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The Social Contagion of Job Satisfaction from Principals to Teachers: Implications from TALIS

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Title: The Social Contagion of Job Satisfaction from Principals to Teachers: Implications from TALIS
Language: English
Authors: Ma. Jenina N. Nalipay, Hui Wang (ORCID 0000-0003-4722-4776), Ronnel B. King
Source: Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal. 2024 27(4):1535-1556.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 22
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Social Influences, Job Satisfaction, Administrator Attitudes, Teacher Attitudes, Asian Culture, Western Civilization, Cultural Differences, Principals, Foreign Countries
Geographic Terms: Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, China (Shanghai), Canada, Australia, New Zealand, United States, United Kingdom
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Teaching and Learning International Survey
DOI: 10.1007/s11218-023-09868-x
ISSN: 1381-2890
1573-1928
Abstract: Social contagion, the process whereby psychological states spread from one person to another, is a pervasive phenomenon. However, this has not been adequately explored in the educational context, especially in relation to the social contagion between principals and teachers. This study aimed to examine the social contagion of job satisfaction from principals to teachers and its implications for instructional quality (i.e., clarity of instruction and cognitive activation). We made use of the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018 data and drew on 47,315 teachers and 3008 principals from two cultural groups: Confucian societies (Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and Shanghai) and English-speaking societies (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, United States, and United Kingdom). Results of multilevel mediation analyses revealed that principal job satisfaction was related to teacher job satisfaction, providing support for the principal-teacher job satisfaction contagion. The job satisfaction contagion was subsequently associated with teachers' clarity of instruction and cognitive activation in Confucian societies, but only cognitive activation in English-speaking societies. Teacher job satisfaction was associated with both instructional quality indicators in both cultural groups. The study provided evidence of the social contagion of job satisfaction between principals and teachers. Study results also demonstrated how the contagion of job satisfaction is subsequently associated with teachers' instructional quality across different cultural contexts.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1439585
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0179690051;luo01aug.24;2024Sep19.05:40;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0179690051-1">The social contagion of job satisfaction from principals to teachers: Implications from TALIS </title> <p>Social contagion, the process whereby psychological states spread from one person to another, is a pervasive phenomenon. However, this has not been adequately explored in the educational context, especially in relation to the social contagion between principals and teachers. This study aimed to examine the social contagion of job satisfaction from principals to teachers and its implications for instructional quality (i.e., clarity of instruction and cognitive activation). We made use of the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018 data and drew on 47,315 teachers and 3008 principals from two cultural groups: Confucian societies (Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and Shanghai) and English-speaking societies (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, United States, and United Kingdom). Results of multilevel mediation analyses revealed that principal job satisfaction was related to teacher job satisfaction, providing support for the principal-teacher job satisfaction contagion. The job satisfaction contagion was subsequently associated with teachers' clarity of instruction and cognitive activation in Confucian societies, but only cognitive activation in English-speaking societies. Teacher job satisfaction was associated with both instructional quality indicators in both cultural groups. The study provided evidence of the social contagion of job satisfaction between principals and teachers. Study results also demonstrated how the contagion of job satisfaction is subsequently associated with teachers' instructional quality across different cultural contexts.</p> <p>Keywords: Principals; Teachers; Job satisfaction; Social contagion; Instructional quality; TALIS</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-2">Introduction</hd> <p>The phenomenon of social contagion, or the adoption of knowledge, emotions, beliefs, attitudes, and/or behaviors of one person upon exposure to or influence by that of another (Plé & Demangeot, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref1">69</reflink>]), has received much attention in the literature (Clarkson et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref2">15</reflink>]; Hatfield et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref3">30</reflink>]). In particular, ample studies have been conducted demonstrating various types of social contagion between superiors and subordinates in various work settings (e.g., Afota et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref4">2</reflink>]; Jia & Cheng, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref5">38</reflink>]; Zanin et al., [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref6">83</reflink>]). However, in the educational context, research on the phenomenon of social contagion has just started gaining traction. Moreover, most of this research involved teacher-teacher (e.g., Yan & King, [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref7">82</reflink>]), teacher-student (e.g., Radel et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref8">71</reflink>]), parent-student (e.g., Nalipay et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref9">60</reflink>]), or student-student (e.g., King, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref10">42</reflink>]; King & Mendoza, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref11">43</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref12">44</reflink>]) types of social contagion, while fewer studies focused on principals and teachers (e.g., Johnson, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref13">39</reflink>]). In this study, we investigated the social contagion of job satisfaction between school leaders and teachers. Because job satisfaction has been associated with positive work-related outcomes (Alessandri et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref14">5</reflink>]; Ziegler et al., [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref15">84</reflink>]), we further examined whether the principal-teacher job satisfaction contagion would be associated with instructional quality. To extend the generalizability of the study, we analyzed data from the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) using samples from two cultural groups—Confucian and English-speaking societies.</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-3">Principal and teacher job satisfaction</hd> <p>Job satisfaction is conceptualized as the sense of fulfillment and gratification that one experiences through work (Ainley & Carstens, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref16">4</reflink>]; Locke, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref17">52</reflink>]). It is derived from the appraisal of alignment between what one wants from the job and what one perceives his or her job is offering or entailing (Ho & Au, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref18">33</reflink>]). Job satisfaction has cognitive (evaluative), affective (emotional), and behavioral components and plays an important role not only in the enhancement of lives of individual persons but also in the effectiveness of the organization (Judge & Klinger, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref19">40</reflink>]). Moreover, it has been linked to a number of workplace behaviors, including attendance at work, turnover intentions, psychological and organizational citizenship, and psychological withdrawal behaviors, among others (Belwalkar et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref20">9</reflink>]; Côté et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref21">16</reflink>]; Judge & Klinger, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref22">40</reflink>]; Lu et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref23">54</reflink>]).</p> <p>Compared to teacher job satisfaction, there are relatively fewer studies that focus on principal job satisfaction. Past research has shown that principal job satisfaction was positively associated with self-efficacy and negatively related to occupational stress, burnout, and intention to quit (Darmody & Smyth, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref24">17</reflink>]; Federici & Skaalvik, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref25">22</reflink>]). There is also evidence that links principal job satisfaction with their leadership practices, as well as promotion of teacher well-being, teacher-student relationships, and improvement of student achievement (Dicke et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref26">19</reflink>]; Kılınç et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref27">41</reflink>]; Parent-Lamarche & Fernet, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref28">68</reflink>]).