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Examining a Critical Race Theory-Informed Undergraduate Research Experience: Proposing a Conceptual Model of the Benefits of Anti-Racist Programs on Student Development

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Title: Examining a Critical Race Theory-Informed Undergraduate Research Experience: Proposing a Conceptual Model of the Benefits of Anti-Racist Programs on Student Development
Language: English
Authors: Frank Fernandez (ORCID 0000-0003-4072-3994), Sarah Mason, Gabriela Chavira, Patchareeya Kwan, Carrie Saetermoe, Shannon Sharp
Source: Innovative Higher Education. 2024 49(5):889-907.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 19
Publication Date: 2024
Sponsoring Agency: National Institutes of Health (NIH) (DHHS)
Contract Number: RL5GM118975
TL4GM118977
UL1GM118976
R16GM146693
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Racism, College Environment, Social Bias, Student Behavior, Critical Race Theory, Mentors, Student Research, Undergraduate Students, Program Effectiveness, Self Efficacy, Self Concept, Responses
DOI: 10.1007/s10755-024-09728-2
ISSN: 0742-5627
1573-1758
Abstract: Hate crimes and racist incidents are occurring with alarming and increasing frequency on college and university campuses. As colleges work to reduce racist incidents on campus, there is still a need to prepare students to respond to racism when it occurs. When students are prepared to respond to racist incidents, they tend to have better mental health. We draw on prior literature to examine whether learning about critical race theory (CRT) and receiving CRT-informed mentoring--as embedded in an undergraduate research experience program--related to four-year college students' self-assessed ability to respond to racism. Specifically, we propose and test a conceptual model to examine the benefits of participating in an undergraduate research experience program that required students to learn about CRT and receiving CRT-informed mentorship. Consistent with prior literature on undergraduate research experience programs, we found that the intervention positively related to students' sense of self-efficacy and science identity, but it did not have an independent, direct relationship with self-assessed ability to respond to racism. However, the intervention indirectly supports students' preparedness to respond to racism through its positive relationship with self-efficacy. As state legislatures around the country work to ban CRT, this paper offers empirical evidence that embedding CRT in university programs can support student development in multiple related ways.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1442223
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0180107943;ihe01oct.24;2024Oct08.04:07;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0180107943-1">Examining a Critical Race Theory-Informed Undergraduate Research Experience: Proposing a Conceptual Model of the Benefits of Anti-Racist Programs on Student Development </title> <p>Hate crimes and racist incidents are occurring with alarming and increasing frequency on college and university campuses. As colleges work to reduce racist incidents on campus, there is still a need to prepare students to respond to racism when it occurs. When students are prepared to respond to racist incidents, they tend to have better mental health. We draw on prior literature to examine whether learning about critical race theory (CRT) and receiving CRT-informed mentoring—as embedded in an undergraduate research experience program—related to four-year college students' self-assessed ability to respond to racism. Specifically, we propose and test a conceptual model to examine the benefits of participating in an undergraduate research experience program that required students to learn about CRT and receiving CRT-informed mentorship. Consistent with prior literature on undergraduate research experience programs, we found that the intervention positively related to students' sense of self-efficacy and science identity, but it did not have an independent, direct relationship with self-assessed ability to respond to racism. However, the intervention indirectly supports students' preparedness to respond to racism through its positive relationship with self-efficacy. As state legislatures around the country work to ban CRT, this paper offers empirical evidence that embedding CRT in university programs can support student development in multiple related ways.</p> <p>Keywords: STEM; Mentoring; Undergraduate research experiences; Anti-racism</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <p>According to the U.S. Department of Education ([<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref1">71</reflink>]), more than 57% of reported hate crimes on college campuses were racially motivated. Compared to a 2010 baseline, the number of hate crimes classified as intimidation[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref2">1</reflink>] and simple assault[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref3">2</reflink>] increased in 2018 and again in 2019. The increase is notable because hate crimes are notoriously underreported (Sandholtz et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref4">53</reflink>]). The federal data are consistent with other reports that indicate that hate crimes, including blatant harassment and intimidation, increased after President Trump was elected in 2016 (Bauman, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref5">6</reflink>]; Petulla et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref6">47</reflink>]). The Southern Poverty Law Center concluded that after the 2016 election, "schools—K-12 settings and colleges—have been the most common venues for hate incidents" ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref7">59</reflink>]). Despite the increase in hate crimes, White college students are more likely to agree than disagree with the statement that racial discrimination is no longer a major problem in the U.S., and that belief is not influenced by whether hate crimes occurred on their campus while they were in college (Garibay et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref8">27</reflink>]).</p> <p>Racist incidents are not always blatant, and they often occurr in less overt ways. For instance, Black students regularly experience microaggressions on college and university campuses. Microaggressions are "subtle insults (verbal, nonverbal, and/or visual) directed toward people of color, often automatically or unconsciously" (Solórzano et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref9">57</reflink>], p. 60). Though microaggressions may seem more minor than outright hate crimes, experiencing either type of discrimination negatively affects mental and physical health (e.g., Blume et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref10">9</reflink>]; Fisher et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref11">24</reflink>]; Gee et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref12">28</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref13">29</reflink>]; Smith et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref14">55</reflink>]; Torres et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref15">69</reflink>]; Wong et al., [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref16">74</reflink>]). Whether microaggressions or more blatant hate crimes, racially minoritized students have higher odds of reporting experiencing discrimination in college and indicating that it negatively affected their academic performance than White students (Stevens et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref17">62</reflink>]).