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Supporting Reading Comprehension for Students with Inattention

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Title: Supporting Reading Comprehension for Students with Inattention
Language: English
Authors: Alicia A. Stewart (ORCID 0000-0001-6770-5046), Elizabeth Swanson
Source: TEACHING Exceptional Children. 2024 56(5):386-395.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 10
Publication Date: 2024
Sponsoring Agency: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
Contract Number: R305A150407
Intended Audience: Teachers
Document Type: Journal Articles
Guides - Classroom - Teacher
Descriptors: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Attention, Students with Disabilities, Reading Instruction, Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary Development, Teaching Methods
DOI: 10.1177/00400599221087434
ISSN: 0040-0599
2163-5684
Abstract: Although many students struggle to comprehend text, some populations of students are particularly impacted. Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), for example, perform lower on working memory measures, which can make reading comprehension even more difficult (Gropper & Tannock, 2009). Inattention, specifically, appears to be related to lower reading outcomes given that students with high levels of inattention tend to earn lower scores on reading comprehension measures than students with hyperactivity alone (e.g., Pham, 2016). In addition, students with high levels of inattention tend to have similar word reading abilities as their typically developing peers, yet they perform below their peers on measures of fluency and reading comprehension (Ghelani et al., 2004; Martinussen & Mackenzie, 2015). In the following article, the authors share a set of instructional practices that can be done before, during, and after reading to support reading comprehension for students with inattention.
Abstractor: ERIC
IES Funded: Yes
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1432894
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0178653563;tec01may.24;2024Jul30.06:20;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0178653563-1">Supporting Reading Comprehension for Students With Inattention </title> <p>Graph</p> <p> <emph>Mrs. Freatman is a fourth-grade general education teacher at Leo Elementary School. She has students with a range of skills in her class, many of whom struggle to comprehend what they read. She is particularly concerned with their ability to comprehend informational text because they rarely engage in discussions after reading from their textbook, even when prompted. Most of the time, when Mrs. Freatman stops to check for understanding while reading, she is met with silence. Few students contribute to her classroom discussions. They often recall elements of text but have difficulty making sense of it. It is almost as if they have multiple pieces of a puzzle yet seem to be missing the pieces that help them see the whole picture. She takes note of students following along with the text while she or others read. She also observes students looking at her during class discussion. She wonders, however, if students are truly maintaining focus throughout these activities. Does following along with text while others read equate to sustained attention? Does looking at her during discussion mean they are truly attending to everything she says? Mrs. Freatman would like to ensure her instruction supports her students who may have trouble sustaining attention while reading. She is concerned her students are not accessing content in a way that promotes deep learning, and she wonders what more she can do to improve their ability to comprehend informational text moving forward.</emph> </p> <p>Students in upper elementary grades are expected to acquire content knowledge by reading informational text—a considerable challenge for students who have trouble comprehending what they read. These challenges are particularly evident given data from the [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref1">23</reflink>], which reports only 35% of fourth-grade students in the United States read text proficiently and 65% do not. The focus on learning to read, which is heavily addressed in Grades K–3, shifts in fourth grade, requiring students to read content area text to learn new information ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref2">6</reflink>]). Additionally, due to high-stakes standardized testing, many upper elementary and secondary teachers focus heavily on content during science and social studies classes without providing instruction on how to read for understanding ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref3">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>"Many upper elementary teachers work with a number of students with inattentive behaviors who struggle to comprehend informational text in general education classrooms.</p> <p>Comprehending connected text can be challenging due to the use of additional regions in the brain responsible for higher-order information maintenance and meaning coherence ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref4">1</reflink>]). Reading comprehension requires continuous updates of mental representations while simultaneously making connections between information obtained through text (i.e., use of working memory). Although many students struggle to comprehend text, some populations of students are particularly impacted. Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), for example, perform lower on working memory measures, which can make reading comprehension even more difficult ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref5">13</reflink>]). ADHD is characterized by high levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity that interfere with functioning ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref6">2</reflink>]), but the behavioral characteristics of ADHD are highly individualized; some students display both behaviors (ADHD combined), but others exhibit inattentive behavior without the presence of hyperactivity/impulsivity (ADHD–inattentive) and vice versa (ADHD–hyperactive-impulsive). Inattention, specifically, appears to be related to lower reading outcomes given that students with high levels of inattention tend to earn lower scores on reading comprehension measures than students with hyperactivity alone (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref7">24</reflink>]). In addition, students with high levels of inattention tend to have similar word reading abilities as their typically developing peers, yet they perform below their peers on measures of fluency and reading comprehension ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref8">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref9">21</reflink>]). This suggests students who embody heightened levels of inattention may face unique challenges when accessing connected text.