</p> <p>Teacher satisfaction is a relatively widely explored topic. This is perhaps due to the teachers being at the forefront of implementing policies and practices that contribute to school effectiveness and quality education. They are also in a position where they could best influence the learners (Iwu et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref29">37</reflink>]; Lopes & Oliveira, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref30">53</reflink>]). When teachers are dissatisfied, this could lead them to leave the profession; even if they decide to stay, they might be less engaged (Iwu et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref31">37</reflink>]). Teacher job satisfaction is crucial to teacher retention, especially considering the global problem of teacher shortage (García & Weiss, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref32">25</reflink>]; Wiggan et al., [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref33">79</reflink>]). It is also important for the well-being of the teachers themselves and their students, the overall school cohesion, and raising the status of the teaching profession. Hence, teacher job satisfaction, as well as factors that could be closely related to it, such as principal job satisfaction, warrants close attention (Toropova et al., [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref34">77</reflink>]).</p> <p>Previous studies on teacher job satisfaction have shown its relations with work-related factors, such as workload, salary, growth opportunities, and responsibilities attached to work, as well as principal support, teacher cooperation, classroom discipline, and student relations (Iwu et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref35">37</reflink>]; Nalipay, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref36">61</reflink>]; Olsen & Huang, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref37">65</reflink>]; Toropova et al., [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref38">77</reflink>]). Female teachers, those with greater classroom management self-efficacy and better instructional strategies, tend to have higher job satisfaction (Klassen & Chiu, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref39">45</reflink>]). In addition, having a growth mindset and positive emotions also contribute to the promotion of teacher job satisfaction (Nalipay et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref40">63</reflink>]).</p> <p>There are different ways in which school leaders could influence teachers' job satisfaction. One of which is through the principal's leadership style. In particular, transformational (Baptiste, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref41">8</reflink>]) and distributed (García Torres, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref42">26</reflink>]) leadership styles have been found to promote the job satisfaction of teachers. Principal support has also been linked with increased teacher job satisfaction (Olsen & Huang, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref43">65</reflink>]). Moreover, principal decision-making styles have been revealed to affect teacher job satisfaction. Specifically, rational and dependent decision-making styles were positively, while intuitive and avoidant decision-making styles were negatively associated with teacher job satisfaction (Hariri et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref44">28</reflink>]).</p> <p>We propose that another way that principals could influence teacher job satisfaction is through the job satisfaction of the principals themselves. We examined this relationship from the perspective of social contagion. In this study, we operationalized principal and teacher job satisfaction with work environment as parallel constructs that involve enjoyment in working at their current workplace; finding their school as a good place to work; and being satisfied to be in the school where they currently work (Ainley & Carstens, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref45">4</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-4">Social contagion</hd> <p>Social contagion is a phenomenon that involves the spread of knowledge, emotions, beliefs, attitudes, and/or behaviors from the initiator to the recipient upon exposure of the latter to the former (Levy & Nail, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref46">49</reflink>]; Plé & Demangeot, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref47">69</reflink>]). A common form of contagion examined in the literature is that between superiors and subordinates (Bakker et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref48">6</reflink>]; Tims et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref49">75</reflink>]). This is not surprising, considering the nature of the superior-subordinate relationship, where there are usually high levels of interaction, influence, and support. The sustained social interaction between them facilitates the development of an emotional relationship and empathy for each other, making it likely for a cross-over of a superior's emotional experiences and well-being to the entire team to occur (Parent-Lamarche & Fernet, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref50">68</reflink>]).</p> <p>Indeed, evidence of contagion in terms of emotions (Clarkson et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref51">15</reflink>]; Jia & Cheng, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref52">38</reflink>]; Wu & Wu, [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref53">81</reflink>]), burnout (Chullen, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref54">14</reflink>]), moral talk (Zanin et al., [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref55">83</reflink>]), and even long working hours (Afota et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref56">2</reflink>]) between superiors and subordinates have been documented. The superior-subordinate contagion has also been associated with work-related outcomes. For instance, the contagion of positive emotions between supervisors and employees predicted employee work engagement, and subsequently, innovative behavior. On the other hand, the contagion of negative emotions predicted surface acting among the employees (Wu & Wu, [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref57">81</reflink>]). In a systematic review of the contagion of affective phenomena in the leadership context, among the themes found were that leadership style affects the contagion effect; and that the contagion of positive affective states can improve members' performance (Clarkson et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref58">15</reflink>]).</p> <p>In the educational context, past studies on social contagion involved students as the recipient. For example, there are studies that demonstrated teacher-student contagion of intrinsic motivation (Radel et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref59">71</reflink>]), parent-student contagion of academic motivation (Nalipay et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref60">60</reflink>]), and student-student contagion of academic and social motivation (King & Mendoza, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref61">43</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref62">44</reflink>]). Despite numerous studies on the contagion between superiors and subordinates and the increasing research about contagion in the educational context, relatively few studies about social contagion between school leaders and teachers have been conducted. Among these is the study of Johnson ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref63">39</reflink>]), which provided evidence for the principal-teacher contagion of both positive and negative affect at work. Other studies focused on the transfer of negative well-being (i.e., stress and burnout) from principals to teachers (Parent-Lamarche & Fernet, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref64">68</reflink>]; Westman & Etzion, [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref65">78</reflink>]). Moreover, a study by Dicke et al. ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref66">19</reflink>]) using TALIS data, found the interrelationship and mutual reinforcement of teachers' and principals' job satisfaction. Although they did not explicitly label it as social contagion, their finding provides support for this phenomenon.</p> <p>In this study, we investigated the principal-teacher contagion of job satisfaction. By establishing the connection between principals' and teachers' job satisfaction, the study could raise awareness about the importance of paying attention to the well-being of principals and perhaps other school leaders. This information could be used in developing programs that promote holistic well-being among school staff, including school leaders, which in turn could manifest in the way teachers teach their students and could promote overall school effectiveness. We propose that principal job satisfaction would positively correspond with teacher job satisfaction, which could be construed as evidence of social contagion.