</p> <p>Prior literature suggests that higher education should be supporting students by offering resources and counterspaces to help them "survive and succeed in the face of racism" (Yosso et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref18">75</reflink>], p. 678). However, instead of helping colleges and students respond to the wave of increasing hate crimes, state legislators are focusing on banning critical race theory (CRT) and de-funding programs that support diversity, equity, and inclusion (e.g., Hicks, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref19">33</reflink>]; Miller et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref20">41</reflink>]). Though there have been widespread political and legislative attacks on CRT (Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref21">1</reflink>]; Hutchens & Miller, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref22">34</reflink>]; Miller et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref23">41</reflink>]), there is a relative paucity of empirical research that quantifies the benefits of exposure to CRT and the ways that colleges and universities can help students develop their ability to respond to racist encounters. As racially-motivated hate crimes continue to rise (Arshad, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref24">3</reflink>]; Lybrand & Rabinowitz, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref25">38</reflink>]) university professionals need to consider whether existing programs can be delivered in anti-racist ways to support students' ability to not only respond, but also succeed, despite encounters with racism.</p> <p>In this paper, we examine survey data from that includes students who participated in an undergraduate research experience (URE) program that focuses on teaching students about CRT and trains faculty in CRT to inform how they mentor students (see Saetermoe et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref26">52</reflink>]; Vargas et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref27">72</reflink>]). Prior research has found that the program's CRT-informed mentoring influences sense of belonging and classroom sense of community (Fernandez et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref28">22</reflink>]), and that teaching CRT to inform research experiences positively influences science identity (e.g., Camacho et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref29">12</reflink>]). Building on prior work, we address the following research questions: <emph>How does participation in a CRT-informed URE relate to students' ability to respond to racism? Does ability to respond to racism relate to students' overall wellbeing?</emph></p> <p>In the next section of the article, provide context for understanding the intervention that taught students about CRT and that set them up for CRT-informed mentoring. Then we review literature to inform our analysis of how the CRT-informed URE program may benefit college students. We then synthesize our review of the literature into an operationalizable and testable model for examining how exposing students to CRT can support their ability to respond to racism and thrive despite racist encounters. Toward the end of the paper, we present findings and discuss their implications for supporting programs that are embedded with CRT and anti-racist education.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-2">Study Context</hd> <p>Prior research has often focused on the benefits of bringing critical perspectives into science instruction in primary and secondary schools (Basu, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref30">5</reflink>]; Buxton, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref31">10</reflink>]; Tan & Barton, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref32">66</reflink>]). Building on those approaches to instruction, researchers developed a model for infusing CRT into an URE to help underrepresented students succeed in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and biomedical fields. The distinguishing feature of the URE was that it required students to participate in programming to learn about CRT. URE faculty mentors were also taught CRT and how to use it to inform their approach to mentoring including 16 h of training in CRT (addressing topics such as recognizing unconscious bias and privilege, microaggressions, stereotype threat) and participating in a reading group to interrogate Whiteness and read critical scholars of color (see e.g., Camacho et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref33">12</reflink>], Saetermoe et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref34">52</reflink>], and Vargas et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref35">72</reflink>] for further information about how CRT was embedded in the URE).</p> <p>The program's activities and outcomes were designed around the five tenets of CRT as explained by Solórzano et al. ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref36">58</reflink>]). The founders embraced the perspective that "Critical Race Theory provides educators and researchers with a framework to challenge the racist historical and institutional roots of educational inequality that persist today" (Saetermoe et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref37">52</reflink>], p. 42). From that framing, CRT was then infused throughout the URE. For instance, students enrolled in newly developed courses that focused on understanding the tenets of CRT, such as "Race, Racism, and Science" and "Public Health for Social Justice" that included topics such as research ethics training, which emphasized eugenics and historical abuses of communities of color, participating in a counter space. They also participated in a summer bridge program that equipped them with anti-racist strategies for addressing racism in higher education (Saetermoe et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref38">52</reflink>]). As part of research training, students and faculty were exposed to mixed methods and QuantCrit (e.g., Garcia et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref39">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>Central to this paper, students were taught that CRT should be used to challenge dominant social ideologies such as "traditional claims of universities to objectivity, meritocracy, colorblindness, race neutrality, and equal opportunity" (Solórzano et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref40">58</reflink>], p. 275). Through instruction and mentorship, students were taught to infuse this perspective into their research, as well as into their personal lives. In facilitated settings, students worked through how to "develop strategies for responding to racism through belonging, ownership, and empowerment" (Saetermoe et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref41">52</reflink>]). The key here was that rather than succumbing to imposter syndrome (e.g., Cokley et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref42">17</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref43">16</reflink>]; Peteet et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref44">46</reflink>]) and stereotype threat (Steele, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref45">60</reflink>]), students would be "prepared to recognize microaggressions, name and effectively address them" and be empowered "to affirm their identities as scientists of color" (Saetermoe et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref46">52</reflink>], p. 45). This is not unlike what developmental psychologists refer to as a "shift-and-persist" strategy that allows people to endure "stressors in daily life and adjust to the environment" while "resist[ing] the negative effects of adverse situations by maintaining hope for the future" (Zhang et al., [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref47">76</reflink>], p. 2637; see also Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref48">14</reflink>]). Ultimately, the goal was to allow student to not only survive undergraduate education but to prepare them to thrive in graduate school and to develop a sense of meaning about their life and work.