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Career Counselling Mid-Career Laid-Off Workers

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Title: Career Counselling Mid-Career Laid-Off Workers
Language: English
Authors: Charles P. Chen, Siraj Waglay
Source: British Journal of Guidance & Counselling. 2024 52(3):392-404.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 13
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Evaluative
Descriptors: Career Counseling, Dislocated Workers, Job Layoff, Unemployment, Career Development, Manufacturing Industry, Social Bias, Counseling Techniques, Mental Health, Counselor Role, Intervention, Vocational Adjustment, Learning Theories
DOI: 10.1080/03069885.2023.2247550
ISSN: 0306-9885
1469-3534
Abstract: Jobs in the manufacturing sector have been largely relocated to countries offering a competitive advantage, particularly in terms of labour costs. For this reason, mid-career workers from this sector and from western countries have been largely displaced. These mid-career workers from the manufacturing sector are subsequently forced to compete for jobs in the newly booming service industry sector. This unplanned transition can be financially and psychologically challenging. This article investigates the consequences of institutional and individual stigma of unemployment as well as the mental health challenges associated with unemployment. Then three career psychology theories are applied as counselling strategies for this population, including Dawis and Lofquist's work adjustment theory; Krumboltz's social learning theory; and Cochran's narrative career counselling.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1425030
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0177319035;bjg01jun.24;2024May21.06:39;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0177319035-1">Career counselling mid-career laid-off workers </title> <p>Jobs in the manufacturing sector have been largely relocated to countries offering a competitive advantage, particularly in terms of labour costs. For this reason, mid-career workers from this sector and from western countries have been largely displaced. These mid-career workers from the manufacturing sector are subsequently forced to compete for jobs in the newly booming service industry sector. This unplanned transition can be financially and psychologically challenging. This article investigates the consequences of institutional and individual stigma of unemployment as well as the mental health challenges associated with unemployment. Then three career psychology theories are applied as counselling strategies for this population, including Dawis and Lofquist's work adjustment theory; Krumboltz's social learning theory; and Cochran's narrative career counselling.</p> <p>Keywords: Laid-off workers; unemployment; career counselling; career development; counselling interventions</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-2">Introduction</hd> <p>In the developed economies of liberal democratic states, structural changes have displaced large numbers of workers as economies shift from manufacturing to service industries (Wegrzyn, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref1">51</reflink>]). This shift is largely due to rising costs of labour and materials in developed countries (Labrianidis & Kalantaridis, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref2">31</reflink>]). Instead, manufacturing is subcontracted in a highly competitive market to less developed countries for mass low-price production (Labrianidis & Kalantaridis, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref3">31</reflink>]). Within this shift, Canada's manufacturing industries shrunk while service industries expanded, in large part due to difficulty competing with low-cost countries' manufacturing rates (Hirshhorn, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref4">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>In Canada, this shift from manufacturing to service sector was slower than in other developed economies (Hirshhorn, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref5">23</reflink>]). This slower shift in employment magnified problems with the Canadian economy. Canadian manufacturing has been very productive with high wages for workers with relatively low levels of formal education or training, while service sector jobs require higher levels of education and training to maintain steady employment and comparable levels of income (Hirshhorn, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref6">23</reflink>]). The majority of workers who occupy full-time, high-paying jobs in the service sector in Canada are new entrants to the job-market, not displaced workers from manufacturing (Hirshhorn, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref7">23</reflink>]). As Canada catches up with other developed economies and the shift from manufacturing to a service economy is occurring, large numbers of workers from the manufacturing sector have been forced to try to compete for service sector jobs.</p> <p>Manufacturing was previously a major source of employment for less educated individuals offering higher-than-average wages (Statistics Canada, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref8">47</reflink>]). A recent investigation on the impact of manufacturing decline found that the disappearance of manufacturing jobs has resulted in higher unemployment, lower full year, full time employment for those working and lower wages particularly for men with less education (Statistics Canada, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref9">47</reflink>]). With the disappearance of traditional low-skilled career paths, rising wages are often blamed for growing unemployment in post-industrial economies; however, in an analysis of explanations for unemployment among this group, Daniel Oesch ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref10">40</reflink>]) found this to be an unsubstantiated claim. Oesch found that low-paid service jobs were not required to correct unemployment rates of low-skilled workers. Instead, Oesch ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref11">40</reflink>]) concluded that efficient job-placement services, training programmes and job search controls are effective in addressing unemployment of low-skilled lowers while utilising their growth potential in the economy.</p> <p>In the absence of ambitious public policies concerning support for professional transitions, mid-career and older workers from the manufacturing sector having to find new employments in the tertiary sector struggle in the shift and have been forced to accept wage cuts, part-time work and loss of benefits, if they can find any employment at all. These workers, too young to retire and ineligible for pensions, face financial hardship at periods of their lives when there continues to be mortgage and other expenses, possibly with dependent children hoping to get help paying for their education and launch into careers (Gillespie, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref12">18</reflink>]; Jones, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref13">27</reflink>]). In these circumstances, job loss and unemployment can create enormous financial worries that negatively impact every aspect of the unemployed person's and their family members' lives.