</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-5">Job satisfaction and instructional quality</hd> <p>Broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson & Joiner, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref67">24</reflink>]) posits that positive emotions and well-being could facilitate an upward spiral of an individual's personal resources, which could lead to a spillover of its positive effects to other areas of functioning. This theory could complement the phenomenon of social contagion in explaining the possible transfer of job satisfaction from the principals to the teachers, as well as its subsequent effects on the teachers' instructional quality. Job satisfaction among principals could facilitate them in gaining resources to exhibit more effective leadership practices, and positive leadership practices could contribute to the teachers' occupational well-being. Indeed, principal job satisfaction has been found to be associated with positive leadership practices (e.g., Kılınç et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref68">41</reflink>]), whereas positive leadership practices (e.g., transformational leadership, charismatic leadership) were found to be conducive to the transfer of affective phenomenon from leaders to their followers (Clarkson et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref69">15</reflink>]).</p> <p>Consistent with the broaden-and-build theory, it also makes sense that an individual's well-being at work would be associated with positive work-related outcomes. Indeed, past research has shown positive associations between various aspects of job satisfaction (intrinsic, extrinsic, pay, and overall job satisfaction) and the different aspects of organizational commitment (affective, continuance, and normative commitment; Markovits et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref70">56</reflink>]). Moreover, employees who are satisfied with their job tend to be more motivated and engaged (Abraham, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref71">1</reflink>]; Pang & Lu, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref72">67</reflink>]). In turn, increased work engagement of satisfied employees could lead to increased productivity, not only at the individual but also at the organizational level (Deepa et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref73">18</reflink>]; Imran et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref74">36</reflink>]).</p> <p>On a similar note, associations between job satisfaction and positive work-related outcomes among teachers have also been documented. Satisfied teachers have been found to be more engaged with their work and committed to the organization (Shoshani & Eldor, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref75">74</reflink>]). They were more likely to exhibit teaching effectiveness (Huang et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref76">35</reflink>]; Sadeghi et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref77">72</reflink>]), and their students were more likely to demonstrate school engagement (Shoshani & Eldor, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref78">74</reflink>]) and learning growth (Banerjee et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref79">7</reflink>]). Furthermore, teacher job satisfaction was found to positively predict job performance in terms of helping students learn, using diverse teaching methods and strategies, and taking the opportunity for further professional development (Wolomasi et al., [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref80">80</reflink>]). Hence, we posited that the teacher-principal social contagion of job satisfaction would predict instructional quality. In particular, we are interested in two instructional quality indicators, clarity of instruction and cognitive activation (Chan & Liem, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref81">12</reflink>]; Kunter et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref82">47</reflink>]).</p> <p>Clarity of instruction refers to instructional practices that involve clear delivery of lesson content, provision of explicit instructions, emphasizing the learning goals, drawing meaningful connections between old and new learning, and summarizing recently learned content (Ainley & Carstens, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref83">4</reflink>]). It has been found to be related to student motivation and achievement (Maulana et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref84">58</reflink>]). Cognitive activation, on the other hand, refers to instructional practices that engage students in the use of higher order thinking, such as evaluation, integration, and application of knowledge in solving complex tasks (Ainley & Carstens, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref85">4</reflink>]). It is associated with higher student interests (Fauth et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref86">21</reflink>]) and achievement (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref87">51</reflink>]).</p> <p>In summary, the nature of the relationship between principals and teachers parallels those of superiors and subordinates in the social contagion literature. The high levels of interaction, influence, and support between them make it likely for the principals' positive work-related feelings, cognitions, and behaviors characteristic of job satisfaction to be transferred to the teachers. Furthermore, based on the broader-and-build theory, the positive work well-being involved in the principal-teacher social contagion of job satisfaction could have a spillover effect on the teachers' instructional quality. Thus, we propose that principals' job satisfaction would be associated with teachers' job satisfaction and, subsequently, teachers' instructional quality, as indicated by the clarity of instruction and cognitive activation.</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-6">The present study</hd> <p>The present study intended to investigate the principal-teacher social contagion of job satisfaction as a predictor of instructional quality. We examined this using the TALIS 2018 data of countries/regions from two cultural entities, Confucian societies (Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and Shanghai) and English-speaking societies (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, United States, and the United Kingdom). Although we generally hypothesize that there would be a social contagion of principals' and teachers' job satisfaction and that this would predict instructional quality, examining this model in two cultural groups would provide further information regarding the extent of its generalizability. English-speaking societies with Western individualist cultures are known for their striving for excellence, asserting one's rights, and challenging authority. On the other hand, Confucian societies with Eastern collectivist cultures are known for prioritizing group needs over individual needs, valuing social harmony, and having respect for authority (Oyserman et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref88">66</reflink>]).</p> <p>Such cultural differences could possibly affect the educational system as well as the dynamics of the principals and teachers, and hence the social contagion of their job satisfaction and its relationship with instructional quality. For instance, the educational system in Confucian societies is characterized by the Confucian habitus that emphasizes the importance of studying, public exams, academic achievement, and holistic development. Confucian societies are also known for their aspiration for high performance and utilization of educational harmonization that brings together diverse and contradictory means and ends to attain the desired educational outcomes (Marginson, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref89">55</reflink>]). Because of greater value placed on group harmony and respect for authority in Confucian societies compared to the English-speaking societies, it is possible that principals would more strongly influence the teachers in these societies. In turn, it is likely that the influence of principal-teacher social contagion of job satisfaction on instructional quality would be greater in Confucian societies.</p> <p>We also included as covariates some school, principal, and teacher characteristics (gender of principals and teachers, percentage of students with low socioeconomic status [SES], school location, type of school, principal work experience, and teaching experience) to control for the possible influences of demographic backgrounds on study outcomes (e.g., Gore et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref90">27</reflink>]; Topchyan & Woehler, [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref91">76</reflink>]). In sum, the present study aims to investigate the following three hypotheses:</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-7">Hypothesis 1</hd> <p>Job satisfaction among principals should be positively associated with job satisfaction among teachers. This hypothesis is consistent with the social contagion framework concerning the nature of relationships between the superiors and the subordinates, in this case, school principals and teachers.</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-8">Hypothesis 2</hd> <p>Teachers' job satisfaction should be positively related to their instructional quality (i.e., cognitive activation and clarity of instruction). Moreover, since the current study examines the relationships of variables at both the between-school (comparison across schools) and within-school (comparison across teachers at the same school) levels, we developed specific hypotheses for each level.</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-9">Hypothesis 2a</hd> <p>At the between-school level, it is hypothesized that schools with greater teacher job satisfaction should have greater teacher-reported instructional quality.</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-10">Hypothesis 2b</hd> <p>At the within-school level, it is hypothesized that teachers with greater job satisfaction should report greater instructional quality. These hypotheses are consistent with the broaden-and-build theory concerning the relationship between individuals' well-being and subsequent job performance.