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A Character-Word Dual Function Model of Reading Chinese: Evidence from Reading Chinese Compounds

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Title: A Character-Word Dual Function Model of Reading Chinese: Evidence from Reading Chinese Compounds
Language: English
Authors: Lin Chen (ORCID 0000-0003-3225-9415), Yi Xu (ORCID 0000-0002-3673-057X), Charles Perfetti (ORCID 0000-0002-0211-8518)
Source: Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal. 2024 37(9):2429-2455.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 27
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Chinese, Vocabulary, Morphemes, Orthographic Symbols, Reading, Grammar, Word Frequency
DOI: 10.1007/s11145-023-10478-4
ISSN: 0922-4777
1573-0905
Abstract: There is a long-standing argument about whether words or character morphemes are the functional units in reading Chinese. We propose a Character-Word Dual Function (CWDF) model of reading Chinese in which both characters and words are functional units that contribute differentially to orthographic and meaning processes in reading Chinese. Two masked constituent priming experiments examined one of the model's predictions by testing orthographic and meaning priming effects in reading Chinese compounds. The meaning transparency of the prime (a constituent character) and the target (a compound word) was manipulated to distinguish meaning effects from orthographic effects. In transparent pairs, the prime and target were orthographically and semantically related (e.g., [characters omitted] [home-family]); in opaque pairs, the prime and target shared orthography only (e.g., [characters omitted] [home-guy]). Exposure durations of the prime were varied (50ms and 216ms) to allow orthographic and meaning priming, respectively. We manipulated word frequency to reflect the accessibility of word-level representations. The results are as follows: (1) Sharing character level orthography facilitated word reading for both high- and low-frequency words, supporting the assumption of an important role for the character level in orthographic processes. (2) The meaning priming effect was found with the longer exposure duration and only for low-frequency words. High-frequency words produced rapid access, which was not enhanced by the meaning priming of its constituent characters, suggesting that the word functions as the primary meaning provider in reading. These findings are congruent with the CWDF model, which posits that characters are the fundamental orthographic units of written Chinese and that words are primary meaning providers.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1443731
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0180236086;2ap01nov.24;2024Oct15.05:33;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0180236086-1">A character-word dual function model of reading Chinese: evidence from reading Chinese compounds </title> <p>There is a long-standing argument about whether words or character morphemes are the functional units in reading Chinese. We propose a Character-Word Dual Function (CWDF) model of reading Chinese in which both characters and words are functional units that contribute differentially to orthographic and meaning processes in reading Chinese. Two masked constituent priming experiments examined one of the model's predictions by testing orthographic and meaning priming effects in reading Chinese compounds. The meaning transparency of the prime (a constituent character) and the target (a compound word) was manipulated to distinguish meaning effects from orthographic effects. In transparent pairs, the prime and target were orthographically and semantically related (e.g., 家-家庭 [home-family]); in opaque pairs, the prime and target shared orthography only (e.g., 家-家伙 [home-guy]). Exposure durations of the prime were varied (50ms and 216ms) to allow orthographic and meaning priming, respectively. We manipulated word frequency to reflect the accessibility of word-level representations. The results are as follows: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>) Sharing character level orthography facilitated word reading for both high- and low-frequency words, supporting the assumption of an important role for the character level in orthographic processes. (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>) The meaning priming effect was found with the longer exposure duration and only for low-frequency words. High-frequency words produced rapid access, which was not enhanced by the meaning priming of its constituent characters, suggesting that the word functions as the primary meaning provider in reading. These findings are congruent with the CWDF model, which posits that characters are the fundamental orthographic units of written Chinese and that words are primary meaning providers.</p> <p>Keywords: Chinese word; Character; Morpheme; Orthography; Meaning</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-2">Introduction</hd> <p>In written Chinese, the character provides a visually salient unit, separated by spaces from other characters. Usually, the character is also a meaningful morpheme. However, for words, the boundaries are not prominent. These visual-orthographic properties can result in apparent lexical ambiguity wherein the process of distinguishing words from co-occurring characters is non-trivial. This, in turn, has given rise to long-standing arguments centered on whether it is characters or words which serve as the basic reading units in Chinese.