</p> <p>The labour market, for this group and many others, is rapidly changing. There are increasingly fewer occupational options for a growing spectrum of workers (Duffy et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref14">15</reflink>]). Particularly for poor, working-class, disenfranchised and marginalised populations, these changes have resulted in increased precarious work, and decreased decent work options. Precarious work is work that is not full-time, permanent, or stable employment (Allan et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref15">1</reflink>]). As such, it is unstable and insecure work that does not provide continuity, power, or protection to the worker (Allan et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref16">1</reflink>]). Preforming precarious work results in poorer job attitudes, poorer mental health and disrupted identity while failing to meet the workers basic survival needs (Allan et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref17">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>In contrast, decent work is work that provides safety and stability, including safe working conditions, adequate compensation and time for rest, alignment of values and health care (Duffy et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref18">15</reflink>]). Preforming decent work leads to need satisfaction, work fulfilment, and wellbeing, creating opportunities for meaningful work (Blustein et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref19">6</reflink>]; Duffy et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref20">15</reflink>]). As psychology of working theory proposes, work is an essential aspect of life that is an essential component of mental health and has potential to fulfil fundamental human needs, including survival, power, social connection and self-determination (Blustein et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref21">6</reflink>]). Decent work is the means to this fulfilment. Yet this type of work is increasingly a societal privilege (Blustein et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref22">6</reflink>]).</p> <p>In this vein, the importance and comprehensive impact of work placements (particularly in work transitions) must be r ecognised, and consideration must be given to the need for decent work that allows for safety, stability and meaning, particularly for marginalised social populations, such as those with limited education and marginalised by social class. In this paper, the authors discuss prominent challenges experienced by mid-career laid-off workers as well as the application of the following three career development theories to counselling for mid-career laid-off workers: Dawis and Lofquist's work adjustment theory; Krumboltz's social learning theory; and Cochran's narrative career counselling.</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-3">Unemployment stigma</hd> <p>Unemployment is often viewed through an ideological lens and the history of public policy in this area carries the legacy of the Poor Laws, eugenics and other baggage of the past, which remains present today in developed economies in such policies as workfare that stigmatises welfare recipients, framing them as unmotivated to work (McGann et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref23">34</reflink>]). In such a highly politicised area as unemployment, one ought to critically examine the theoretical underpinnings of the ideas within a historical context. As an employment counsellor, one has to address what is often an internalised neoliberal idea amongst the unemployed that they are solely responsible for their unemployment; such perceptions are inaccurate, or, at best, only partially accurate, and destructive because they feed a culture of blaming the victim, the unemployed. However, if the loss of control is over-stated and the portrayal is that the unemployed are the helpless victims of forces beyond their control, the unemployed person might well perceive themselves to be in a hopeless situation and give up trying, blaming their unemployment solely on macro-economic and political forces beyond their control. In accordance, the narratives and institutional challenges associated with unemployment are obstacles that can complicate re-employment of mid-career laid-off workers.</p> <p>In addition, unemployment stigma creates external and internal challenges for career development of unemployed mid-career individuals. There is compelling evidence that unemployment stigma impacts the opportunities offered to experienced workers who are unemployed (Ho et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>]). Employers often discriminate against unemployed job applicants, because the unemployed are blamed for their unemployment. Ho and colleagues research findings suggest that employers tend to assume internal, dispositional character flaws in the unemployed rather than external possibilities, such as company bankruptcy or macroeconomic factors (Ho et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref25">24</reflink>]). The assumption that unemployed folk deserve job loss makes career development and reemployment more difficult for mid-career laid-off workers.</p> <p>Unemployment stigma continues to manifest by society and the environment surrounding the unemployed individual. A recent study found that unemployed workers are automatically perceived as less competent and, interestingly, less warm by others (Norlander et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref26">39</reflink>]). This study looked at perceptions of real employers and the attributions they make about the unemployed when looking at fictionalised resumes. This discrimination occurs almost instantaneously to becoming unemployed (Norlander et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref27">39</reflink>]). These findings suggest that previous job experience and expertise becomes almost irrelevant as soon as job loss occurs. Overall, mid-career laid-off workers, despite their previous experiences, may be generally discriminated against and may be perceived by the work force as incompetent.</p> <p>Furthermore, unemployment status influences attitudes about the self, job-search efforts and beliefs about job outcomes. Foremost, unemployed individuals demonstrate internalised unemployment stigma. The unemployed blame themselves for being unemployed, even when there are external factors beyond the control of individuals or even communities and nation states such as the current COVID-19 pandemic or the petroleum price shocks of the 1970s (Jahoda et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref28">26</reflink>]). Further, unemployed folk who endorse elements of unemployment stigma, commonly experience self-disappointment (Fielding-Singh et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref29">16</reflink>]). A meta-analysis by McKee-Ryan and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref30">35</reflink>]) shows that individuals self-blaming for job loss are significantly more likely to experience lower life satisfaction and physical health. These findings suggest that unemployment stigma perpetuates self-blame for job loss that contributes to a negative view of self and impacts wellbeing.