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-3">Literature Review and Hypothesized Framework</hd> <p>In this section, we outline the state of the literature on how innovative science instruction can support college student development. Because the CRT instruction and mentoring were embedded in an URE, we draw on three strands of literature to propose a framework for how a URE program may influence interrelated constructs. We first provide a brief overview of the literature on UREs. Then we synthesize literature on the importance of mentorship on student development. Finally, we consider how prior findings suggest that self-efficacy and science identity may relate to students' ability to respond to racism—and how those three outcomes, together, may relate to mental health.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-4">The Benefits of Undergraduate Research Experience (URE) Programs</hd> <p>Previous research has found that students experience high levels of active learning through UREs (Gilbert et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref49">30</reflink>]; Hernandez et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref50">32</reflink>]). Specifically, undergraduate research experiences have been found to help students develop skills like critical thinking and ability to learn independently (Collins et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref51">18</reflink>]), which align with self-efficacy or one's perceived ability to use "cognitive, social, and behavioral skills... to deal with prospective situations" (Bandura, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref52">4</reflink>]). UREs also facilitate teamwork, problem solving, interactions with faculty and, ultimately, better grades (Collins et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref53">18</reflink>]). When students find community by interacting with peers and faculty in science-based contexts, those experiences support science identity development (Lu, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref54">37</reflink>]) and self-efficacy (Margherio et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref55">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>UREs are especially important when it comes to retaining students in STEM and biomedical fields that traditionally have high attrition rates (e.g., Hernandez et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref56">32</reflink>]; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref57">44</reflink>]; Vieyra et al., [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref58">73</reflink>]). For instance, Nagda et al. ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref59">43</reflink>]) found that UREs reduced attrition among second-year students. Additionally, a quasi-experimental study showed that STEM students who participated in UREs had higher probability of planning to enroll (Eagan et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref60">19</reflink>]) and actual enrollment in STEM graduate programs (Estrada et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref61">21</reflink>]). Interview data suggest that the reason UREs increase STEM graduate school aspirations is because they help students develop science identities or the notion that they are capable of doing science (Fernandez et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref62">23</reflink>]; Frederick et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref63">25</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-5">The Importance of Mentorship</hd> <p>UREs are a good way to introduce students to science. Though faculty may have a variety of motivations for engaging undergraduate students in research (e.g., Eagan et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref64">20</reflink>]; Estrada et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref65">21</reflink>]), most faculty do not have training in how to be effective mentors (Prunuske et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref66">49</reflink>]). Many faculty do not realize the importance of students' backgrounds on their experiences working in research labs (Prunuske et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref67">49</reflink>]).</p> <p>Before mentoring can support academic success, mentors and mentees must develop shared social capital (Smith, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref68">56</reflink>]). Even when faculty do not seek to take a deficit-based approach to mentoring students, they may adopt colorblind mentoring practices that can lead them to establish "relationships in culturally racist ways" and take "a condescending, paternalistic attitude toward Students of Color" (McCoy et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref69">40</reflink>], p. 236). Instead of colorblind mentoring, UREs may adopt asset-based models that validate cultural diversity (Rendón, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref70">50</reflink>]) and community wealth (Morales-Chicas et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref71">42</reflink>]). In higher education, there has been some work on how counselors need to infuse anti-racism into their practice (e.g., Betters-Bubon et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref72">8</reflink>]; Cisneros et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref73">15</reflink>]) but there is less on the importance of building anti-racism in faculty mentoring. A review of the literature on STEM mentoring programs from a critical feminist lens concluded that researchers should begin "interrogating whether these mentoring programs disrupt the isolating and exclusionary practices" (Beck et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref74">7</reflink>], p. 182).</p> <p>Recent work upon which this study is based proposed a model for training faculty in CRT so they can mentor students through UREs (Saetermoe et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref75">52</reflink>]; Vargas et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref76">72</reflink>]). Preliminary findings show that frequent mentorship that aligns with the tenets of CRT positively correlates with students' sense of belonging in college, as well as their classroom sense of community (Fernandez et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref77">22</reflink>]). Moreover, when UREs and mentorship are informed by CRT, participating students develop strong science identity (Camacho et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref78">12</reflink>]). The latter finding is consistent with research that shows that mentorship helps students develop self-efficacy throughout their time in college (Apriceno et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref79">2</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-6">The Interrelationships Among Affective Student Development Outcomes</hd> <p>As previously mentioned, UREs and positive mentorship consistently lead students to develop self-efficacy and science identity (e.g., Apriceno et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref80">2</reflink>]; Frederick et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref81">25</reflink>]). Additional research shows that there is a temporal or directional aspect to how students develop these outcomes. An analysis of four years of longitudinal data study showed that self-efficacy precedes development of science identity (Robinson et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref82">51</reflink>]). Robinson's directionality aligns with models of science identity, whereby a student did not begin to see themself as a "science person" until they developed competence and had "the requisite skills to perform for others," demonstrate "competence," and be recognized for their skill (Carlone & Johnson, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref83">13</reflink>], p. 1190). While other researchers consider science identity as a predictor of science identity, they also conclude that "longitudinal associations are reciprocal" and that self-efficacy and science identity "mutually influence each other" (Zhao et al., [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref84">77</reflink>], p. 472).