</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-11">Hypothesis 3</hd> <p>Teachers' job satisfaction should mediate the relationship between principal job satisfaction and teachers' instructional quality.</p> <p>Although we hypothesize that the principal-teacher social contagion of job satisfaction would influence instructional quality in both Confucian and English-speaking societies, we propose that their relationship would be stronger in the Confucian societies, considering the greater importance of group harmony and respect for authority in this cultural group.</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-12">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179690051-13">Participants and procedures</hd> <p>The current study used data from OECD's Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS 2018). Data collection was conducted between September 2017 and July 2018 (Ainley & Carstens, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref92">4</reflink>]). In the TALIS 2018 study, a total number of approximately 260,000 teachers and about 16,000 school leaders from 48 societies (average cluster size = 16.38) participated, and they responded to questions on different aspects of their professional lives, providing input about educational policy analysis and key areas of teacher development (OECD, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref93">64</reflink>]). These teachers represent more than eight million teachers in 48 participating societies (~ 3%; OECD, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref94">64</reflink>]).</p> <p>In the current study, we used country cases from four Confucian societies (i.e., Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and Shanghai) and five English-speaking societies (i.e., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, United States, and the United Kingdom). The Confucian sample included 27,106 teachers (65.8% female teachers) and 1517 school principals (27.8% female principals; average cluster size = 18.27) and the English-speaking sample included 20,209 teachers (68.6% female teachers) and 1,491 school principals (45.4% female principals; average cluster size = 13.83).</p> <p>Concerning teaching experiences, teachers from English-speaking societies had an average of 14 years of teaching experience (<emph>SD</emph> = 9.75), and teachers from Confucian societies had an average of 16 years of teaching experience (<emph>SD</emph> = 9.45). As for job status, 84.4% of teachers from English-speaking societies and 96.3% of teachers from Confucian societies worked full-time at their schools. With respect to working hours, teachers from English-speaking societies reported an average of 46 h (<emph>SD</emph> = 16.23) per week spent on job-related tasks and an average of 23 h (<emph>SD</emph> = 10.51) spent on teaching-related duties. In Confucian societies, these teachers reported an average of 42 h (<emph>SD</emph> = 19.05) per week spent on job-related tasks and an average of 19 h (<emph>SD</emph> = 9.78) spent on teaching-related duties. Moreover, concerning teachers' age, 89.5% of teachers from English-speaking societies and 94.9% of teachers in Confucian societies were aged between 25 and 60 (English-speaking societies: 25–29:14.4%; 30–39: 28.3%; 40–49: 27.3%; 50–59: 19.4%. Confucian societies: 25–29: 10.9%; 30–39: 28.9%; 40–49: 34.5%; 50–59: 20.6%). Concerning teachers' highest levels of education, 95.7% of teachers from English-speaking societies and 97.6% of teachers from Confucian societies had a bachelor's or a master's degree. Finally, these teachers taught at various International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) levels: Level 1 (English-speaking and Confucian: 24.9% and 36.9%), Level 2 (58.6% and 52.7%), and Level 3 (5.4% and 10.3%).</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-14">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179690051-15">Teachers' and principals' job satisfaction</hd> <p>The three-item, 4-point scale measuring teachers' perceived job satisfaction at their school was used in the current analyses (1 = <emph>strongly disagree</emph>, 2 = <emph>disagree</emph>, 3 = <emph>agree</emph>, and 4 = <emph>strongly agree</emph>; "I would like to change to another school if that were possible," "I enjoy working at this school," and "I would recommend this school as a good place to work;" items TT3G53C, TT3G53E, and TT3G53G in TALIS 2018 teacher dataset). The same items were used to measure principals' job satisfaction at their current school (items TT3G44C, TT3G44E, and TT3G44G in the principal dataset). Acceptable reliability was found for both the teachers' questions (English-speaking and Confucian societies: α's = 0.82 and 0.75) and principals' questions (α's = 0.69 and 0.61; see Table 1 for more details).</p> <p>Table 1 Descriptive Statistics: Means, Standard Deviations, and Intraclass Correlation Coefficients</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p><italic>N</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>k</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>M</italic><sub>Level 1</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SD</italic><sub>Level 1</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>M</italic><sub>Level 2</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SD</italic><sub>Level 2</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p>ICC<sub>1</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p>ICC<sub>2</sub></p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="9"><p>Principals</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Principal satisfaction (Confucian)</p></td><td align="left"><p>1434</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.22</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.54</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Principal satisfaction (English-speaking)</p></td><td align="left"><p>1361</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.50</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.52</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Experiences as principals (Confucian)</p></td><td align="left"><p>1445</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6.35</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>5.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Experiences as principals (English-speaking)</p></td><td align="left"><p>1418</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>7.91</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6.84</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="9"><p>Teachers</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Teacher satisfaction (Confucian)</p></td><td align="left"><p>26,647</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>17.96</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.83</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.57</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.83</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.25</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.16</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.77</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Teacher satisfaction (English-speaking)</p></td><td align="left"><p>18,126</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>12.45</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.16</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.59</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.16</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.26</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.16</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.71</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Clarity (Confucian)</p></td><td align="left"><p>23,359</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>15.76</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.21</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.51</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.21</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.15</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.53</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Clarity (English-speaking)</p></td><td align="left"><p>15,889</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>11.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.19</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.49</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.19</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.40</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cognitive activation (Confucian)</p></td><td align="left"><p>23,359</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>15.74</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.41</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.59</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.40</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.25</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.15</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.73</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cognitive activation (English-speaking)</p></td><td align="left"><p>15,829</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>10.96</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.51</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.53</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.51</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.41</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Teaching experiences (Confucian)</p></td><td align="left"><p>26,982</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>18.18</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>16.21</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.45</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>16.23</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.64</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.59</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Teaching experiences (English-speaking)</p></td><td align="left"><p>19,770</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>13.54</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>14.