</p> <p>To complicate the issues that come with unemployment, these internalised beliefs and perception of self are also connected to job search behaviours and reemployment success. Krug et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref31">28</reflink>]) found that stigmatised unemployed individuals were more likely to increase their job search efforts, despite having higher expectations of low re-employment compared to non-stigmatised unemployed individuals. Despite increased job-search efforts, the authors found that the stigmatised unemployed do not have better chances at finding a job and re-entering the work force. Further, repeated negative job search experiences can damage self-efficacy and create psychological distress (Wanberg et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref32">50</reflink>]), which mid-career laid-off workers are particularly likely to experience in the context of wide-spread downsizing, and job loss of the COVID-19 pandemic (Crayne, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref33">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>In addition, the unemployed less frequently engage in networking behaviours (Peterie et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref34">41</reflink>]) perhaps making it harder for them to find opportunities for new work. Although this diminished networking behaviour was previously linked to personal characteristics of the unemployed such as attitude, knowledge and personality, recent studies have linked it to social stigma and shame (Peterie et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref35">41</reflink>]). The stigma and shame that come with being unemployed are some of the factors that prevent individuals from engaging in networking. Considering this recent research, addressing unemployment stigma could impact how the unemployed engage with society and connect with others. This potentially increases job opportunities but also enhances mental health and well-being. Overall, the stigma of unemployment presents challenges for counselling efforts, employment offers and perception of self that influences job search behaviours.</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-4">Marienthal study as seminal work on unemployment</hd> <p>Jahoda et al. ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref36">26</reflink>]) work on unemployment of almost the entire town of Marienthal in Austria in the 1930s, when the sole employer in the town closed down, is the seminal work on the social psychological study of unemployment. "The unemployed experience in Marienthal, in contrast to time spent in the factory, was atomized and privatized, so that unemployment was cited as destructive for not only the individual but also, and more importantly, the community" (Jahoda et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref37">26</reflink>], p. 2; cited in Cole, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref38">13</reflink>], p. 1136). There are limitations in interpreting and transposing the Marienthal study findings to other situations of unemployment in that unemployment in the urban centres of contemporary developed economies usually are only a portion of the population, while the remainder remains employed. However, Jahoda and colleagues find that, even in situations of mass unemployment, there is the unemployment stigma. What is also significant on the time period of the Marienthal study is that it was conducted during the latter part of the Great Depression, a time of mass unemployment globally that challenged contemporary economic theories, ideologies and beliefs.</p> <p>Cole ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref39">13</reflink>]) critiques Jahoda and colleagues' Marienthal study and disputes the findings and documents the bias of the study authors as making wage labour the only acceptable option, privileging wage labour, while rejecting other forms of work, such as childcare and unpaid public service, or even self-employment. Cole ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref40">13</reflink>]) is especially critical in that the Marienthal study describes unemployment as leading to social disintegration and the unemployed as feared, othered and differentiated. The unemployed become objects of fear and loathing, even by such luminaries as Beveridge, who although was often described as progressive and was the architect of the post-1945 British welfare, argues that the unemployed become dependents of the state with complete loss of citizen rights, civil freedom and fatherhood (Sewell, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref41">45</reflink>]). Furthermore, the eugenics movement was supported by leading social reformers and socialists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and the unemployed were a group stigmatised and subject to threats of state-sanctioned sterilisation (Sewell, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref42">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>There remains an underlying ethos in neoliberalism that the unemployed are personally to blame for their own unemployment. Mills ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref43">38</reflink>]) presents a counter-narrative and makes the distinction between private troubles and public issues, including the situation where a few people are unemployed and unemployment is their personal issue, while where there is large-scale unemployment, unemployment is a public issue. That is, the failure to provide sufficient work for large numbers of workers in a given population is the fault of governments, policy-makers, industry and is an economic policy failure, not that of the individual unemployed worker. However, as the Marienthal study demonstrates, unemployed workers internalised their unemployment as personal failure, even in a situation of mass unemployment and the study authors fed the negative narrative about the unemployed.</p> <p>Bejian and Salomone ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref44">3</reflink>]) describe how Super's ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref45">48</reflink>]) theory of career development stems from Buehler's ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref46">7</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref47">8</reflink>]) life stage framework, developed while Buehler was a professor at the University of Vienna. Buehler's own life shows a trajectory of fleeing Nazi occupation of Austria, accepting an academic post in Norway, only to once again flee to America on the eve of the Nazi invasion of Norway (Charlotte Buehler Institute, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref48">9</reflink>]). Krumboltz's happenstance approach (Sharf, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref49">46</reflink>]) might better fit the facts of Buehler's career history.