</p> <p>The National Survey of Children's Health ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref10">39</reflink>]) reported 8.9% of children ages 3 through 17 have a diagnosis of ADHD. The majority of these students have either combined or inattentive presentations of ADHD ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref11">40</reflink>]), meaning instructional supports targeting inattention may be particularly beneficial for them. Some of these students are supported under the category of other health impairment by the Individuals with Disabilities Act ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref12">14</reflink>]); however, many do not receive special education services ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref13">27</reflink>]). In fact, many students with inattention receive instruction in general education classrooms for the majority of their day regardless of receiving special education services ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref14">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref15">27</reflink>]).</p> <p>Mrs. Freatman's experience is not uncommon; many upper elementary teachers work with a number of students with inattentive behaviors who struggle to comprehend informational text in general education classrooms ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref16">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref17">27</reflink>]). In addition, teachers often struggle to incorporate reading instruction into content area classes ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref18">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref19">20</reflink>]). As a result, they find themselves juggling content acquisition lessons and reading instruction. When faced with this dilemma, many end up responding in one of two ways: (a) forfeiting content area lessons to focus primarily on reading instruction ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref20">41</reflink>]) or (b) forfeiting text to focus purely on content, which is often presented visually (e.g., PowerPoint slides with key components of pertinent content) or read aloud to students ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref21">36</reflink>]). Both of these responses ultimately result in little opportunity to practice content area reading comprehension.</p> <p>How might general education teachers support students with ADHD, particularly those with inattention, with content area reading instruction? A growing body of research documents instructional practices that may be particularly helpful in supporting students with inattention as they learn to comprehend expository text. Explicit vocabulary instruction with the use of graphic organizers, explicit strategy instruction to support the generation of main idea statements and summaries, posing leveled questions to encourage text-based discussion while reading, and providing students with opportunities to work in pairs are all ways teachers like Mrs. Freatman can help students with inattention improve their ability to comprehend text ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref22">32</reflink>]). In the following, we share a set of instructional practices that can be done before, during, and after reading to support reading comprehension for students with inattention.</p> <hd id="AN0178653563-2">Before Reading</hd> <p>Prior to reading text, it is important to target the development of background knowledge. To do this, engage in explicit vocabulary instruction.</p> <hd id="AN0178653563-3">Explicit Vocabulary Instruction</hd> <p>Many teachers engage in vocabulary instruction regularly, but not all teachers implement explicit vocabulary instruction that incorporates multiple opportunities for students to apply a word's use to gain a deeper understanding of word meaning ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref23">4</reflink>]). Background knowledge is an essential contributor to reading comprehension ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref24">17</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref25">33</reflink>]); therefore, effective vocabulary instruction provides students with inattention opportunities to expand the much-needed background knowledge required to comprehend informational text ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref26">9</reflink>]).</p> <p>Vocabulary instruction commonly begins with the introduction of a new word and a student-friendly definition of that word. Add several short activities to deepen vocabulary knowledge in a meaningful way and provide multiple opportunities for students to use the word. For example, while defining the word, model how to identify key words in the definition. Expand students' understanding of target vocabulary words by providing examples and nonexamples of the word used in context; discussing the word and how it pertains to illustrations or other visuals; using the word in meaningful sentences; associating the word to other, already known words; and connecting the word to students' lives.</p> <p>"Add several short activities to deepen vocabulary knowledge in a meaningful way and provide multiple opportunities for students to use the word.</p> <p>One way to incorporate all these practices while also supporting students with high levels of inattention is to use graphic organizers, specifically semantic vocabulary maps (see Figure 1). The use of semantic maps supports memory by helping students recall and organize relevant information while reading, writing, and discussing new content ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref27">38</reflink>]). This may be particularly necessary for students with inattention, especially if they have working memory challenges ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref28">8</reflink>]). Break up the completion of the semantic map before and after reading to provide ample opportunities to apply understanding of target vocabulary words. For example, the top half (i.e., Sections 1–4) of Figure 1 can be completed before reading, and the bottom half (i.e., Sections 5, 6, and the Turn and Talk) can be completed after reading.