</p> <p>Empirical findings have been reported in support of each argument. The character-based view is evidenced by findings that native Chinese speakers show inconsistencies in marking word boundaries in a sentence (Hoosain, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref3">20</reflink>]; Liu et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref4">31</reflink>]). The word-based view is supported by studies which found that the character perception is affected by word boundaries and word segmentation. (These studies typically utilize word stimuli which are selected from a Chinese dictionary and thus are known to be words rather than commonly co-occurring characters.) This suggests that the word is the functional unit in reading Chinese (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref5">29</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref6">27</reflink>]).</p> <p>It is possible that both of these claims capture some of the reality of Chinese reading with contradictions resulting from lack of clarity about the specific functions that words and characters have in reading. We propose the Character-Word Dual Function (CWDF) of reading Chinese, a conceptual framework which positions both words and characters as functional units but differentiates their specific functionalities in orthographic and meaning processes. The conceptual claims of the model regarding the roles of characters and words result in a number of implications which merit experimental investigation with the addition of specific hypotheses. In the current study, we examine one such implication, namely, that during Chinese reading, the quality of a reader's word-level representations affect meaning processes more than orthographic processes. Before introducing the details of the CWDF model and the study, we first review prior work regarding the roles of characters and words in reading Chinese.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-3">Roles of characters and words in reading Chinese</hd> <p>The character-based view proposes that the character is the basic reading unit (Hoosain, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref7">20</reflink>]; Tsai & McConkie, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref8">51</reflink>]). This view derives from two features of the Chinese writing system. First, the character of the morpho-syllabic Chinese writing system usually corresponds to a single-syllable morpheme. Thus, a character is usually meaningful, although most Chinese characters are bound morphemes and only 37% of morphemes can stand alone as words (Yuan & Huang, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref9">57</reflink>]). Second, the writing convention separates the characters, but not words, by spaces. Thus, the constituent morphemes of a Chinese compound word, each a single character, are visually salient. For example, the two characters "飞" (fly) and "机" (machine) are visually distinct through separation in the compound word "飞机" (airplane). Native speakers of Chinese show inconsistencies in marking word boundaries in a sentence (Hoosain, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref10">20</reflink>]; Liu et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref11">31</reflink>]), a fact that has supported the claim that the character is the main reading unit. In addition, eye-tracking studies report that readers' eyes during reading Chinese did not land at the center of words as frequently as in reading alphabetic languages, also suggesting that the word may not be the basic reading unit in Chinese (Tsai & McConkie, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref12">51</reflink>]).</p> <p>The character-based view has been challenged by findings that seem to show that character processes are affected by word boundaries and word segmentation (Gu & Li, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref13">19</reflink>]; Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref14">29</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref15">26</reflink>]; Li & Pollatsek, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref16">28</reflink>]). For example, Gu and Li ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref17">19</reflink>]) found that word boundaries, even though not visually salient, affect character-order encoding. In their study, when the order of the two middle characters in a previewed four-character word was transposed, fixation durations for the target word did not show differences from the untransposed condition that maintained the order of the middle characters. However, with two 2-character words transposing the same middle two characters, now with the each one part of a different word, the fixation durations increased. Further, Li et al. ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref18">26</reflink>]) systematically compared the effects of word properties (length, frequency, predictability) and character properties (frequency and complexity) in reading Chinese using eye-tracking and concluded that word properties have effects above and beyond characters in reading Chinese. They found that word properties showed robust effects on word fixation durations with and without character properties in the regression model and also showed equally reliable effects on character fixation durations. These findings indicate the important role of the word in Chinese reading.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-4">A character-word dual function (CWDF) model for Chinese reading</hd> <p>Given the contradictory conclusions drawn across different studies, delineating functional differentiation of word and character units may provide a clearer conceptualization of Chinese reading processes. To address this need, we propose the Character-Word Dual Function (CWDF) model of reading Chinese. This model is comprised of three claims:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> The character is the fundamental orthographic unit of written Chinese.</item> <p></p> <item> The word is the primary provider of meaning in written Chinese.</item> <p></p> <item> The functionalities of characters and words in reading Chinese vary with the quality of the reader's lexical representations of the written language.