</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-5">Role of the employment counsellor</hd> <p>The challenge for the employment counsellor is to shift from the sociological and political aspects of unemployment to the circumstances of the individual job seeker who is seeking help, while neither minimising nor denying the broader context of unemployment. While Mills ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref50">38</reflink>]) presents a dichotomous view of unemployment in terms of personal troubles versus public issues, career development models demonstrate that vocational outcomes are influenced and impacted by both the individual and their environment in a bidirectional interaction (Lent et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref51">32</reflink>]). However, Lent et al. ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref52">32</reflink>]) go further in viewing behaviour not merely as a by-product of person-environment interaction, but as the individual possessing agency such that their behaviour can alter the person-environment interaction. The unemployed person is not a helpless victim but possesses the ability to impact the circumstances and outcomes of that interaction. Without this belief, the unemployed person is a powerless victim who is helpless in the face of forces of labour markets beyond their control (Bjørnstad, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref53">5</reflink>]). Conversely, taken to an extreme, neoliberal ideologues view unemployed workers as being either indolent or possessing other character flaws or lacking in intellect, and the remedy is coercion and social control.</p> <p>In balancing these views, the role of the employment counsellor is a dual role, providing personal, individual support to unemployed older workers and groups of older workers, while also addressing the psychological needs of involuntary unemployment. Foremost, Climent-Rodríguez et al. ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref54">11</reflink>]) describe the lack of public programmes and supports for unemployed older workers, who are largely invisible in society, with most programmes organised to meet the needs of younger workers and those early in their careers. As such, there are few options for support for mid-career laid-off workers as they navigate reemployment and career transitions.</p> <p>Yet, there is a need to support mid-career laid-off workers in building career search skills and exploring career options. In unexpectedly needing to find employment, mid-career laid-off workers have likely not had time to prepare or practice marketing their skills and navigating the job market. As such, it may be necessary to revise job search skills, such as resume construction and interview responses. In addition, mid-career laid-off workers may require career transitions (Hallam et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref55">21</reflink>]). Transitions may be for personal or economic reasons. As mentioned, for mid-career laid-off workers this may include transitioning from manufacturing sector jobs to service sector jobs. Counselling can facilitate exploration and learning about career options.</p> <p>Beyond support for career search skills, the employment counsellor should provide support for the mental health challenges that arise through involuntary unemployment. It is well documented that involuntary unemployment has a negative impact on mental health (Gong & Kendig, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref56">19</reflink>]; McKee-Ryan et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref57">35</reflink>]; Price et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref58">42</reflink>]), particularly for those who are later in their career (Voss et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref59">49</reflink>]). The laid-off mid-career worker often experiences grief and loss, whether in the manner described by Kubler-Ross (Climent-Rodríguez et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref60">11</reflink>]) or Hopson and Adams's ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref61">25</reflink>]) model of adult transitions. Climent-Rodríguez et al. ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref62">11</reflink>]) state that older workers most often experience complex grief with grief lasting longer and being more intense than amongst younger workers.</p> <p>Further, for workers who have held long-term employment, such as mid-career laid-off workers, their sense of identity, meaning and social structure, are often invested in their jobs and the loss of those jobs bring both grief and uncertainty for the future. Oftentimes, social relationships also revolve around such long-term employment. Immobilisation, self-doubt and despair are understandable given the bleak re-employment statistics of laid-off older workers (Climent-Rodríguez et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref63">11</reflink>]). Thus, while poor mental health, grief and uncertainty are common and understandable for mid-career laid-off workers, career counselling can support recovery and reemployment.</p> <p>In accordance, the employment counsellor needs to provide both employment counselling support, as well as more general psychotherapy to support the individual in a time of psychological trauma (Climent-Rodríguez et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref64">11</reflink>]; Lent et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref65">32</reflink>]; Sharf, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref66">46</reflink>]). Without first addressing the emotional, psychological content and working through grief, the focus on the practicalities of job market assessment, assessment of transferable skills, and the self-assessment and evaluation necessary to engage in job search and possibly career change, is difficult, if not impossible. If a mid-career laid-off worker does obtain job interviews, how will the individual respond to questions about their former employer? Will they directly express anger, more subtly express bitterness and disappointment, or will they present their experience and contributions in a positive manner in terms of the skills, work attitude and abilities they demonstrated that made them valued employees and that would be relevant in the position for which they are interviewing? If a career change is necessary, how will they present and demonstrate they have the transferable, marketable skills and the willingness to learn to adapt those skills to a new workplace in a competitive job market?</p> <p>It is incumbent upon the counsellor to develop rapport between themselves and their clients, help the clients work through their emotions and develop their job search in as positive a manner as possible. The goal is to restore a sense of agency and control to clients such that they are motivated to evaluate their situation and engage in career planning, goal setting and implementation. In addition to career development theories, the counsellor might well need to address issues using other counselling approaches, including stages of change (Prochaska & DiClemente, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref67">43</reflink>]), motivational interviewing (Miller & Rollnick, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref68">36</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref69">37</reflink>]) and cognitive-behavioural therapy.