</p> <p>Additionally, prior research found that when counseling and counseling psychology were received anti-racism education and training, they scored better on a measure "designed to assess knowledge and behaviors associated with anti-racism advocacy" (Pieterse et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref85">48</reflink>], p. 373). Their measure included items, such as "When I hear people telling racist jokes and using negative racial stereotypes, I usually confront them" and "I interrupt racist conversations and jokes when I hear them in my family" (Pieterse et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref86">48</reflink>], p. 365). Pieterse et al. ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref87">48</reflink>]) collected data twice to show that students' self-assessed strategies for responding to racism were stable over time. Importantly, they also showed that racism response strategy scores were negatively correlated with color-blind attitudes about race and beliefs that racism no longer exists and that People of Color benefit from unfair racial preferences.</p> <p>Other psychological research emphasizes the importance of preparing students to better respond to racist encounters. Torres et al. ([<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref88">69</reflink>]) found that Black doctoral students who were better able to cope with microaggressions had lower stress. Students who displayed the opposite of self-efficacy (that is, those who underestimated their abilities) were less able to cope with microaggressions and had higher stress from microaggressions—that stress led to depressive symptoms (Torres et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref89">69</reflink>]). When we consider increasing prevalence of hate crimes and hate incidents on campus, it is noteworthy that students may be able to develop the ability to respond to racism, along with self-efficacy and science identity.</p> <p>To review, by pairing CRT instruction and mentorship with research training, a URE should be able to support development of self-efficacy, science identity, and prepare student sto respond to racism. When students have a better ability to respond to racist microaggressions, they are at reduced risk of perceived stress and depressive symptoms (Torres et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref90">69</reflink>]). Additionally, people who find more meaning in life have less anxiety, distress, and depression (Testoni et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref91">68</reflink>]). These mental health outcomes are important because scholars who call for humanizing education argue that we ultimately need to focus more on helping students thrive and not just improve academic performance (Taylor & Harrison, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref92">67</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-7">Hypothesized Framework</hd> <p>Based on our review of the literature, we developed a hypothesized framework about how participating in a CRT-informed URE may support multiple types of student development. Our review of the literature not only indicated that there are multiple benefits to participating in an undergraduate research experience program, but it also suggested that these benefits may be interrelated. As discussed above, UREs that include positive mentoring experiences have been shown to support students' self-efficacy and science identity (e.g., Apriceno et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref93">2</reflink>]; Estrada et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref94">21</reflink>]; Frederick et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref95">25</reflink>]). Robinson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref96">51</reflink>]) found that development of self-efficacy preceded development of science identity. Pieterse et al. ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref97">48</reflink>]) concluded that students can be taught in ways that prepare them to respond to racism in their daily lives. When students cope well in the face of microaggressions they have lower stress and are at lower risk for depressive symptoms (Torres et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref98">69</reflink>]). Figure 1 displays our hypothesized model of these relationships, which informed our analysis.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Hypothesized relationships among outcomes related to participating in undergraduate research experience program informed by CRT</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-8">Data and Methods</hd> <p>This work followed a matched comparison quasi-experimental design (Trochim & Donnelly, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref99">70</reflink>]). The research design compared students participating in a federally-funded URE program at a comprehensive four-year university with students in similar academic fields who did not participate in the program. Students were eligible to apply to participate in the URE if they had an undergraduate GPA above 3.0 and were currently enrolled in an undergraduate degree-granting program in a biomedical-related field. All study participants completed an online survey, which was administered through Qualtrics in spring 2022. Participants received $25 renumeration. This study was approved by the institutional review board at The University of Mississippi.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-9">Sample and Recruitment Procedure</hd> <p>The research team distributed an online expression of interest form to all students in the URE to collect contact information from students who were willing to participate in the study. The expression of interest form also asked for background characteristics, such as age, gender, first-generation status, and race/ethnicity. The background characteristics were used to select a comparison group.</p> <p>To create a comparison group of students who did not participate in the URE, we distributed a similar expression of interest form to a group of students who met the same eligibility criteria (3.0 GPA, currently enrolled in a degree-granting program) and who previously were included in a comparison group for a National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consortium study (<emph>n</emph> = 2,507). Additionally, the expression of interest form was also distributed to undergraduate students at the university who were enrolled in colleges that enrolled students who participated in the URE.</p> <p>We received more than 1,000 students completed the expression of interest form and provided information so they could potentially be included in the comparison group. We used their demographic information from the expression of interest form to create a matched comparison sample using nearest neighbor propensity score matching procedures (Heinrich et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref100">31</reflink>]), and matching many (five)-to-one to match participants on background characteristics, including age, gender, first-generation status, and race/ethnicity. This process generated a comparison group of students who could be compared with students who participated in the URE. We compared students who participated in the URE with the matched sample using a t-test (Pan & Bai, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref101">45</reflink>]) and found that there were no statistically significant differences in background characteristics between the groups of students.