</p> <p>MAP: Figure 1 Semantic vocabulary mapReprinted with permission. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref29">37</reflink>]. Lesson 1: Albert Redder, Archaeologist. In Project STRIVE Teacher Manual: Fourth Grade (pp. 3–15). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences, Grant R305A150407.</p> <p>To ensure these instructional practices are taught explicitly, model the process of completing each activity (e.g., each section of the semantic map) by engaging in a think aloud. After introducing the word and modeling each step of the semantic map, engage in guided instruction to support this process with future words.</p> <p>To engage in this work with the word "culture" (Figure 1), Mrs. Freatman completed the top half of the sematic map with her students using the script in Figure 2. She was careful to think aloud each task because this was the very first time she introduced the new semantic map to her students. When completing the second semantic map for another word (i.e., "artifact"), she explicitly guided students through the process so they had opportunities to help her complete each task.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2 Modeling the use of vocabulary maps (before reading) Adapted with permission. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref30">37</reflink>]. Lesson 1: Albert Redder, Archaeologist. In Project STRIVE Teacher Manual: Fourth Grade (pp. 3–15). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences, Grant R305A150407.</p> <hd id="AN0178653563-4">During Reading</hd> <p>While reading, stop periodically to have students generate main ideas using the Get the Gist strategy. In addition, facilitate collaborative learning, in which pairs of students work together to generate main idea statements. Last, stop between chunks of text to pose text-based discussion questions.</p> <hd id="AN0178653563-5">Main Idea Instruction</hd> <p>Main idea generation is documented as another way to improve reading outcomes for students with inattention (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref31">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref32">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref33">32</reflink>]). One efficacious strategy to improve the generation and composition of main idea statements is Get the Gist (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref34">18</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref35">29</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref36">32</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref37">35</reflink>]). The Get the Gist strategy requires students to ask themselves two questions: (a) Who or what is this section (of the reading) about? and (b) What's the most important idea about the <emph>who</emph> or the <emph>what</emph>? Figure 4 provides an example of a cue card students can use to remind them of each step in the process. The procedure of self-questioning to support the generation of main idea statements resembles the act of self-monitoring. It prompts students to follow a structured inner discourse, which may be particularly useful for students who struggle to maintain attention. Stopping while reading to compose main idea statements on a graphic organizer allows students to document information as they read. This built in "chunking" of the text can also scaffold the working memory demands associated with comprehending complex content area text ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref38">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref39">8</reflink>]). This process can be heavily scaffolded at first (see Figure 6), but over time, scaffolding can be removed gradually to enable students to write gist statements for assigned sections of text as they read (see Figure 7).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3 Modeling the use of vocabulary maps (after reading) Reprinted with permission. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref40">37</reflink>]. Project STRIVE Student Cue Card: Fourth Grade. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences, Grant R305A150407.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 4 Get the Gist student cue cardReprinted with permission. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref41">37</reflink>]. Project STRIVE Get the Gist graphic organizer. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences, Grant R305A150407.</p> <p>Mrs. Freatman explicitly taught students the Get the Gist strategy by modeling the self-questioning cues and thinking aloud her responses to each. After formulating a gist statement, she continued reading with students. After a few more paragraphs, she stopped to engage in the Get the Gist strategy again, only this time, she invited students' support with the process (i.e., guided practice). As a class, they filled out the prompts in Figure 6 to generate a gist statement. She continued this process for several instances until she felt students were ready to try a new challenge. At this time, she guided students though answering both self-questioning prompts, but she had them combine the answers to generate a gist statement independently. Over the next few lessons, she slowly released responsibility to students, providing them with more and more opportunities to answer the self-questioning prompts independently. Eventually, she prompted students to write their gist statements with very little scaffolding (see Figure 7).</p> <hd id="AN0178653563-6">Collaborative Learning Pairs</hd> <p>Incorporating opportunities for students to engage with peers in a structured way can benefit students with high levels of inattention by increasing on-task behavior (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref42">19</reflink>]) and improving reading outcomes (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref43">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref44">32</reflink>]). Facilitate structured interactions between students by explicitly teaching them how to be a group member or teammate. Provide additional support by recommending specific scripting to guide partner interactions. Figure 5 provides an example of such scripting, which is placed on a cue card students can access while they work with a partner to generate gist statements (i.e., main idea statements).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 5 Cue card to support collaborative learning pairsReprinted with permission. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref45">37</reflink>]. Project STRIVE Get the Gist graphic organizer. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences, Grant R305A150407.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 6 Get the Gist graphic organizer with heavy scaffoldingReprinted with permission. Swanson, E., Vaughn, S., & Roberts, G. (2015). Project STRIVE Student Cue Card: Fourth Grade. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences, Grant R305A150407.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 7 Get the Gist graphic organizer with less scaffoldingReprinted with permission. Swanson, E., Vaughn, S., & Roberts, G. (2015). Project STRIVE Student Cue Card: Fourth Grade. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences, Grant R305A150407.</p> <p>Once students could successfully combine self-questioning prompts independently, Mrs. Freatman gave them opportunities to generate gist statement with partners. She supported this process by explicitly teaching them how to work in pairs and provided them with a cue card (see Figure 5) to remind them of how to engage in gist writing with a partner. To ensure their conversation stayed on topic, she allotted limited time to answer each self-questioning prompt (i.e., 1 minute). After the first minute, she stopped and asked pairs to share how they responded to the first prompt (Who or what is the text about?). After the second minute, she asked pairs to share how they responded to the second prompt (What is the most important idea about the who or what?). After the third minute, she asked a few pairs to state their gist statements. She provided specific verbal feedback to either affirm or correct responses. After class, she reviewed written responses to formatively assess her students' ability to write gist statements and utilized this information to plan her instruction for the following day.</p> <hd id="AN0178653563-7">Pose Text-Based Discussion Questions</hd> <p>To promote discussion and facilitate content comprehension, pose text-based discussion questions while reading ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref46">34</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref47">35</reflink>]). This practice is also supported for students with inattention ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref48">32</reflink>]). It is particularly important to pose a variety of questions that require both literal (e.g., who, where, what, when) and inferential (e.g., why, how) responses. Support student responses by explicitly teaching them about various question types and their respective answer types. For example, a <emph>who</emph> question requires a response describing a person or a group of people. Provide students with cue cards summarizing each question/answer type to scaffold responses (see Figure 8).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 8 Cue card to support text-based discussionsAdapted with permission. Swanson, E., Vaughn, S., & Roberts, G. (2015). Lesson 1: Albert Redder, Archaeologist. Project STRIVE Teacher Manual: Fourth Grade. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences, Grant R305A150407.</p> <p>Prior to her lesson, Mrs. Freatman examined the text closely to predetermine text-based discussion questions she would pose while reading. She was careful to include a couple of questions that required inferential thought as well (e.g., Why was Albert Redder's discovery important?). During the lesson, she explicitly taught her students about each question type and provided them with a cue card (see Figure 8). Then, while reading, she stopped to pose her preplanned questions. She thought aloud how to respond to the first question using the cue card. Then, she continued reading and guided students through answering the remaining questions. If students struggled to respond to a question, she redirected them to their cue card. After supporting this process over the course of a few lessons, she noticed a difference in her students' willingness to respond. Before, she was often met with silence after posing questions about content in the text; however, with the additional support of the cue card and the discussion surrounding question types, students now had tangible steps to take if they were unsure of how to approach a response (e.g., check to see what response a question type requires and search the text for that information).</p> <hd id="AN0178653563-8">After Reading</hd> <p>After reading, return to vocabulary maps to support students with application activities. In addition, use the previously generated gist statements to support summary writing.</p> <hd id="AN0178653563-9">Explicit Vocabulary Instruction</hd> <p>To promote deeper understanding of important concepts, return to semantic vocabulary maps after reading. For example, complete Sections 5, 6, and the Turn and Talk activity in Figure 1. This process allows students to dive deeper into word meaning after reading about the words in the text. The first time this content is covered, model each section of the semantic map (see scripting example in Figure 3). The second time, guide students through each task and provide ample feedback throughout. Finally, provide students with opportunities to work in collaborative pairs during these activities.</p> <p>After reading, Mrs. Freatman returned to the semantic map for "culture" to complete the remaining sections (see Figure 1). She explicitly modeled each task (see scripting in Figure 3). When completing the bottom half of the second word (i.e., "artifact"), she guided students through each task and provided specific feedback after each student response. After a few instances of guided practices using other words and other texts, she prompted students to work with a partner to complete the bottom half of the semantic maps after reading. Similar to their collaborative learning opportunities during gist writing, she provided limited time to complete each section of the semantic map. She stopped to ask students to share responses before prompting them to work on the next section. Before engaging in these practices, her students rarely responded, and the room was frequently filled with silence; now, her room is filled with the sounds of students interacting with one another about the content found in informational text. She is glad to see her students, especially those who seemed to struggle to maintain attention, engaging in these discussions with one another, and she feels confident learning is taking place.