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.75</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>14.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.74</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.52</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>ICC<subs>1</subs> and ICC<subs>2</subs> = intraclass correlation coefficients. <emph>k</emph> = average cluster size</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-16">Teaching performance</hd> <p>Four items were used to measure teachers' teaching performance in clarity (sample items: "I present a summary of recently learned content" and "I set goals at the beginning of instruction;" items TT3G42A-TT3G42D in TALIS 2018 teacher data) and cognitive activation (sample items: "I present tasks for which there is no obvious solution" and "I give tasks that require students to think critically;" items TT3G42E-TT3G42H; 1 = <emph>never or almost never</emph>, 2 = <emph>occasionally</emph>, 3 = <emph>frequently</emph>, and 4 = <emph>always</emph>). Acceptable reliability was also found for both clarity (English-speaking and Confucian societies: α's = 0.72 and 0.76) and cognitive activation (α's = 0.73 and 0.79; Table 1).</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-17">Data analyses</hd> <p>Statistical analyses for the present study were conducted in several steps. First, preliminary analyses were conducted to calculate the means, standard deviations, intraclass correlational coefficients (ICC1 and ICC2), as well as intercorrelations between variables at both the teachers' and principals' levels. More specifically, the calculation of means and standard deviations of study variables provided preliminary yet still important statistics concerning sample information and the differences between English-speaking and Confucian societies. The calculation of correlation coefficients provided information concerning the associations between the analyzed variables at multiple levels. The intraclass correlation coefficients, using the school as the cluster variable, provided necessary information concerning the appropriateness of multilevel modeling analysis. In general, ICC1 values greater than 0.05 and ICC2 values greater than 0.40 would suggest substantial variances at the between-level and thus justify conducting multilevel analyses (Fleiss, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref95">23</reflink>]; LeBreton & Senter, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref96">48</reflink>]). Multilevel confirmatory factor analysis (ML-CFA) was also conducted to establish construct validities across all study variables at both the within-school and between-school levels for both the English-speaking and Confucian societies. Furthermore, multigroup analysis was then conducted to establish the measurement invariance of study variables. More specifically, we assessed the measurement invariance at the configural, metric, and scalar levels (Cheung & Rensvold, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref97">13</reflink>]).</p> <p>Then, multilevel mediation analyses were conducted to examine our hypotheses of the current study. More specifically, the multilevel mediation 2-1-1 models (as suggested in Preacher et al., [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref98">70</reflink>]) were conducted separately for both English-speaking and Confucian societies to examine model results across two different cultural entities. Principals' job satisfaction only existed at the between-school level, and teachers' job satisfaction and teaching performance were analyzed at both the within-school and between-school levels. Results at the within-school level provided information on teacher differences, and results at the between-school level provided information on school or principal differences. The steps suggested by Preacher et al. ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref99">70</reflink>]) were followed for the 2-1-1 multilevel mediation analyses. All analyses were conducted using M<emph>plus</emph> statistical software (Muthén & Muthén, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref100">59</reflink>]).</p> <p>Goodness-of-fit indices included the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). SRMR and RMSEA values below 0.06 and 0.08, as well as CFI and TLI values greater than 0.90 and 0.95, respectively, indicate an acceptable and excellent fit to the data (e.g., Browne & Cudeck, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref101">10</reflink>]; Hu & Bentler, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref102">34</reflink>]; Kline, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref103">46</reflink>]). To address the missing data pattern, we estimated the model parameters by using <emph>Full Information Maximum Likelihood</emph> (FIML; Enders & Bandalos, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref104">20</reflink>]; Schlomer et al., [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref105">73</reflink>]). Moreover, we estimated the parameters in the models by using the robust maximum-likelihood (MLR) as a variant of the maximum likelihood (ML) estimator (Li & Bentler, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref106">50</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-18">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179690051-19">Descriptive statistics, multilevel CFA, correlations, ICCs, and measurement invariance</hd> <p>Details concerning the preliminary analyses (i.e., means, standard deviations, and ICCs) can be found in Table 1, and details concerning correlations between study variables at both the within-school and between-school levels can be found in Table 2. Results concerning the means of study variables showed that teachers from Confucian societies reported lower levels of satisfaction with the school environment than teachers from English-speaking societies. The same pattern was observed for principals, with principals from Confucian societies also reporting low levels of satisfaction with their school environment. Concerning teaching performance, teachers from Confucian societies reported greater clarity in teaching but poorer cognitive activation compared to their counterparts in English-speaking societies.</p> <p>Table 2 Intercorrelations Between Study Variables</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>1</p></th><th align="left"><p>2</p></th><th align="left"><p>3</p></th><th align="left"><p>4</p></th><th align="left"><p>5</p></th><th align="left"><p>6</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="7"><p>Between-school level</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Teacher satisfaction</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.15**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.01</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.15**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.24**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.02</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2. Clarity</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.65**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.03</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.05</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3. Cognitive activation</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.12*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.25**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>-.20**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.03</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.17**</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4. Teachers' teaching experiences</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.26**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> -.44**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> -0.21**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> -.07*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.08*</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5. Principal satisfaction</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.23**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.04</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>6. Principal work experiences</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.08*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> -.09*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> -.03</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.10*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.11**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Omega (ω) – between</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.98</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.80</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.88</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.69</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="7"><p>Within-school level</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Teacher satisfaction</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.08**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.05**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.03**</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2. Clarity</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.08**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.35**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.00</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3. Cognitive