</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-6">Career counselling interventions</hd> <p>The following section reviews three career counselling theories and applies the counselling interventions to mid-career laid-off workers. As aforementioned, unemployed workers face specific issues, and career counselling interventions may assist this population in navigating their career concerns. The three career counselling interventions to be discussed include: work adjustment theory, happenstance learning theory and narrative career counselling. These interventions collectively address the prominent challenges of career development for mid-career laid-off workers by integrating exploration of new career options through individual fit and potential satisfaction, embracing and creating opportunities for growth in uncertain circumstances, and integrating individual experience and perspective to forge a plan forward. With each theory's contribution, this combination addresses individual, environment and experience for a comprehensive exploration of mid-career laid-off workers career transition.</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-7">Work adjustment theory</hd> <p>Rounds, Dawis, and Lofquist's ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref70">44</reflink>]) work adjustment theory is applicable to situations where the focus is on assessing the traits, needs and competencies of the individual to match those identified qualities to the job requirement factors. As such, work adjustment theory is applicable to workers who wish to make new career choices. It is a trait and factor approach in that traits, which are characteristics of an individual that can be measured, are compared to the job factors, which are the characteristics required by the job for successful job performance (Rounds, Dawis, & Lofquist, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref71">44</reflink>]). The theory has two major components that predict work adjustment and tenure: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref72">1</reflink>) the individual worker's <emph>satisfaction</emph> with the work, and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref73">2</reflink>) <emph>satisfactoriness</emph>, which is an appraisal by the employer as to the extent to which the worker adequately completes the assigned work (Sharf, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref74">46</reflink>]). The application of the theory involves three steps: step (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref75">1</reflink>) assessing abilities, values, personality, and interests, step (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref76">2</reflink>) measuring the requirements and conditions of occupations and step (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref77">3</reflink>) matching abilities, values and reinforcers (Rounds, Dawis, & Lofquist, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref78">44</reflink>]). The focus of the theory is on individual differences from person to person, not group differences.</p> <p>Work adjustment theory is well suited for this population as it views people and the work environments as dynamic. This is important for a population that has matured since their last major career choice and is navigating a changing economy. With this consideration of the dynamic shifts in career development, work adjustment theory incorporates sources of personal satisfaction in seeking work adjustment. The purpose of utilising this theory is to support individual transition to a new career that suits their skills and needs, even if the transition is to a relatively distant field to their previous employment and developed hard skills. Support for work adjustment theory in related populations is strong. An initial longitudinal study has supported work adjustment theory's aptitude-job congruence and interest-job congruence prediction of satisfaction (Bizot & Goldman, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref79">4</reflink>]). Further, work adjustment theory has been effectively applied to mid-life individuals who are transitioning back to work in new careers (Harper & Shoffner, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref80">22</reflink>]). As such, work adjustment theory has theoretical and practical potential to support mid-career laid-off workers as they transition from careers in manufacturing.</p> <p>Using these principles, work adjustment theory can support the logistical efforts and scope of the mid-career laid-off workers' career search. In a situation of unplanned, involuntary lay-off from a job for a long-term employee, the practical nature and focus on self-assessment, the job market and the fit between the traits and the factors offers a heuristic approach that is often acceptable to clients as a starting point to job search. Crucial to this approach is the measurement of values and abilities. The preparation of a basic resume and cover letter often requires such listings of abilities and job searches can be focused and use existing occupational databases and job search tools to match skills to job vacancies. As mid-career workers are likely out of practice in resume writing, not up-to-date in current job market expectations, and unexpectedly thrust into their job search, support for resume writing is likely beneficial. Further, work adjustment approaches can facilitate an expansion of career searches to alternative, well-suited occupations. At a time when the worker is discouraged and lacking in hope, it is hard to be creative in a job search. For an unemployed experienced older worker, the work adjustment theory approach provides an opportunity to both reflect on their present occupation and potential career change options. It can be reassuring to the mid-career laid-off worker who is concerned about job search in that they might well find they possess several skills that are transferable to other occupations. The Minnesota Importance Questionnaire scores on 6 values and 20 needs on 90 occupations which meet a given client's reinforcer patterns (Sharf, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref81">46</reflink>]). This questionnaire has the potential to shift the client's thinking to consider unexplored areas for job search and career development. Further, by assessing abilities using the General Aptitude Test Battery and comparing these scores to the scores of people in various occupations, counsellors can advise clients on potential matches between the given client's values and abilities and those of a number of matching occupations for the client (Sharf, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref82">46</reflink>]). This focus on values as opposed to interests might well appeal to an older, experienced worker (Lytle et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref83">33</reflink>]), who is grappling with value issues and the sense of disappointment, anger and despair over job loss.</p> <p>Finally, developing a greater understanding of personal strengths and characteristics through the work adjustment approach can address psychological effects of unemployment. Identifying traits and strengths can combat the negative influence of unemployment stigma on the self by solidifying their sense of the value they possess. It may also combat the belief that they are to blame for their unemployment by developing content for a different narrative, one where they are respectable and helpful additions to a workplace. As such, trait and factor identification can help mid-career laid-off workers develop realistic confidence that encourages them to tackle challenging job search and career development tasks.