflink>] Saenger, the study's author, considered the above figures for those who lived in the community, cleaned their own rooms, and worked for wages to be "not small" and emphasised the potential for community living for people with severe intellectual disabilities. He noted that severely intellectually disabled adults function at a higher level than normal six-year-old children in performing chores and household tasks, even if their mental age is below six years.[<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref80">61</reflink>]</p> <p>Goldberg summarised the concept of "trainable" across several states in the US, noting that they are considered to be able to do housework and simple tasks in a sheltered environment with economic support and supervision in their social lives.[<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref81">62</reflink>] Kirk also stated that most programmes for children with severe IDD assume that they will be economically useful in the home or within a sheltered environment. For many of the intellectually disabled, "economically useful" did not mean earning a wage and becoming independent, but rather helping out at home and assisting their families.[<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref82">63</reflink>]</p> <p>That said, it was clear that the parents of children with severe IDD were not satisfied with the current support services in the community. They desired services such as vocational training and guidance for their children after graduation from school as well as day-care centres and family support structures. Eighty per cent of parents wanted their children to continue to live in the community while receiving support after graduating from low IQ classes.[<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref83">64</reflink>] Put simply, the parents envisioned a future for their children wherein they were supported in the community after graduating.</p> <p>Children with severe IDD have historically been excluded from social life; however, through these measures, parents, teachers, and university researchers believed that the quality of social life expected of them in initiatives aimed at social inclusion in the 1950s included living in a protected environment in the community and doing housework and jobs with support. It was found that education and community support were necessary to achieve this.</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-15">The reality of an education based on democratic principles</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0174099720-16">Commonalities with mainstream education as an educational goal</hd> <p>The social lives of children with severe IDD were found to require both support and protection; their education thus entailed the establishment of good health habits, safety awareness, physical mobility and motor coordination, leisure time, communication skills, good table manners, public transport behaviour, learning to share, simple vocational skills, housework, and so forth.[<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref84">65</reflink>] This was different from traditional academic or vocational education which only aims at workplace independence. However, to realise the social inclusion of children with severe IDD, it was necessary to have the significance of such education widely recognised so that it could be integrated into schools.</p> <p>In 1960, Rosenzweig and Julia Long, a consultant for the AHRC day schools, published a book titled <emph>Understanding and Teaching the Dependent Retarded Child</emph>, which summarised the AHRC's work. In the book, Rosenzweig emphasises the significance of the education of children with severe IDD from the perspective of democratic principles. He quoted both Thomas Jefferson and Richard Hungerford, an educator who had been involved in IDD education, arguing that it is important that children with severe IDD receive a formal education. He specifically quoted Jefferson's well-known saying, "All men are created equal", claiming that "equality" does not mean that individuals have uniform abilities and that everyone benefits from receiving the same education program; rather, he stated that "what he was promising was equality of opportunity to remove every artificial barrier, so that the individual could amount to as much as his effort, ability and character permitted". He also cites Hungerford's 1947 article and states,[<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref85">66</reflink>] "a democracy does not seek to train and perpetuate an intellectually elite at the expense of all its other members. It recognises that individual differences exist and seeks to enrich itself by cultivating and capitalising on such differences." He goes on to claim that education is the instrument through which a society seeks to implement and put into practice the ideals by which it lives ... Such goals apply to all citizens of the state, to the bright as well as to intellectually retarded.[<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref86">67</reflink>] Similar allegations can also be found in John Dewey's "Schools of To-Morrow" from 1915.[<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref87">68</reflink>] Rosenzweig put the significance of public school education within the context of the significance of education for children with severe IDD and developed a theory that reminded people of the equality of a democratic education. In the post-Second World War United States, where peace and democracy were of national concern, advocating the inclusion of education for children with severe IDD in school education from a democratic perspective may have been one of the most effective approaches.