activation</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.06**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.36**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> -.05**</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4. Teachers' teaching experiences</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.01</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.10**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> -.04**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Omega (ω) – within</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.79</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.63</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.71</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>*<emph>p</emph> <.05; **<emph>p</emph> <.01. Above the diagonal represents Confucian societies. Below the diagonal represents English-speaking societies</p> <p>Concerning the correlations between study variables, results showed that at the within-school level, more satisfied teachers reported higher levels of clarity and cognitive activation, and these results were consistent across teachers from Confucian and English-speaking societies. Moreover, more experienced teachers in English-speaking societies also reported greater job satisfaction, while these experienced teachers in Confucian societies reported greater clarity in teaching. However, more experienced teachers in both Confucian and English-speaking societies reported poorer cognitive activation in their teaching.</p> <p>At the between-school level, schools with more satisfied and more experienced principals also had more satisfied teachers in both English-speaking and Confucian societies. Schools with more satisfied teachers also had better overall clarity (Confucian societies) and cognitive activation (English-speaking societies). However, schools with more experienced teachers tended to report poorer clarity (English-speaking societies) and cognitive activation (Confucian and English-speaking societies) in their teaching practices. Multilevel CFA analyses showed acceptable model fit for both English-speaking (RMSEA = 0.014, CFI = 0.992, TLI = 0.988, SRMR[within] = 0.015, and SRMR[between] = 0.082) and Confucian societies (RMSEA = 0.014, CFI = 0.992, TLI = 0.988, SRMR[within] = 0.015, and SRMR[between] = 0.082).</p> <p>Furthermore, results from intra-class correlation coefficients (i.e., <emph>ICC</emph>1, <emph>ICC</emph>2) showed that substantial variance exist at both the school and individual levels, with <emph>ICC</emph>1 ranging from 0.06 to 0.16 and <emph>ICC</emph>2 ranging from 0.40 to 0.77 (Fleiss, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref107">23</reflink>]; LeBreton & Senter, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref108">48</reflink>]). Therefore, multilevel mediation analyses can be conducted to investigate the influence of principal satisfaction on teacher satisfaction, which in turn, was associated with greater instructional quality (i.e., clarity, cognitive activation). Moreover, as the construct validity of study variables was already established in the multilevel CFA analyses based on latent variables, for parsimony purposes, the subsequent multilevel mediation analyses were conducted based on the manifest variables, averaging across multiple indicators of the same variable. Finally, results from multigroup analysis revealed that measurement invariance could be established at the configural and metric levels, but not at the scalar level (according to Cheung & Rensvold, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref109">13</reflink>]), suggesting that the number of factors, factor patterns, and factor loadings were invariant across cultures. These results are also consistent with other studies published based on TALIS data (e.g., Harrison et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref110">29</reflink>]). Results of the model fit for the multigroup analysis are presented in Table 3.</p> <p>Table 3 Model Fit Indices for the Confirmatory Factors Analyses and the Establishment of Measurement Invariance</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>CFI</p></th><th align="left"><p>TLI</p></th><th align="left"><p>RMSEA</p></th><th align="left"><p>SRMR</p></th><th align="left"><p>χ<sup>2</sup>(<italic>df</italic>)</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Configural invariance</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.96</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.95</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>4635.793(531)***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Metric invariance</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.95</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.94</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.04</p></td><td align="left"><p>6258.507(603)***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Scalar invariance</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.82</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.81</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.08</p></td><td align="left"><p>22,125.310 (675)***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Nested models comparison</p></td><td align="left"><p>∆CFA</p></td><td align="left"><p>∆TLI</p></td><td align="left"><p>∆RMSEA</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Configural vs. metric</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.00</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Metric vs. scalar</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.13</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.13</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>***<emph>p</emph> <.001</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-20">Multilevel mediation</hd> <p>Results from multilevel mediation analyses suggested that the model fit the data well for both Confucian (CFI = 0.991, TLI = 0.906, RMSEA = 0.019, SRMR-within = 0.000, SRMR-between = 0.033) and English-speaking societies (CFI = 0.998, TLI = 0.984, RMSEA = 0.008, SRMR-within = 0.000, SRMR-between = 0.014) (Figs. 1, 2).</p> <p>In Confucian societies, at the within-school level, teachers with greater satisfaction with their school environment reported greater clarity and cognitive activation. At the between-school level, principals' job satisfaction influenced their teachers' job satisfaction, that in turn, led to better clarity as well as cognitive activation in their teaching. The indirect effects were found to be significant for both teacher clarity (indirect effect = 0.01, <emph>p</emph> =.005) and cognitive activation (indirect effect = 0.01, <emph>p</emph> =.037). Concerning covariate effects, female teachers reported greater clarity (β = 0.11, <emph>p</emph> <.001) and higher job satisfaction (β = 0.03, <emph>p</emph> <.001). Classes with higher percentage of low-SES students had better teacher clarity (β = 0.02, <emph>p</emph> <.001) and cognitive activation (β = 0.06, <emph>p</emph> <.001), but lower teacher satisfaction (β = -0.06, <emph>p</emph> <.001). Moreover, schools located in more populated places/cities have better teacher clarity (β = 0.03, <emph>p</emph> <.001) and cognitive activation (β = 0.02 <emph>p</emph> =.004). Teachers from private schools reported lower job satisfaction (β = -0.13, <emph>p</emph> <.001) and lower clarity (β = -0.06, <emph>p</emph> =.001) than teachers from public schools, but principals from these private schools, in contrast, reported greater job satisfaction than public school principals (β = 0.12, <emph>p</emph> =.007). Finally, schools with male principals tended to have lower teacher clarity (β = -0.07, <emph>p</emph> <.001) and cognitive activation (β = -0.15, <emph>p</emph> <.001).</p> <p>In English-speaking societies, at the within-school level, similar results were found, such that more satisfied teachers reported greater clarity and cognitive activation. However, at the between-school level, principal satisfaction positively corresponded with teacher satisfaction, which in turn, yielded greater cognitive activation but not clarity. A significant indirect effect was found with teacher satisfaction mediating the relations between principal satisfaction and cognitive activation (indirect effect = 0.01, <emph>p</emph> =.008). Concerning covariate effects, female teachers reported greater clarity (β = 0.12, <emph>p</emph> <.001), cognitive activation (β = 0.03, <emph>p</emph> =.005), and higher job satisfaction (β = 0.03, <emph>p</emph> =.006). Classes with higher percentage of low-SES students had better teacher clarity (β = 0.04, <emph>p</emph> <.001) and cognitive activation (β = 0.03, <emph>p</emph> <.001), but lower teacher satisfaction (β = -0.07, <emph>p</emph> <.001). Moreover, schools located in more populated places had poorer teacher satisfaction (β = -0.01 <emph>p</emph> =.038), but better teacher clarity (β = 0.02, <emph>p</emph> =.002), cognitive activation (β = 0.02 <emph>p</emph> =.001) and greater principal satisfaction (β = 0.02, <emph>p</emph> =.042). Unlike teachers from Confucian societies, teachers and principals from private schools in English-speaking societies were not significantly different from their public-school counterparts concerning job satisfaction and instructional quality. More experienced school principals also reported greater satisfaction than less experienced principals (β = 0.01, <emph>p</emph> <.001). Finally, schools with male principals tended to have greater teacher satisfaction (β = 0.03, <emph>p</emph> =.047), but lower cognitive activation in teaching (β = -0.05, <emph>p</emph> <.001).