</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-8">Krumboltz's happenstance learning theory</hd> <p>According to Krumboltz's social learning theory, four basic factors contribute to one's choice of career: genetic endowment, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences and task-approach skills (Sharf, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref84">46</reflink>]). Krumboltz ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref85">29</reflink>]) stresses the importance of learning about the self and environment over making a choice. The approach is opposite to that of work adjustment theory in that the focus is on learning, rather than existing characteristics. In the current context of structural change in the Canadian economy, as well as structural change more generally in developed economies, where there can be rapid, unexpected labour market changes, with entire industries in jeopardy of disappearing and new sectors being created, it is Krumboltz's happenstance learning theory (HLT) that is of interest. HLT is a foundational strategy for managing unexpected career transitions such as lay-offs and changing economic landscapes, exemplified by Krumboltz et al. ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref86">30</reflink>]) published guide for applying HLT to involuntary career transitions. HLT is ideal for the circumstance as it is an action-oriented model that capitalises on unplanned events as opportunities for growth. The principles of HLT can be exemplified in two concrete ways to address specific challenges of mid-career laid-off workers. This includes embracing uncertainty to address the mental health challenges associated with involuntary job loss as well as activating effective job search behaviours to avoid the common decrease in activity associated with internalised unemployment stigma.</p> <p>In a situation where the unemployed person has indecision and struggles with a world characterised by uncertainty, Krumboltz ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref87">29</reflink>]) advises job seekers to embrace uncertainty and chance events through a shift from indecision to open-mindedness. In embracing this open-mindedness and adopting a planned approach to opportunities that present as chance events, the counsellor encourages the job seeker to engage in curiosity, persistence, flexibility, optimism and risk-taking. HLT purports that initial, negative unplanned events, such as involuntary job loss, may be outside of the individual's control but further constructive action by the individual can capitalise on unplanned events to develop satisfying careers (Krumboltz et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref88">30</reflink>]). These principles can address the mental health challenges associated with job loss by tackling client attitudes about unplanned events and job loss. For mid-career laid-off workers, this includes normalising job loss and exploring the potential and opportunities of unplanned events. The latter concept encourages feelings of autonomy, and control by emphasising that new unplanned events can be created or capitalised on through the constructive actions of the individual. Initial actions to embrace unplanned events where individuals experience small steps of progress will restore their sense of self-efficacy (Krumboltz et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref89">30</reflink>]). Thus, developing and practicing the tenants of HLT can help prevent mid-career laid off workers from feeling helpless and creating self-defeating cycles.</p> <p>In addition, HLT can address the behavioural changes experienced by many mid-career laid-off workers as a result of unemployment stigma. Planned happenstance is an empowering approach to the unemployed person. Rather than adopt a passive role of waiting for opportunities to be presented, HLT encourages the mid-career laid off worker to go into the world seeking and creating opportunities to explore, network and overcome obstacles to success in the job market. Considering the job market and their experience, it is particularly important for mid-career laid-off workers to actively capitalise on unplanned happenstance. For instance, in a capitalist free-market economy and labour markets, especially during periods of structural change, job opportunities are not easy to find in newspapers or job listings. Many, if not most, jobs only exist in the so-called "hidden job market," accessible only through word of mouth and personal relationships. Even when jobs are posted, they may only be posted on internal job boards and company websites, accessible to only a few members of the public. In some instances, the stated job requirements in advertisements can be daunting and state education, skill, and experience requirements that seem unattainable and job seekers might rule themselves out by never applying for those jobs. Instead, HLT encourages individuals to be optimistic, curious and persistent while taking risks. In embracing the tenants of HLT, the mid-career laid-off worker can capitalise on unplanned happenstance by applying for such jobs, cold-calling companies, networking with existing contacts, and socialising to develop new contacts that expand their network.</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-9">Cochran's narrative career counselling</hd> <p>Narrative approaches to career development derives from constructivism, an approach in which individuals create their own views and meanings of events in their lives and the counsellor seeks to understand how the client sees the world in terms of values and constructs (Cochran, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref90">12</reflink>]). Narrative career counselling has been effectively applied to a variety of populations who experience unexpected mid-life career transitions, such as survivors of natural disasters (Anderson-White & Gibbons, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref91">2</reflink>]) and athletes who experience injuries (Chen & Bansal, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref92">10</reflink>]). In narrative counselling, the unemployed older worker starts by telling their story, choosing what to include and what to exclude and what aspects to emphasise as important. The counsellor listens, notes emerging patterns and themes, and derives meanings that the client has drawn from their experiences. By listening to the client narrate their story, the counsellor learns about the client's goals for the future (Cochran, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref93">12</reflink>]). Cochran's approach views the client's narrative in seven episodes of phases in career counselling, starting with elaborating a career problem (Cochran, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref94">12</reflink>]). As with most stories, the plot has a beginning and middle, but the ending, the future, remains to be constructed or experienced. For the experienced worker who has been laid-off, the life and work that formed a key part of their lives for many years remain a key part of their identity narrative and is likely to preoccupy their thoughts, especially when seeking career counselling. As such, Cochran's approach will capitalise on these thoughts by integrating them into a narrative that serves their career development and wellbeing.