[<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref88">69</reflink>]</p> <p>Furthermore, Rosenzweig applied the four goals of democratic education set forth by the National Education Association (NEA) in 1946 – namely (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref89">1</reflink>) self-realisation, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref90">2</reflink>) human relationships, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref91">3</reflink>) economic efficiency, and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref92">4</reflink>) civic responsibility – as a means to embody education based on democratic principles in the education of the severely intellectually disabled.[<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref93">70</reflink>] He saw the goals of education for the severely intellectually disabled as sharing the educational goals of democracy, which was in common with mainstream education.</p> <p>Rosenzweig's intention to incorporate the education of children with severe IDD into schools was reflected in his designation of "severely retarded children". In the 1954 and 1955 programmes, he had used the common term "trainable child" to refer to children with severe IDD; in his 1960 book, however, he used the term "dependent retarded child" instead of "trainable child", which gave the impression that education was impossible. "Dependent retarded child" was a term used by NARC to classify intellectually disabled children in terms of their social potentialities. Rosenzweig instead attempted a modification based on the NARC's definitions of "marginal independent = educable", "semi-dependent = trainable", "dependent = custodial". He considered that assuming that all of the upper-level intellectually disabled achieve only a small degree of independence is inconsistent with the results of many previous follow-up studies. Further, assuming that all of the semi-dependent are trainable (that is, uneducable) is also inconsistent with the experience of teachers throughout the United States. As such, he demonstrated the following: the independent (IQ of 65–75) are able to succeed in semi-skilled vocational pursuits and the semi-dependent (IQ of 50–65) can achieve the academic level of second to third-grade students; however, they need assistance in transitioning from school life to the competitive world of work including organisational support – both vocational and social – and public and family supervision. The dependent (IQ of 30–50) are, through education, eventually able to recognise letters and numbers such as addresses, phone numbers, and prices. They can learn to protect themselves from danger. Many will live in sheltered situations, while some will learn to work with support at home or in special placements. The custodial are children within the IQ 0–30 range. This category includes many children who fail to respond to standardised tests. Rosenzweig stated that there are often overlaps to each classification and that the intelligence quotient is only the initial classification. He emphasised the necessity of a comprehensive understanding of the individual including their behavioural and emotional aspects.[<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref94">71</reflink>]</p> <p>In this way, Rosenzweig positioned education for the severely intellectually disabled as based on democracy and used the term "dependent" instead of "trainable", which had hitherto been the mainstream term at the time.</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-17">Academic and vocational education as instructional guidelines</hd> <p>Rosenzweig stated that the four goals of the NEA – (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref95">1</reflink>) self-realisation, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref96">2</reflink>) human relationships, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref97">3</reflink>) economic efficiency, and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref98">4</reflink>) civic responsibility – could be realised through six main learning areas that matched the characteristics of children with severe IDD, namely (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref99">1</reflink>) self-help, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref100">2</reflink>) social skills, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref101">3</reflink>) motor coordination, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref102">4</reflink>) academics, (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref103">5</reflink>) vocational and avocational skills, and (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref104">6</reflink>) attainable subskills (e.g. leisure activities and holidays).[<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref105">72</reflink>] The educational content of the nine areas of the 1955 programme was reorganised and included in these six areas. In each area, 8 to 10 sub-categories were further subdivided. For each of these, minimum and maximum goals were set to give a range to the degree of disabilities to which they corresponded.</p> <p>Self-help included personal independence activities such as eating, dressing, and toileting, as outlined in the 1955 programme. Self-identification/distinction between oneself and others was also included in the "emotional development" area, as well as self-control, following instructions, completing tasks, and choosing activities one wants to do, making requests of others, and self-determination. Social skills included playing and working with others, being helpful and polite, and following rules. Motor coordination included physical activities such as walking, running, climbing stairs, dancing, and throwing, as well as the acquisition of activities necessary for daily living such as using cooking and writing utensils.