</p> <p>In April 2022, we distributed an online survey to the students who had participated in the URE and those in the comparison group. We sent the survey to 69 URE participants and 336 non-URE participants in the comparison group at the same institution. Our responses included 49 URE participants (71% response rate) and 246 members of the comparison group (73% response rate). Overall, we received 294 responses for an overall 73% response rate across both URE participants and members of the comparison group (note that multivariate analyses below were conducted using listwise deletion, so the sample numbers below Figs. 2 and 3 are for complete cases with non-missing data). Approximately 74% of survey respondents were women. In terms of race/ethnicity, approximately 15% identified as Asian American, 5% identified as Black, 48% identified as Hispanic, approximately 16% identified as White, and the largest remaining plurality identified as Other (which we combined with the few students who identified as Native American and Pacific Islander). The sample demographics reflected the diversity of the institution's demographics for that year (9% Asian American, 5% Black, 54% Hispanic, 22% White).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2 Direct and indirect effects of participating in an undergraduate research experience program informed by CRT, testing development of meaning</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 3 Direct and indirect effects of participating in an undergraduate research experience program informed by CRT, testing thriving</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-10">Measures</hd> <p>The survey included several previously validated scales, including several that we used to test the hypothesized model outlined in Fig. 1. Participants responded to survey items using a 5-point Likert scale (strongly disagree-strongly agree). First, we measured <emph>Self-Efficacy</emph> using the four-item science competency measure from Robinson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref102">51</reflink>]). Second, we used an a shortened version of an anti-racism behavioral inventory scale, which asks about knowledge of response strategies when faced with inequity (Pieterse et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref103">48</reflink>]), which we called <emph>Racism Response</emph>. Third, we measured <emph>Science Identity</emph> using a four-item scale from Robinson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref104">51</reflink>]). Finally, we alternately examined two outcome variables, <emph>Meaning</emph> and <emph>Thriving</emph>. The <emph>Meaning</emph> scale was computed using three items from the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (Steger et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref105">61</reflink>]). To test whether <emph>Racism Response</emph> (the items from the anti-racism behavioral inventory measure) has a robust effect on students' ability to cope through microaggressions or hate incidents, we computed a <emph>Thriving</emph> scale based on three items from Margherio et al. ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref106">39</reflink>]) as an alternative to the <emph>Meaning</emph> scale. We recorded participation in the undergraduate research experience program using a dichotomous variable, <emph>CRT-informed URE</emph> (1 = yes, 0 = no).</p> <p>We calculated the consistency of all the previously validated scale measures with the current sample. The Cronbach's α for each of the scales in this study exceeded the traditional threshold of 0.7 (Taber, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref107">65</reflink>]). The <emph>Self-Efficacy</emph> measure had a Cronbach's α of 0.73. The <emph>Racism Response</emph> measure had a Cronbach's α of 0.78. The <emph>Science Identity</emph> measure had a Cronbach's α of 0.95. The <emph>Meaning</emph> measure had a Cronbach's α of 0.91. Finally, the <emph>Thriving</emph> measure had a Cronbach's α of 0.88. We checked the bivariate correlations among the scale measures and found that the most correlated were <emph>Self-Efficacy</emph> and <emph>Science Identity</emph> (r = 0.47). All the other correlations were less than 0.40. We standardized all the scale variables (<emph>M</emph> = 0, <emph>SD</emph> = 1) prior to analysis. See Table 1 for descriptive statistics for the key constructs, disaggregated by URE participation. As reported in the table, <emph>t</emph>-tests indicated that the mean scale scores were statistically significantly different (<emph>p</emph> < 0.01) between the two groups of survey completers for the key constructs.</p> <p>Table 1 Descriptive statistics for key constructs by URE participation</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Construct</p></th><th align="left"><p>Statistic</p></th><th align="left"><p>Non-URE</p></th><th align="left"><p>URE</p></th><th align="left"><p>Statistically significantly different (<italic>p</italic> < 0.01)</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Self-efficacy</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mean</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> − 0.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.55</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Yes</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Standard error</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.11</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>229</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>51</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Equity mindset</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mean</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> − 0.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.36</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Yes</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Standard error</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.13</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>227</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>51</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Science identity</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mean</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> − 0.16</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.72</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Yes</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Standard error</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.10</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>229</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>51</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Meaning</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mean</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> − 0.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Yes</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Standard error</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.35</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.13</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>279</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>50</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Thriving</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mean</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> − 0.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.54</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Yes</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Standard error</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.12</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>228</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>49</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0180107943-11">Analytic Approach</hd> <p>Based on our research questions and review of the literature, we used path analysis to account for interrelationships among variables. Path analysis may also be referred to as simultaneous regression (Lleras, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref108">35</reflink>]). Using Stata 17.0 (Cain, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref109">11</reflink>]), we were able to test for direct and indirect relationships between participation in the undergraduate research experience program and each of the scale outcomes, as well as test for relationships among the scales.