</p> <p>Narrative counselling will address the grief and diminished self-efficacy of the mid-career laid-off worker while developing job search skills and forward-thinking narratives for their career development. While not all clients will necessarily be comfortable or articulate as storytellers, most long-term workers who are laid-off have stories to tell of their years of work. The telling of the narrative itself has therapeutic value and meaning construction for the client. Cochran's narrative career counselling is an empowering process that encourages the individual to actively participate in defining their life story. Through narrative construction, mid-career laid-off workers will redevelop a sense of power and strength after experiencing uncontrollable changes of involuntary unemployment.</p> <p>Further, rehearsing the narrative has a practical value of developing an ability to speak of their experience when going to job interviews. A key benefit of an older worker is the potential experience they bring to a new job and being able to present that experience in a narrative that is effective in interviews is a key skill necessary for successful interviews. A frequently posed question in structured job interviews is, "tell me about yourself," as well as other open-ended questions, such as "how does your previous experience relate to this job?" The job interview is in large measure an exercise in narrative. To support this, Cochran's episode of composing a life history includes gathering information about clients' interests, values, abilities and even motives (Cochran, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref95">12</reflink>]). Constructing these aspects of the narrative can support a variety of career development strategies as the client's story is the starting point for many interventions, including resume writing workshops, interview skills workshops and transferable skills assessments for those contemplating career change. As such, in counselling with a mid-career laid-off worker it would be helpful to identify transferrable, marketable skills and relevant experiences while moving through the narrative. This will support their development of practical career search skills that they now unexpectedly require but likely were not actively preparing or practicing.</p> <p>To further support narrative creation for career experiences, Gibson ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref96">17</reflink>]) outlines that narrative theory helps clients process their thoughts about themselves and their career aspirations in a manner that changes the client from thinking in terms of organisations and workplaces of their past and more in terms of their own personal stories that will always remain with them. As Gibson ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref97">17</reflink>]) states, "Careers are less about positions and professions and more about the fashioning of identity over time, through enacted narrative" (p. 178). Workplaces will come and go in the current structurally changing economies. One's career and identity is no longer anchored by the workplace, but in one's own personal narrative and relationships with others over time. As such, developing this individualised narrative will help mid-career laid-off workers separate from the institutes they worked for, feel autonomy in their work life, and be resilient as they navigate an uncertain economy.</p> <p>Once a narrative about their life and career experiences has been developed, Cochran's episode of eliciting a future narrative can be utilised to construct a satisfying new career. The counsellor works with the client to develop new, adaptive narratives as the client processes the emotions and experiences of the past while constructing present and future narratives. Reality construction for the laid-off experienced worker includes trying out a variety of actions, talking to people, networking, seeking informational interviews, job shadowing and other actions that immerses them in the world of work, gathering current information and affords them the opportunity to imagine themselves in various work roles (Cochran, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref98">12</reflink>]). Enacting a role allows the client the opportunity to explore a desired job goal and whether there is a fit with their expectations. The end goal of narrative counselling is the crystallisation of a decision (Cochran, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref99">12</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-10">Limitations and considerations</hd> <p>While each of these theories has well justified use with the population, research on their application, particularly in predicting outcomes, is still growing. Their application looks promising, and they offer practical avenues for support. It thus becomes important to match the approach to the individual. Further, this article explores the application of theories proposed to be helpful and appropriate for the population. There are many additional theories that could be worth exploring in future works, such as Lent and colleagues' social cognitive career theory, Hopson and Adams' model of adult transitions, and many more narrative approaches.</p> <p>Further, in selecting an approach and working with the client, it's important to be cognizant of the variety of macro, micro and meso factors associated with career development of mid-career laid-off workers. The outlined theories primarily provide individual level support for navigating the environment; however, it is also important to consider that the environment has systemic and institutional factors that are beyond individual control. For instance, economies, legal systems, organisations, communities, politics and individual relationships all impact the opportunities and supports available to the individual. Counsellors should be aware that these aspects of career development are different for each client and be active advocates for equal opportunity.</p> <p>Finally, it is important to note the progressive evolution of the work environment and economy. Mid-career transitions are increasingly necessary with few individuals remaining in the same role through their whole career (Haasler & Barabasch, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref100">20</reflink>]). For some, career journeys can involve multiple career transitions throughout their life. With this in mind, career counselling, occupational exploration and education should be framed as a life-long journey. Career development is a lifelong learning process where counselling support should be widely available for all.