[<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref106">73</reflink>]</p> <p>Academics, which was not included in the 1954 and 1955 programmes but was added in the 1960 version, included visual and auditory discrimination, speaking, reading, writing, singing, counting, writing characters and numbers, and telling the time from a clock. The content was tailored to the development of children with severe IDD, similar to the cognitive skills in numbers presented in the 1955 programme. The focus was not on textbook-based instruction, but rather on the manipulation of concrete and semi-concrete objects and direct experiential instruction in daily life contexts.[<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref107">74</reflink>] Although the teaching of these children with severe IDD was different from that of mainstream education, Rosenzweig emphasised its educational significance by broadening the concept of "academics" to include them.</p> <p>Regarding vocational skills, it was considered difficult for these children to learn an occupation without first mastering the basic skills of the other above-mentioned areas. Rosenzweig noted that "vocation" is something that can be traced back to the early developmental stages and is learned in daily life and various activities. This is not a new concept and is actually similar to Dewey's idea, that teaching materials found in family life that are most familiar to the child are tied to social work.[<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref108">75</reflink>] Rosenzweig went on to state that doing something for others, playing a role in a group, and cleaning and washing dishes in the home are also "work", thereby expanding the concept of vocation to match the capacities of children with severe IDD. Rosenzweig drew on a follow-up study of children after leaving Saenger's low-IQ class to establish vocations for them wherein they helped out at home and took care of themselves, rather than limiting the meaning of vocation to cases involving monetary income.[<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref109">76</reflink>]</p> <p>Rosenzweig positioned the unique approach of this form of education as something that is connected to mainstream education. He achieved this by extending the concepts of "academic" and "vocational work" to the activities of children with severe IDD, thereby emphasising the significance of education for such children.</p> <p>Rosenzweig set out the skills that teachers should teach in more detail, which were not included in the 1954 and 1955 programmes. Regarding self-help, teachers demonstrated model life skills, prepared suitable materials, set up activities (e.g. parties or field trips) to use such skills, provided encouragement and praise, and created check sheets to visually present what had been done. They also created environments wherein children could ask questions, request things to be done, and choose the activities they want to do.[<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref110">77</reflink>] Regarding social skills, children were encouraged to recognise when they needed support, request support from others, and be able to choose the appropriate support. Opportunities for students to take on leadership roles and engage with others through group game activities were also provided.[<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref111">78</reflink>] Regarding motor skills, a wide range of activities was arranged, including basic movements such as running and walking and music to be danced to with coordinated movements. Examples and opportunities to practice were provided.[<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref112">79</reflink>] Regarding academic skill, visual materials such as illustrations and photographs were prepared, and opportunities were established for students to form linguistic concepts, discriminate between life sounds, and actually go out to the community to learn. Regarding vocation, several examples were presented to the children and checklists were created. For example, the way to answer the phone was shown in chart form. Parents were also encouraged to expand their children's range of activities by providing opportunities to travel to certain destinations (e.g. shopping or taking the bus).[<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref113">80</reflink>]</p> <p>Thus, the teachers of children with severe IDD did not impart knowledge from textbooks; instead, they created opportunities for experiential learning throughout their school life and in the community according to individual needs. They also provided materials that were tailored to each child's developmental characteristics and worked alongside parents.</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-18">Social inclusion and diversity in school education as an educational achievement</hd> <p>As mentioned above, the AHRC school programme confirmed that children with severe IDD are able to develop through education, and mainstream education and that of children with severe IDD can, from the perspective of democracy, be unified into a single goal. In addition, the programme emphasised the teaching method of experiential learning in daily life according to the characteristics of each child.</p> <p>In 1960, the AHRC presented its findings to the State Department of Mental Hygiene, and in the same year, the Education Law was amended to make education compulsory for children with severe IDD from the age of 5 to 21. Chapter 1028 of the Laws of 1960 amended Section 4406 of the Education Law by making it mandatory that the Boards of Education in districts where there are eight or more children with "retarded mental development having intelligence quotients of less than 50" be provided instruction and training.