</p> <p>We estimated our analyses following the hypothesized model in Fig. 1. We built our complete path models through additive steps. The baseline model tested the direct effect relationship between participating in a CRT-informed URE program (<emph>CRT-informed URE Research Experience</emph>) on <emph>Self-Efficacy.</emph> Then, the second model regressed <emph>Racism Response</emph> upon <emph>Self-Efficacy</emph> and <emph>CRT-informed URE.</emph> The third model regressed <emph>Science Identity</emph> upon the three prior variables. Finally, the fourth model regressed <emph>Meaning</emph> (then, separately, <emph>Thriving</emph>) on all the previously used variables.</p> <p>We calculated Akaike Information Criteria (AIC) and Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC) statistics to assess overall model fit. AIC and BIC measure overall model fit for nested and non-nested models, where smaller AIC and larger negative BIC statistics are good indicators of model fit (Long & Freese, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref110">36</reflink>]). For the full <emph>Meaning</emph> model, the AIC statistic was 2.68 and the BIC statistic was -763.38 (<emph>R</emph><sups><emph>2</emph></sups> = 0.18). For the full <emph>Thriving</emph> model, the AIC statistic was 2.56 and the BIC statistic was -791.09 (<emph>R</emph><sups><emph>2</emph></sups> = 0.27).</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-12">Limitations</hd> <p>Our analysis are based on self-reported, cross-sectional data and present correlational relationships among multiple variables. Our results do not support causal inferences. However, our constructs are based on previously validated measures or published work, and each scale included in the analysis had high consistency with the current sample. Our sample sizes were small, but the response rates were high (e.g., 71% of URE program participants completed the survey in 2022). Additionally, the size of the sample exceeded Schoemann et al. ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref111">54</reflink>]) guideline for a minimum sample of 150 cases in mediation models.</p> <p>Additionally, in our analyses we use a single indicator to record participation in the CRT-informed URE and did not examine potential dosage effects for varying levels of engagement with CRT-informeds URE program features. Though we draw on an array of prior studies to explain why undergraudate research experiences tend to positively relate to student development along multiple domains (e.g., community, mentorship), we do not seek to identify causal mechanisms at work within this specific CRT-URE program. There are multiple experiences at work in the URE we evaluated (Saetermoe et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref112">52</reflink>]; Vargas et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref113">72</reflink>]). While, they are all informed by CRT, in this study we are not trying to disentangle the independent influences of each element of the program (e.g., courses vs. mentoring). Instead, this exploratory work seeks to examine whether there are interrelated relationships among self-efficacy, knowledge of response strategies when encountering racism, science identity, and ability to find meaning or thrive in life. Thus, this study can complicate conversations around how CRT can be incorported in curricular and co-curricular experiences to help students develop the ability to respond to racism, even in a broader URE programs that supports self-efficacy and science identity.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-13">Results</hd> <p>To address the first research question (<emph>How does participation in a CRT-informed URE relate to students' ability to respond to racism?)</emph> we found that participating in the CRT-informed URE had statistically significant direct relationships with <emph>Self-Efficacy</emph> and <emph>Science Identity.</emph> However, it did not have statistically significant relationships with <emph>Racism Response</emph> or <emph>Meaning</emph> (or, in a separate model, <emph>Thriving</emph>)<emph>.</emph> Participating in the CRT-informed URE correlated with an almost one standard deviation (0.98) increase in <emph>Self-Efficacy</emph> (<emph>p</emph> < 0.001). The independent, positive relationship between <emph>CRT-informed URE</emph> and <emph>Science Identity</emph> was smaller (0.85, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). See Figs. 2 and 3.</p> <p>For the second research question <emph>(Does ability to respond to racism relate to students' overall wellbeing?</emph>) we found that <emph>Self-Efficacy</emph> had direct statistically significant, positive effects on <emph>Racism Response, Science Identity,</emph> and <emph>Meaning</emph> (alternately, <emph>Thriving</emph>). <emph>Racism Response</emph> had direct, statistically significant, positive effects on both <emph>Meaning</emph> and <emph>Thriving</emph>. More specificallly, a one-standard deviation increase in <emph>Racism Response</emph> correlated with a one-fifth standard deviation increase in <emph>Meaning</emph> (0.20, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) and about a one-quarter standard deviation increase in <emph>Thriving</emph> (0.26, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). <emph>Science Identity</emph> had a statistically significant, positive relationship with <emph>Thriving</emph> (0.23, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) but not <emph>Meaning</emph>. See Figs. 2 and 3.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-14">Discussion</hd> <p>Hate crimes and racist incidents occur with alarming and increasing frequency on college campuses. When students are prepared to respond to racism and are better able to cope when they experience microaggressions, they tend to have better mental health outcomes (e.g., Torres et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref114">69</reflink>]). Prior literature has established that mentoring, undergraduate research experiences, and community-building, can help students develop affective outcomes, including self-efficacy and science identity. In this study, we set out to evaluate whether an anti-racist URE that included CRT-instruction and CRT-informed mentoring could also influence students' ability to respond to racism—and even thrive.</p> <p>We analyzed survey data for students who experienced the CRT-informed URE sand a comparable group of undergraduates. Using previously validated measures (Margherio et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref115">39</reflink>]; Pieterse et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref116">48</reflink>]; Robinson et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref117">51</reflink>]; Steger et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref118">61</reflink>]), we examined the direct and indirect influences of the CRT-informed URE on students' affective outcomes and the relationships among those outcomes. As suggested by prior literature, we found that the CRT-informed URE positively influenced students' sense of self-efficacy and science identity. Self-efficacy had statistically significant, positive relationships with students' self-assessed ability to respond to racism encounters and science identity and their sense of meaning or thriving in life. The <emph>Racism Response</emph> scores had an independent relationship on meaning or thriving. Science identity related to the thriving construct but not the meaning construct. The full path models suggest that the CRT-informed URE did not have direct influence on abilty to respond to racism or meaning and thriving, but it indirectly influenced those outcomes through its large effect on self-efficacy.