[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref111">1</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-21">Discussion</hd> <p>The study investigated the principal-teacher social contagion of job satisfaction and its relationship with instructional quality. Results of multilevel mediation analyses revealed that, at the between-school level, job satisfaction among principals was associated with job satisfaction among teachers, indicating social contagion (supporting our Hypothesis 1). In turn, schools with greater teacher job satisfaction had better teacher-reported clarity of instruction and cognitive activation in the Confucian societies but only cognitive activation in English-speaking societies, thus partially supporting our Hypothesis 2a. Significant indirect effects of principal job satisfaction via teacher job satisfaction on clarity of instruction and cognitive activation were found in Confucian societies and on cognitive activation in English-speaking societies, partially supporting our Hypothesis 3. These findings are consistent with our proposal that the principal-teacher social contagion of job satisfaction would have a stronger influence on instructional quality in Confucian societies. At the within-school level, more satisfied teachers reported greater clarity of instruction and cognitive activation. These findings were found to be consistent in both Confucian and English-speaking societies, supporting our Hypothesis 2b.</p> <p>Furthermore, our between-school level findings provided support for the social contagion of job satisfaction from principals to teachers. This means that principals who are satisfied with their work environment tend to pass on to the teachers their positive evaluations of the workplace and feelings of enjoyment and satisfaction in working at their school, as well as positive behaviors, such as recommending the school as a good place to work (OECD, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref112">64</reflink>]). This is consistent with past studies on principal-teacher well-being contagion, albeit the focus of those studies was mostly on negative well-being (e.g., stress, burnout; Parent-Lamarche & Fernet, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref113">68</reflink>]; Westman & Etzion, [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref114">78</reflink>]). Burgess and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref115">11</reflink>]) highlighted the limited amount of positive contagion research in the educational setting and have called for its investigation to increase positive academic behaviors. Although the focus of their suggestion was on students as the recipients of the contagion, the findings of the current study could contribute to this goal, as the associations between teacher well-being and positive student outcomes have been well established in the literature (e.g., Banerjee et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref116">7</reflink>]; Shoshani & Eldor, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref117">74</reflink>]).</p> <p>Some explanations for the occurrence of the principal-teacher social contagion of job satisfaction have been provided. A possible contributor to this is the nature of the relationship between principals and teachers. Akin to other superior-subordinate relationships, that of the principals and teachers is characterized by high levels of interaction, influence, and support (Parent-Lamarche & Fernet, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref118">68</reflink>]). In a previous study on the principal-teacher transfer of burnout, Parent-Lamarche and Fernet ([<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref119">68</reflink>]) argued that burned-out supervisors who experience resource depletion tend to exhibit less favorable leadership practices that affect the entire team, especially through their sustained interaction and the emotional relationship developed through this. It is possible that on the other hand, as suggested by broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson & Joiner, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref120">24</reflink>]), satisfied principals gain more resources that allow them to establish closer relationships with and provide emotional support for teachers, which could facilitate a cascade of work well-being. It is suggested that future studies explore these constructs as possible mediators of principal-teacher social contagion. Although past studies imply that leadership behaviors mediate the principal-teacher social contagion (e.g., Clarkson et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref121">15</reflink>]; Kılınç et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref122">41</reflink>]), this was not supported in the present study. Perhaps other factors play a more important role in the context of principal-teacher job satisfaction contagion, which warrants further investigation (e.g., Haw et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref123">32</reflink>]; Haw & King, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref124">31</reflink>]). For example, the role of variables pertaining to principals and teachers' relationship and empathy (e.g., principal-teacher emotional relationship, principal support for teachers) can be explored in future studies.</p> <p>At the between-school level, the principal-teacher job satisfaction contagion was generally associated with instructional quality. These findings are also consistent with the broaden-and-build theory, as the upward spiral of resources brought about by the job satisfaction transfer from principals to teachers could lead to spillover effects to the teachers' instructional practices. However, some differences between the two cultural groups were found. In Confucian societies, principal-teacher job satisfaction contagion was associated with both the clarity of instruction and cognitive activation, whereas in English-speaking societies, it was only associated with cognitive activation. It is possible that the social contagion between the principals and the teachers is stronger in Confucian societies, considering their collectivistic culture and high regard for authority (Oyserman et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref125">66</reflink>]). Nevertheless, at the within-school level, teacher job satisfaction was associated with both their clarity of instruction and cognitive activation in both cultural groups. Indeed, more satisfied teachers tend to teach better (e.g., Banerjee et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref126">7</reflink>]; Huang et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref127">35</reflink>]; Sadeghi et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref128">72</reflink>]; Shoshani & Eldor, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref129">74</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-22">Practical implications</hd> <p>It is noted that the effect sizes of some of our findings are quite small, which is common for motivational/psychological research. However, this does not mean that the results are not important. When repeated across time, small effect sizes can have big implications, and hence, can be of high practical or scientific significance (Aguinis et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref130">3</reflink>]; Martell et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref131">57</reflink>]; Nalipay et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref132">62</reflink>]). In the current study, the relationships between principals' and teachers' job satisfaction and that of social contagion and instructional quality may have relatively small effect sizes, but the regular interactions between principals and teachers and its constant influence on teachers' instructional quality may still be influential on school outcomes in the long run.</p> <p>The study could contribute to the extant literature by extending the knowledge on social contagion in the context of principals' and teachers' job satisfaction. These findings could also be beneficial in promoting principals' and teachers' work well-being, and perhaps student learning through better instructional quality, as it informs programs intended to increase educators' job satisfaction. Although in promoting school effectiveness, there is a tendency to focus only on student learning or pay attention only to teachers' job satisfaction and its consequences, the findings suggest that a more holistic approach that considers the role of school leaders could have a cascade of positive benefits down to the teachers, and even to the students. Therefore, schools must also take heed to the needs of the principals and promote their work well-being. The findings also suggest providing further support to teachers, particularly those from remote, highly-populated, and impoverished areas and those who are new in the profession, in order to promote their well-being and improve their instructional quality.