[<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref114">81</reflink>]</p> <p>In 1962, the US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, in discussing future policies for the education and rehabilitation of the intellectually disabled, noted that occupational adjustment used to be as simple as a child securing a job; however, this was no longer the case. It went on to suggest that occupational adjustments would now include what the child should learn prior to getting a vocation. It was also suggested that school education should provide programmes for children with severe IDD to prepare them for life in sheltered workshops.[<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref115">82</reflink>]</p> <p>As detailed above, since 1960, children with severe IDD have undergone the process of social inclusion. Educational content and methods tailored to their characteristics have been incorporated, thereby facilitating their inclusion in school education. In other words, the diversity of school education has expanded. However, the AHRC pointed out that the problems faced by people with severe IDD in community life cannot be solved through formal education alone. Rather, a total community programme that addresses unresolved issues related to preschool children, sheltered workshops, vocational training programmes, group homes, and the like is necessary.[<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref116">83</reflink>] The school education programme was thus the beginning of the realisation of a total community programme for children with severe IDD and adults.</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-19">Conclusion and discussion</hd> <p>Rosenzweig, who led the AHRC School Education programme, showed in the early 1950s that children with severe IDD could be educated to develop life and social skills and that their growth could be confirmed by changes in their behaviour, even if there was no change in their psychological test results. He viewed the significance of education for the severely intellectually disabled from the holistic perspective of life enrichment, emphasising not only individual growth but also families' understanding of their children and their acceptance into community life. Furthermore, rather than the aim of getting a job and becoming independent, he set the goal for children with severe IDD to participating in society with support. These included playing a role in the family, helping out at home, and working in a sheltered environment. Thus, in the early 1950s, he placed the focus on exploring unique educational content and methods tailored to children with severe IDD in order to achieve social inclusion.</p> <p>In the late 1950s, he emphasised the commonality of the goals of mainstream education and that of children with severe IDD, namely that both were based on democratic principles. Rosenzweig thus aimed to incorporate education for the severely intellectually disabled into school education. Specifically, while emphasising unique content and education methods for learning academic content necessary for community life through direct experience, he demonstrated that such education approaches are a continuation of mainstream education. He noted that education for the severely intellectually disabled lay within the framework of the same democratic goals as mainstream education, as well as those of academic and vocational training.</p> <p>The development of the school programme by the AHRC and Rosenzweig in the 1950s was significant in providing a richer social life and school education for children with severe IDD who had previously been excluded from both society and schools, therein broadening the range of diversity. Even though what was necessary for children with severe IDD to participate in society was different from the education framework that had hitherto been adopted, the AHRC tried to realise a symbiotic society by searching for an educational philosophy and purpose that were common to both children in regular schools and those with disabilities, thereby accepting the uniqueness of the education that had been conducted to that point.</p> <p>Since this study investigated the development of an educational programme for children with severe IDD by a parent association in New York City in the 1950s, it is limited in its discussion of the existence, or otherwise, of similar trends in other regions of the world at that time. As suggested in this study, there is a connection between the acceptance of diversity in society and the nature of education for children with severe disabilities. In the future, a study of the acceptance of diversity in society and of the nature of education for children with severe disabilities in other regions of the world is likely to facilitate more comprehensive discussions of how such children can be included in society and the role that education can play in their inclusion.</p> <hd id="AN0174099720-20">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.</p> <p>Correction Statement</p> <p>This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.</p> <ref id="AN0174099720-21"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Paul Castellani, "Closing Institutions in New York State," in <emph>Deinstitutionalisati and Community Living: Intellectual Disability Services in Britain, Scandinavia and USA</emph>, ed. Jim Mansell and Kent Ericsson (Derby: Springer-Science+Business Media, 1996), 31–48. Paul Castellani is a professor at University at Albany, State University of New York. Castellani's research interests are in health and disability policy, public-nonprofit sector relations, and intergovernmental finance. He has been a consultant to several states, national organizations, and the federal government on organizational change and policy and programme development.