</p> <p>These findings were largely consistent with prior literature. For instance, Robinson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref119">51</reflink>]) found that students develop self-efficacy before they develop a strong sense of science identity (Robinson et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref120">51</reflink>]). Our analyses build on prior research by giving preliminary insights into how these constructs relates to each other. Our results suggest that the preparing students to respond to racism may occur indirectly through increasing sense of self-efficacy. Additionally, while prior literature suggested that ability to repond to microaggressions leads to reduced risk of perceived stress and depressive symptoms (Torres et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref121">69</reflink>]), we found that our racism response measure (drawn from the anti-racism behavioral inventory scale) positively relates to students' self-assessed ability to thrive and find greater meaning in life.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-15">Implications for Practice</hd> <p>UREs have been well studied (e.g., Eagan et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref122">19</reflink>]; Estrada et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref123">21</reflink>]; Hernandez et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref124">32</reflink>]) and replicated (e.g., Sto. Domingo et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref125">63</reflink>]). We encourage higher education faculty and student affairs professionals to consider how they may implement similar programs to not only expand the pathway to STEM careers but to also help students feel a greater sense of their ability to navigate racism on campus. Our findings suggest that beyond self-efficacy and science identity, the program we evaluated also indirectly influences ability to respond to racism and to thrive and find greater meaning in life.</p> <p>However, we note that our findings are based on a single URE that centered CRT in its various components. These findings may not be transferrable to programs that do not include similar features (community building, mentorship) and that do not infuse CRT throughout student and faculty training as outlined in Saetermoe et al. ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref126">52</reflink>]) and Vargas et al. ([<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref127">72</reflink>]). There are widespread attacks on the use of CRT and other critical frameworks, as well as the use of trainings to help faculty identify and acknowledge their own implicit biases (Miller et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref128">41</reflink>]). Therefore, if campuses are interested in developing similar UREs, we encourage practitioners to consider how to preserve the critical aspects of this program even if they must avoid explicitly describing the programs as based in CRT. For instance, instead of describing that a program aims to help students respond to racism, practitioners might say the goal is to help students navigate adversity and exercise resilience.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-16">Implications for Theory</hd> <p>In this paper, we proposed a conceptual model based on prior literature. After testing that model, our findings suggest that this framework has promising implications for understanding the direct and indirect influences of student experiences on multiple affective outcomes. Additionally, the framework may be useful for considering how multiple student outcomes relate to one another.</p> <p>The intervention we studied had multiple components, and we did not focus on disentangling the causal mechanism at work or the influence of each of those components. Instead, the model we tested offers a way to consider how student development can support students as they face racism while also influencing more traditional outcomes like self-efficacy or science identity. This hypothesized framework may be useful for evaluating and developing other types of anti-racist programming on college campuses.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-17">Directions for Future Research</hd> <p>Higher education researchers should continue to examine the potential benefits of CRT-informed programs, the relationships among multiple student outcomes, and ways to help students develop the capacity to respond when they encounter racism. We used a set of previously validated measures to do this work, but scholars could use alternate measures within the broader framework we proposed. For instance, outside educational research, there have been recent developments in developing new measures of how people resist and respond to racism (e.g., Suyemoto et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref129">64</reflink>]). Scholars could use Suyemoto and colleagues' multiple factors (Awareness and Relational Resistance; Participation in Resistance Activities and Organizations; Interpersonal Confrontation; and Leadership for Resistance) in place of items from ssthe anti-racism behavioral inventory scale we used (Pieterse et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref130">48</reflink>]) to examine other programs or settings.</p> <p>Future studies could overcome the limitations of this study by using longitudinal analyses to examine how students develop self-efficacy, capacity for responding to racism, and science identity over time. Additionally, future work may examine broader contexts in which student development occurs. For example, researchers could work toward including measures of campus climate or records of hate incidents on campuses to consider whether contextual factors influence the strength, directionality, or statistical significance of the relationships we identified in our proposed conceptual model.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-18">Author Contribution</hd> <p>Conceptualization, F.F.; methodology, F.F., S.M. and S.S.; formal analysis, F.F.; data curation, S.M. and S.S.; writing—original draft preparation, F.F.; writing—review and editing, S.M., S.S., G.C., P.K. and C.S.; visualization, F.F.; project administration, S.M., G.C., P.K. and C.S.; funding acquisition, G.C., P.K. and C.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-19">Funding</hd> <p>This work is supported by National Institute of Health Grant/Award Numbers: RL5GM118975, TL4GM118977, UL1GM118976, and R16GM146693.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-20">Data Availability</hd> <p>The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-21">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180107943-22">Internal Review Board (IRB) Ethics Approval</hd> <p>The University of Mississippi Institutional Review Board (IRB) approved the study (#20x-271) on January 7, 2020.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-23">Consent to Participate</hd> <p>Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-24">Competing Interests</hd> <p>The authors declare that they have no competing interests.</p> <hd id="AN0180107943-25">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0180107943-26"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref2" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Alexander, T. 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(U.S. Department of Education, [71]).</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Frank Fernandez; Sarah Mason; Gabriela Chavira; Patchareeya Kwan; Carrie Saetermoe and Shannon Sharp</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Frank Fernandez is Associate Professor of Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis at University of Wisconsin, Madison. He earned a PhD in Higher Education from The Pennsylvania State University. He writes about educational policy and equity issues.