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Results for English-speaking Societies</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2 Results for Confucian Societies</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-23">Limitations</hd> <p>The study has some limitations. First, the study made use of cross-sectional data so we cannot directly test for causal or temporal relationships. However, with strong theoretical underpinning, we were able to infer predictive relationships among the variables. Future studies are suggested to confirm these findings using experimental or longitudinal designs. Second, the use of self-report questionnaires makes the study prone to certain biases, such as social desirability. Objective measures of instructional quality may be utilized in future studies. Third, while the study already included quite a number of covariates to account for and rule out other possible explanations for the relationship between principal-teacher job satisfaction contagion and instructional quality, we acknowledge that there are still other variables not assessed in the current study that could possibility influence the results (e.g., principals' and teachers' pay and student performance). This could be explored in future studies. Fourth, we were limited by how instructional quality was conceptualized in the TALIS. Clarity of instruction and cognitive activation are just two indicators of instructional quality and are based on teachers' perceptions of the quality of their teaching. We suggest that future studies include other more objective indicators, such as students' learning outcomes. Finally, the use of big data comes with inherent limitations in terms of how they are collected and interpreted. As this study engaged in secondary analyses of the TALIS data, we were constrained in terms of the items, variables, and participant breakdown in TALIS. Future studies that involve the collection of primary data could provide the researchers with more flexibility in terms of the survey design and variable selection. Regardless of these limitations, the study was able to provide evidence for the social contagion of principal and teacher job satisfaction and its subsequent relationship with instructional quality.</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-24">Conclusion</hd> <p>In sum, the present study provided evidence of the social contagion of job satisfaction between principals and teachers. Moreover, it demonstrated how the contagion of job satisfaction is subsequently associated with teachers' instructional quality across different cultural contexts.</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-25">Funding</hd> <p>The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in the OECD website at [https://www.oecd.org/education/talis/].</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-26">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179690051-27">Conflict of interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflict of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0179690051-28">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0179690051-29"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref71" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Abraham S. Job satisfaction as an antecedent to employee engagement. 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Hence, we tested the reverse path in the second supplementary model, with teacher satisfaction predicting principal satisfaction. However, multilevel SEM analyses for both models showed they did not fit the data well.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Ma. Jenina N. Nalipay; Hui Wang and Ronnel B. King</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Ma. Jenina N. Nalipay is a PhD student at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, specializing in Curriculum and Instruction. Her research interests include teacher motivation and well-being and teacher professional development.</p> <p>Dr. Hui Wang is an Assistant Professor at the Education University of Hong Kong. Her research focuses on teacher motivation, emotions, emotion regulation, and occupational well-being. She also examines the impact of teacher motivation and emotions on students' motivational, behavioral, and achievement outcomes. Her research sheds light on the complex interactions between teachers and their students.</p> <p>Dr Ronnel B. King is an Associate Professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong. He is interested in understanding the factors that underpin motivation, socio-emotional learning, and well-being in K-12 and higher education settings. He is also keen on leveraging positive psychology/education interventions to enhance these optimal states.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib83" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib82" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib84" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib79" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib77" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib81" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib78" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref74"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref77"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib80" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref86"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref89"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref90"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib76" firstref="ref91"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref93"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref95"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref96"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref97"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref98"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref100"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref101"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref102"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl66" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref103"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl67" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref104"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl68" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref105"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl69" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref106"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl70" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref110"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl71" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref115"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl72" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref123"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl73" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref124"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl74" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref131"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl75" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref132"></nolink>
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  Data: The Social Contagion of Job Satisfaction from Principals to Teachers: Implications from TALIS
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ma%2E+Jenina+N%2E+Nalipay%22">Ma. Jenina N. Nalipay</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hui+Wang%22">Hui Wang</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4722-4776">0000-0003-4722-4776</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ronnel+B%2E+King%22">Ronnel B. King</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Social+Psychology+of+Education%3A+An+International+Journal%22"><i>Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal</i></searchLink>. 2024 27(4):1535-1556.
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Influences%22">Social Influences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Job+Satisfaction%22">Job Satisfaction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Administrator+Attitudes%22">Administrator Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Asian+Culture%22">Asian Culture</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Western+Civilization%22">Western Civilization</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cultural+Differences%22">Cultural Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Principals%22">Principals</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1007/s11218-023-09868-x
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  Data: Social contagion, the process whereby psychological states spread from one person to another, is a pervasive phenomenon. However, this has not been adequately explored in the educational context, especially in relation to the social contagion between principals and teachers. This study aimed to examine the social contagion of job satisfaction from principals to teachers and its implications for instructional quality (i.e., clarity of instruction and cognitive activation). We made use of the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018 data and drew on 47,315 teachers and 3008 principals from two cultural groups: Confucian societies (Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and Shanghai) and English-speaking societies (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, United States, and United Kingdom). Results of multilevel mediation analyses revealed that principal job satisfaction was related to teacher job satisfaction, providing support for the principal-teacher job satisfaction contagion. The job satisfaction contagion was subsequently associated with teachers' clarity of instruction and cognitive activation in Confucian societies, but only cognitive activation in English-speaking societies. Teacher job satisfaction was associated with both instructional quality indicators in both cultural groups. The study provided evidence of the social contagion of job satisfaction between principals and teachers. Study results also demonstrated how the contagion of job satisfaction is subsequently associated with teachers' instructional quality across different cultural contexts.
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