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> James W. Trent, <emph>Inventing the Feeble Mind</emph>, 2nd ed. (New York; Oxford University Press, 2017), 178–96; Hiroki Yoneda, Takako Homma, Noriko Oka, and Keiko Yamada, "Training Program of Special Class Teachers Conducted by the 'Training School at Vineland': Contents of the Program in the Early Days" <emph>Bulletin of Disability Sciences</emph> 29 (2005): 149–62; and Hiroki Yoneda, "Emphasizing the Extra Institutional Role of the School for the 'Feeble Minded' to the 1920s in the United States: From the Point of View of the Complementarity between Institutional Care and Special Educational Care in the Public School System" <emph>Japanese Society for the Study of Social Welfare</emph> 44, no. 1 (2003): 175–87.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref3" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Trent, <emph>Inventing the Feeble Mind</emph>, 216–22. James Trent is a visiting scholar at the Heller School at Brandeis University. Previously, he taught at Gordon College for thirteen years and at Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville for seventeen years. His scholarly research activity lies in the history of marginalised and disenfranchised groups.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref4" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Trent, <emph>Inventing the Feeble Mind</emph>, 220–2; and Steven Noll "Institutions for People with Disabilities in North America," in <emph>The Oxford Handbook of Disability History</emph>, ed. Michael Rembis, Chatherine Kudlick, and Kim E. Nielsen (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 319–21.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref5" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Kent Ericsson and Jim Mansell, "Introduction: Towards Deinstitutionalization", in Mansell and Ericsson, <emph>Deinstitutionalisation and Community Living</emph>, 3. Kent Ericsson was a researcher at Uppsala University School of Education (1989 -2009) engaged in research on deinstitutionalisation and community-based living support. He passed away in April 2009. Jim Mansell founded the Tizard Centre at the University of Kent in 1983. A respected and influential figure in the field of learning disabilities and care environments, he was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) for services to people with intellectual disabilities in January 2012. He passed away in March 2012.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref6" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Pearl S. Buck, <emph>The Child Who Never Grew</emph> (Woodbine House, 1950; Reprint, 1992).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref7" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Dale Evans Rogers, <emph>Angel Unaware</emph> (New Jersey: Fleming H. Revell, 1953).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref8" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Trent, <emph>Inventing the Feeble Mind</emph>, 222–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref9" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Robert L. Osgood, <emph>The History of Special Education: A Struggle for Equality in American Public Schools</emph> (Westport; Praeger, 2008), 107–11. Robert L. Osgood is currently a retired professor of education who has taught at Colgate University, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Muskingum University, and St. Norbert College. His research focuses on the history of special education in the United States, examining issues of student identification and selection; curriculum development; teacher education; professional status; inclusion; and the etiology of disability.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 228–33.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The AHRC no longer uses the word "retarded" in its name and is now simply called the AHRC. As one of the largest non-profit organisations, it supports people with disabilities and their families through various services.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> David Goode, <emph>"And Now Let's Build a Better World": The Story of the Association for the Help of Retarded Children, New York City 1948–1998</emph> (New York: AHRC, 1998), 66–7, https://<ulink href="http://www.ahrcnyc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/History%5fOf%5fAHRC.pdf">www.ahrcnyc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/History%5fOf%5fAHRC.pdf</ulink> (accessed November 1, 2021). David Goode is a professor of sociology at City University of New York. He specialises in ethnomethodology and disability studies and has a record of publications in both these areas.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 138–9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Louis E. Rosenzweig, "Report of a School Program for Trainable Mentally Retarded Children," American Journal of Mental Deficiency 58, no. 3 (1954)., Dorothy Cleverdon and Louis E. Rosenzweig, "A Work-Play Program for the Trainable Mental Deficient ," American Journal of Mental Deficiency 60, no. 1 (1955), and Louis E. Rosenzweig and Julia Long, Understanding and Teaching the Dependent Retarded Child (Connecticut: The Educational Publishing Corporation, 1960). The 1954 and 1955 papers regarding the development of a school education programme for students with severe IDD, which the AHRC had been attempting since 1952, were penned by Rosenzweig. These papers describe the operation of the AHRC programme during the early stages of development and the actual educational content of the programme. The 1960 publication, aimed at educators of students with severe IDD, was also written by Rosenzweig based on his experience of the AHRC school education programme, and Julia Long, who had worked as a consultant for the operation of the AHRC school enterprise. Rosenzweig explicitly outlined the significance of education for students with severe IDD, the educational aims of school-based education, and proposals for educational content and programmes.