</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-11">Conclusion</hd> <p>Career counselling mid-career, experienced workers who are laid off from jobs where they have worked for several years requires the counsellor to address the psychological needs of the grief, shock and anger of job loss and prepare the client for engaging in more career-oriented counselling. Work adjustment theory is an approach that is likely to be more familiar to the client and may be a good starting point, especially with clients who are more concrete in their approaches to job search counselling. Krumbolz's happenstance approach provides perspectives and encouragement for the client to be more opportunistic in a labour market undergoing structural change, where uncertainty is a dominant feature of the economy. Krumbolz's happenstance approach might well result in clients embracing rather than fearing uncertainty and change. Narrative approaches are more accommodating for an exploration of the social constructs of the client and could prove beneficial in the preparation for the client to engage in job search in both exploring interests, fit and narrative in interviews, as well as adjustment to the job loss. Regardless of which approach is taken, or a combination of approaches, the establishment of rapport between counsellor and client and the instilling of hope and positive regard remain important for success, however the client defines success for themselves.</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-12">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-13">Informed consent and ethical statement</hd> <p>Informed consent and ethics review are not required or applicable to this article, as it is entirely based on existing literature that is fully accessible to the public.</p> <hd id="AN0177319035-14">Data availability statement</hd> <p>Data availability is not applicable to this article, as it is entirely based on existing literature that is fully accessible to the public.</p> <ref id="AN0177319035-15"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref15" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Allan, B. A., Autin, K. 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Chen , PhD, is Professor of Counselling and Clinical Psychology and a Canada Research Chair in Life Career Development at the University of Toronto.</p> <p>Siraj Waglay , RN, RP, CPMHN(C), MScN, is a Mental Health Clinician in Health and Wellness at Student Life Programs and Services, University of Toronto.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref83"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref85"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref86"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref90"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref92"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref96"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref100"></nolink>
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Career Counselling Mid-Career Laid-Off Workers
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
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– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Charles+P%2E+Chen%22">Charles P. Chen</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Siraj+Waglay%22">Siraj Waglay</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22British+Journal+of+Guidance+%26+Counselling%22"><i>British Journal of Guidance & Counselling</i></searchLink>. 2024 52(3):392-404.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
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  Data: 13
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: TypeDocument
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Evaluative
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Career+Counseling%22">Career Counseling</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Dislocated+Workers%22">Dislocated Workers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Job+Layoff%22">Job Layoff</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Unemployment%22">Unemployment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Career+Development%22">Career Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Manufacturing+Industry%22">Manufacturing Industry</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Bias%22">Social Bias</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Counseling+Techniques%22">Counseling Techniques</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mental+Health%22">Mental Health</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Counselor+Role%22">Counselor Role</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intervention%22">Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Vocational+Adjustment%22">Vocational Adjustment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Learning+Theories%22">Learning Theories</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1080/03069885.2023.2247550
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  Label: ISSN
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  Data: 0306-9885<br />1469-3534
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Jobs in the manufacturing sector have been largely relocated to countries offering a competitive advantage, particularly in terms of labour costs. For this reason, mid-career workers from this sector and from western countries have been largely displaced. These mid-career workers from the manufacturing sector are subsequently forced to compete for jobs in the newly booming service industry sector. This unplanned transition can be financially and psychologically challenging. This article investigates the consequences of institutional and individual stigma of unemployment as well as the mental health challenges associated with unemployment. Then three career psychology theories are applied as counselling strategies for this population, including Dawis and Lofquist's work adjustment theory; Krumboltz's social learning theory; and Cochran's narrative career counselling.
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  Data: 2024
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        Value: 10.1080/03069885.2023.2247550
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 13
        StartPage: 392
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Career Counseling
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Dislocated Workers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Job Layoff
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      – SubjectFull: Unemployment
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      – SubjectFull: Career Development
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      – SubjectFull: Manufacturing Industry
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      – SubjectFull: Social Bias
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      – SubjectFull: Counseling Techniques
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      – SubjectFull: Mental Health
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      – TitleFull: Career Counselling Mid-Career Laid-Off Workers
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            NameFull: Siraj Waglay
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            – D: 01
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              Type: published
              Y: 2024
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