</p> <hd id="AN0178653563-10">Summary Writing</hd> <p>After composing multiple main idea statements while reading, students can then combine them to create a comprehensive summary of an entire passage. Studies support the composition of summaries to improve reading comprehension for struggling readers ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref49">30</reflink>]), for students with ADHD (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref50">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref51">26</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref52">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref53">31</reflink>]), and specifically for students with inattention ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref54">32</reflink>]). Scaffolding the summary writing process by using previously composed main idea statements and a graphic organizer can also support this process (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref55">32</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref56">35</reflink>]). Figure 9 provides an example of a graphic organizer that scaffolds this process.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 9 Gist to summary graphic organizerReprinted with permission. Swanson, E., Vaughn, S., & Roberts, G. (2015). Lesson 15 and 16: Stephen Austin Refuses to Quit. Project STRIVE Teacher Manual: Fourth Grade. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences, Grant R305A150407.</p> <p>Mrs. Freatman worked on writing gist statements for a few weeks before introducing summary writing to her students. She wanted to make sure they had a strong understanding of generating main ideas before teaching students how to synthesize the information in a summary of the text. After reading a new text with her students and stopping to generate three gists during reading, Mrs. Freatman modeled the process of summary writing using the graphic organizer illustrated in Figure 9. Gist statements were already generated and written on the left side of the graphic organizer. From there, she thought aloud each step in the summarizing process, starting with a topic sentence. She explained that the topic sentence of a summary is the main idea of the entire passage. As a result, she used the Get the Gist strategy to generate this sentence. She asked students to follow along on their graphic organizers while she wrote the topic sentence on hers (she projected hers for the class to see). Next, she modeled moving each gist statement the class had already generated (left side of graphic organizer in Figure 9) over to the summary (right side of the graphic organizer in Figure 9). Last, she modeled generating the concluding sentence, which she explained was a reworded version of the topic sentence. In the next lesson, she plans to guide students through this process and provide ample feedback. She will gradually release her support over time to facilitate independent summary writing among her students.</p> <p>By implementing the previously described instructional practices before, during, and after reading, teachers like Ms. Freatman can support reading comprehension among students with inattention. The use of these strategies can enhance students' ability to access and comprehend informational text, which often poses challenges as they progress through grades. For additional resources and examples of lesson plans that employ these instructional practices, see [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref57">22</reflink>].</p> <ref id="AN0178653563-11"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref4" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Aboud K. S., Bailey S. 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The Social Studies, 96(5), 216–221. https://doi.org/10.3200/TSSS.96.5.216-221</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0178653563-12"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The research reported here was supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, through Grant R305A150407 to The University of Texas at Austin. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the Institute or the U.S. Department of Education.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Alicia A. Stewart</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6770-5046</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Alicia A. Stewart and Elizabeth Swanson</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref57"></nolink>
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  Data: Supporting Reading Comprehension for Students with Inattention
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Alicia+A%2E+Stewart%22">Alicia A. Stewart</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6770-5046">0000-0001-6770-5046</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Elizabeth+Swanson%22">Elizabeth Swanson</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attention+Deficit+Hyperactivity+Disorder%22">Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attention%22">Attention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Students+with+Disabilities%22">Students with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Instruction%22">Reading Instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Comprehension%22">Reading Comprehension</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Vocabulary+Development%22">Vocabulary Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Methods%22">Teaching Methods</searchLink>
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  Data: Although many students struggle to comprehend text, some populations of students are particularly impacted. Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), for example, perform lower on working memory measures, which can make reading comprehension even more difficult (Gropper & Tannock, 2009). Inattention, specifically, appears to be related to lower reading outcomes given that students with high levels of inattention tend to earn lower scores on reading comprehension measures than students with hyperactivity alone (e.g., Pham, 2016). In addition, students with high levels of inattention tend to have similar word reading abilities as their typically developing peers, yet they perform below their peers on measures of fluency and reading comprehension (Ghelani et al., 2004; Martinussen & Mackenzie, 2015). In the following article, the authors share a set of instructional practices that can be done before, during, and after reading to support reading comprehension for students with inattention.
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