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ignacy Goldberg, "Foreword", in <emph>Understanding and Teaching the Dependent Retarded Child</emph>, ed. Louis E. Losenzweig and Julia Long (Connecticut: The Educational Publishing Corporation, 1960), 7–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> New York State Department of Mental Hygiene, Sixty-second Annual Report of the Department of Mental Hygiene State of New York: For the End of March 31, 1950 (Albany, 1950), 235.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> New York State Department of Mental Hygiene, Sixtieth Annual Report of the Department of Mental Hygiene State of New York. For the End of March 31, 1948 (Albany, 1948), 307.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Trent, <emph>Inventing the Feeble Mind</emph>, 219–22.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 206–11.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Louis E. Rosenzweig, "Report of a School Program for Trainable Mentally Retarded Children," <emph>American Journal of Mental Deficiency</emph> 58, no. 3 (1954): 181.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AHRC, "Direct to You: A Message from Executive Director Joseph T. Weingold," <emph>Our Children's Voice</emph> 3, no. 1 (1951).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AHRC, "Legislative Program for Retarded Makes Advances," <emph>Our Children's Voice</emph> 15, no. 2 (1962).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Trent, <emph>Inventing the Feeble Mind</emph>, 231–2.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gerhart Saenger, <emph>The Adjustment of Severely Retarded Adults in the Community: A Study of Former Pupils of Low IQ Classes Held by the Board of Education of the City of New York. A report to the New York State Interdepartmental Health Resources Board</emph> (Albany, 1957): xvii, 3.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Grace M.C. Rourke, "The Home as an Instructional Core for Low I.Q. Classes".<emph>Occupational Education: A Magazine for Those Interested in the Guidance of the Retarded</emph> 2, no. 6 (1945): 134–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Joseph Weingold, "Parent Groups and the Problem of Mental Retardation," <emph>American Journal of Mental Deficiency</emph> 56 (1951): 484–92.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> New York City Board of Education, <emph>The First Fifty Years: A Brief Review of Progress, 1898–1948</emph>. Fiftieth Annual Report of the Superintendent of Schools (New York, 1949), 196.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The Education Committee of the National Association for Retarded Children, "Day Classes for Severely Retarded Children: A Report of the Education Committee of the National Association for Retarded Children," <emph>American Journal of Mental Deficiency</emph> 58, no. 3 (1954): 357–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Samuel Kirk et al. of the University of Illinois were consulted for NARC's Survey of the School Program and Lives of Severely Intellectually Disabled Children.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AHRC, "Governor Sends Special Message on Part of AHRC Legislative Program," <emph>Our Children's Voice</emph> 6, no. 1 (1954).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AHRC, "AHRC Legislation Killed in Committee," <emph>Our Children's Voice</emph> 5, no. 1 (1953).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rosenzweig, "Report of a School Program," 191.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 183–4.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 193–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Goode, <emph>"And Now Let's Build a Better World."</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rosenzweig "Report of a School Program," 188, 191.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 183.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Richard Hungerford and Louis E. Rosenzweig, "The Place of the Retarded in Day School," <emph>Occupational Education: A Magazine for those Interested in the Guidance of the Non-academic</emph> 4, no. 1(1946): 1–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Dorothy Cleverdon and Louis E. Rosenzweig, "A Work-Play Program for the Trainable Mental Deficient," <emph>American Journal of Mental Deficiency</emph> 60, no. 1 (1955): 57.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rosenzweig "Report of a School Program," 191.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 190.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cleverdon and Rosenzweig, "A Work-Play Program," 59–62.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 70.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 64.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rosenzweig, "Report of a School Program," 190.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 190–1.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cleverdon and Rosenzweig, "A Work-Play Program," 63.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rosenzweig, "Report of a School Program," 189–91.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 191–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AHRC, "Governor Sends Special Message".</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AHRC, "School Districts Lag on Classes for Trainable: Increase of Classes Almost Entirely for Educable," <emph>Our Children's Voice</emph> 9, no. 3 (1957).