</p> <p>Sarah Mason is Director of the Center for Research Evaluation at The University of Mississippi. She earned a PhD in Evaluation and Applied Research Methods from Claremont Graduate University. She is Co-Editor-in-Chief of New Directions for Evaluation and writes about innovative evaluation practice.</p> <p>Gabriela Chavira is Professor of Psychology at California State University Northridge. She earned a PhD in Developmental Psychology from University of California Santa Cruz. Her research is interdisciplinary and examines the factors contributing to the well‐being and achievement of immigrant youth in the US and student access and success.</p> <p>Patchareeya Kwan is Professor of Health Sciences at California State University, Northridge. She earned a PhD in Health Behavior Research from University of Southern California. Her research focuses on health disparities and health equity among underserved/minoritized populations using community-engaged mixed methods approaches.</p> <p>Carrie Saetermoe is Professor of Psychology and Founder of the Health Equity Research and Education (HERE) Center at California State University, Northridge. She earned a PhD in Developmental and Health Psychology from University of California, Riverside. As a Liberation Psychologist, Saetermoe frames her work with a critical, humanistic lens, asserting that capitalist white supremacy has laid the groundwork for laws, policies, and ideologies that lead to a normalized way of seeing morbidity and mortality as purely individual, racial, or neighborhood-based, when the root source of disparity is economic inequality.</p> <p>Shannon Sharp is a Senior Evaluation Associate at the Center for Research Evaluation at The University of Mississippi. She earned a PhD in School Psychology from University of Tennessee, Knoxville. She has published in published in International Journal of Innovation in Science and Mathematics Education, International Journal of Educational Research Open, and The Oral History Review.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib76" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref83"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib77" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref85"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref91"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref92"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref99"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref100"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref101"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref105"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref107"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref108"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref109"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref110"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl66" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref111"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl67" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref125"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl68" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref129"></nolink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Frank+Fernandez%22">Frank Fernandez</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4072-3994">0000-0003-4072-3994</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sarah+Mason%22">Sarah Mason</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gabriela+Chavira%22">Gabriela Chavira</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Patchareeya+Kwan%22">Patchareeya Kwan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Carrie+Saetermoe%22">Carrie Saetermoe</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Shannon+Sharp%22">Shannon Sharp</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Innovative+Higher+Education%22"><i>Innovative Higher Education</i></searchLink>. 2024 49(5):889-907.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 19
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: SourceSuprt
  Label: Sponsoring Agency
  Group: SrcSuprt
  Data: National Institutes of Health (NIH) (DHHS)
– Name: NumberContract
  Label: Contract Number
  Group: NumCntrct
  Data: RL5GM118975<br />TL4GM118977<br />UL1GM118976<br />R16GM146693
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racism%22">Racism</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Environment%22">College Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Bias%22">Social Bias</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Behavior%22">Student Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Critical+Race+Theory%22">Critical Race Theory</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mentors%22">Mentors</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Research%22">Student Research</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Undergraduate+Students%22">Undergraduate Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Effectiveness%22">Program Effectiveness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept%22">Self Concept</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Responses%22">Responses</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s10755-024-09728-2
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0742-5627<br />1573-1758
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Hate crimes and racist incidents are occurring with alarming and increasing frequency on college and university campuses. As colleges work to reduce racist incidents on campus, there is still a need to prepare students to respond to racism when it occurs. When students are prepared to respond to racist incidents, they tend to have better mental health. We draw on prior literature to examine whether learning about critical race theory (CRT) and receiving CRT-informed mentoring--as embedded in an undergraduate research experience program--related to four-year college students' self-assessed ability to respond to racism. Specifically, we propose and test a conceptual model to examine the benefits of participating in an undergraduate research experience program that required students to learn about CRT and receiving CRT-informed mentorship. Consistent with prior literature on undergraduate research experience programs, we found that the intervention positively related to students' sense of self-efficacy and science identity, but it did not have an independent, direct relationship with self-assessed ability to respond to racism. However, the intervention indirectly supports students' preparedness to respond to racism through its positive relationship with self-efficacy. As state legislatures around the country work to ban CRT, this paper offers empirical evidence that embedding CRT in university programs can support student development in multiple related ways.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1442223
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1442223
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        Value: 10.1007/s10755-024-09728-2
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 19
        StartPage: 889
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Racism
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Environment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Bias
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Behavior
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      – SubjectFull: Critical Race Theory
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      – SubjectFull: Responses
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    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Examining a Critical Race Theory-Informed Undergraduate Research Experience: Proposing a Conceptual Model of the Benefits of Anti-Racist Programs on Student Development
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              Y: 2024
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