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AHRC, "Round and Round: An Editorial," <emph>Our Children's Voice</emph> 9, no. 2 (1958).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AHRC, "The Teacher's Point of View," <emph>Our Children's Voice</emph> 9, no. 2 (1958); and Ignacy Goldberg, "Some Aspects of the Current Status of Education and Training in the United States for Trainable Mentally Retarded Children," <emph>Exceptional Children</emph> 24, no. 4 (1957): 146–54.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Samuel A. Kirk, <emph>Public School Provisions for Severely Retarded Children: A Survey of Practices in the United States. Special Report to the New York State Interdepartmental Health Resources Board</emph> (Albany, 1957).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Orville Johnson and Rudolph J. Capobianco, Research Project on Severely Retarded Children: Summary of Special Report to the New York State Interdepartmental Health Resources Board (Albany, 1957).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Saenger, <emph>The Adjustment of Severely Retarded Adults.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 60.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 82, 92.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 120–25.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 102–9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 92.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Goldberg "Some Aspects," 146–54.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kirk, <emph>Public School Provisions for Severely Retarded Children</emph>, 62–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Saenger, <emph>The Adjustment of Severely Retarded Adults</emph>, 144–59, 168.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Goldberg, "Some Aspects," 151.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Richard Hungerford, "Enrichment through Difference," <emph>Occupational Education: A Magazine for Those Interested in the Guidance of the Non-Academic</emph> 5, no. 3 (1947): 53–5, 76.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Louis E. Rosenzweig and Julia Long, <emph>Understanding and Teaching the Dependent Retarded Child</emph> (Connecticut: The Educational Publishing Corporation, 1960), 32–3.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> John Dewey, <emph>Schools of To-Morrow</emph> (E.P. Dutton &amp; Company, 1915),167–8, 306–16.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> New York City Board of Education, <emph>The First Fifty Years</emph>, 196.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rosenzweig and Long, <emph>Understanding and Teaching the Dependent Retarded Child</emph>, 32–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rosenzweig and Long, <emph>Understanding and Teaching the Dependent</emph>, 13–19.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 37.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 62–81.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 94–127.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> John Dewey, <emph>The School and Society and The Child and the Curriculum</emph> (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press 1990), 105–6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 53–9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 62–73.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 74–80.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 82–93.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 128–38.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AHRC, "Classes for Trainable Mandatory for Ages 5 to 21," <emph>Our Children's Voice</emph> 14, no. 3 (1961).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, <emph>The President's Panel on Mental Retardation. Report of the Task Force on Education and Rehabilitation</emph> (Washington, DC, 1962), 35–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AHRC, "We Propose A Study," <emph>Our Children's Voice</emph> 13, no. 3 (1960).</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Takako Homma and Hiroki Yoneda</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref74"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref77"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref78"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref83"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref85"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref86"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref93"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref94"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref105"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref106"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref107"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl66" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref108"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl67" bibid="bib76" firstref="ref109"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl68" bibid="bib77" firstref="ref110"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl69" bibid="bib78" firstref="ref111"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl70" bibid="bib79" firstref="ref112"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl71" bibid="bib80" firstref="ref113"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl72" bibid="bib81" firstref="ref114"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl73" bibid="bib82" firstref="ref115"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl74" bibid="bib83" firstref="ref116"></nolink> |
|---|---|
| Header | DbId: eric DbLabel: ERIC An: EJ1405959 AccessLevel: 3 PubType: Academic Journal PubTypeId: academicJournal PreciseRelevancyScore: 0 |
| IllustrationInfo | |
| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: Social Inclusivity for Children with Severe Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: Development of a 1950s School Community Programme – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Takako+Homma%22">Takako Homma</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6708-5649">0000-0002-6708-5649</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hiroki+Yoneda%22">Hiroki Yoneda</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9844-9564">0000-0002-9844-9564</externalLink>) – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Paedagogica+Historica%3A+International+Journal+of+the+History+of+Education%22"><i>Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education</i></searchLink>. 2023 59(6):1035-1053. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 19 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2023 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Descriptive – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Severe+Disabilities%22">Severe Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intellectual+Disability%22">Intellectual Disability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Developmental+Disabilities%22">Developmental Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Relationship%22">Interpersonal Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Inclusion%22">Inclusion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Life%22">Social Life</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Community+Programs%22">Community Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Development%22">Social Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+History%22">Educational History</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Students+with+Disabilities%22">Students with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Teacher+Cooperation%22">Parent Teacher Cooperation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Daily+Living+Skills%22">Daily Living Skills</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Geographic Terms Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22New+York+%28New+York%29%22">New York (New York)</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1080/00309230.2022.2092761 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 0030-9230<br />1477-674X – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: This study examines the development of a 1950s educational programme for the inclusion of children with severe intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) -- those with IQ scores of less than 50, referred to as "trainable" or "dependent" children -- into community life. Conducted by the American Association of Parents of Retarded Children (AHRC) in New York City, the programme clarified the social life expectancies of children with severe IDD who had historically been segregated from society. The programme aimed to have these children be accepted within their communities and families, broaden their lives, and help their parents understand them appropriately. It affirmed the notion that children with severe IDD and their families could live in society with support. In other words, the goal was not just vocational independence but also the pursuance of a social life while receiving community services. The intended outcomes of the programme included personal independence, housework, good relations with others, physical movement, and literacy, among others. Although the programme was unique and thus different from traditional academic learning content, it was emphasised that the original goals of education for children with severe IDD and that of mainstream education are the same in the sense of realising democracy. The education and guidance necessary for them to grow to their fullest potential and integrate into community life could also lead to academic and vocational outcomes. The development of the school programme represented the beginning of what became known as social inclusion, thereby bringing diversity to social life and education. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2024 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ1405959 |
| PLink | https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1405959 |
| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1080/00309230.2022.2092761 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 19 StartPage: 1035 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Severe Disabilities Type: general – SubjectFull: Intellectual Disability Type: general – SubjectFull: Developmental Disabilities Type: general – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Relationship Type: general – SubjectFull: Inclusion Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Life Type: general – SubjectFull: Community Programs Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Development Type: general – SubjectFull: Educational History Type: general – SubjectFull: Students with Disabilities Type: general – SubjectFull: Parent Teacher Cooperation Type: general – SubjectFull: Daily Living Skills Type: general – SubjectFull: New York (New York) Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: Social Inclusivity for Children with Severe Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: Development of a 1950s School Community Programme Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Takako Homma – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Hiroki Yoneda IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 01 Type: published Y: 2023 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 0030-9230 – Type: issn-electronic Value: 1477-674X Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 59 – Type: issue Value: 6 Titles: – TitleFull: Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education Type: main |
| ResultId | 1 |