</item> </ulist> <p>While cognitive models from previous work have also acknowledged the roles of words and characters in Chinese reading, asserting varying levels of the importance of each to reading processes (Li & Pollatsek, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref19">28</reflink>]; Peng et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref20">35</reflink>]; Taft et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref21">48</reflink>]; Tan & Perfetti, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref22">50</reflink>]; Zhou & Marslen-Wilson, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref23">59</reflink>]), the CWDF model distinguishes itself from these models by explicitly addressing the primary functionalities of characters and words and by emphasizing the relevance of the reader's lexical expertise. We elaborate more specifically on these claims below.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Character: the basic orthographic unit</item> <p></p> <item> The character is the basic orthographic unit. Establishing the character-level orthographic representations is essential for Chinese learners to acquire high-quality lexical representations that enable rapid and skilled reading (Perfetti, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref24">36</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref25">40</reflink>]; Perfetti & Hart, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref26">37</reflink>]). One of the advantages of using characters in written Chinese is that they can reduce confusion caused by the prevalence of homophones in spoken Chinese. In the spoken language, the association between syllables and meanings is ambiguous because the same syllable is usually associated with multiple meanings. In writing, the association between characters and meanings is more reliable. For example, while the syllable "shi" can be associated with many meanings ("pick", "stone", "be", "thing" etc.), the character "石", pronounced as "shi", is primarily associated with the reliable meaning "stone". Thus, characters provide a relatively dependable access to the Chinese lexicon. Although children learn to read Chinese characters with the help of alphabetic Pinyin, literacy in Chinese primarily relies on reading characters after the initial stages. With increased reading experience, characters become the orthographic gateway to the written Chinese lexicon. This gateway conclusion is supported by the finding that for skilled adult readers, characters come to be routinely involved in reading for meaning, even when the input is an alphabetic spelling (Pinyin) (Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref27">13</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref28">10</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref29">11</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Pressure for building a precise character-accessed lexicon also comes from the exceptionally large number of characters of high visual complexity. Chinese readers need to learn 6,500 common characters for proficient reading (the State Language Commission of China, 2013). Discriminating among them requires readers to develop fine-grain representations of specific character orthography. The development of orthographic awareness is critical early in early reading development (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref30">24</reflink>]). In skilled reading, visual-orthographic processing is prominent (Cao et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref31">7</reflink>]; McBride-Chang & Ho, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref32">33</reflink>]), and the visual-orthographic feature of characters (the number of strokes) affects word identification of skilled readers (Li & Pollatsek, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref33">28</reflink>]; Ma & Li, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref34">32</reflink>]; Perfetti et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref35">38</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Word: the primary meaning provider</item> <p></p> <item> Compared with characters, words provide relatively precise representations of word meaning, which is the output of word identification and the input to comprehension, and thus a central component of reading processes (Perfetti & Stafura, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref36">39</reflink>]). Successful reading comprehension relies on retrieving and integrating word meaning into the reader's current understanding of the meaning of the text (Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref37">56</reflink>]). Rapid memory-based meaning retrieval with increased reading exposure enables cognitive resources for higher-level comprehension (Perfetti & Verhoeven, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref38">40</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Findings from both ERP and eye-tracking studies support that skilled reading relies more on word meaning than character/morpheme meaning (Shen et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref39">46</reflink>]), and the meaning of the word, more than the character, is what is retrieved and integrated during reading comprehension (Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref40">9</reflink>]). For example, in an eye-tracking study, the fixation durations of the target word were shorter when the target word and the previewed word were meaning related compared to meaning-unrelated word pairs. More important, sharing a morpheme between meaning-unrelated word pairs did not affect fixation durations (Shen et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref41">46</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> The CWDF model recognizes that the character allows the meaning of the character to contribute to meaning processing for less familiar words (Tse & Yap, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref42">54</reflink>]) and to facilitate inferring the correct meaning of an unknown word from context (Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref43">14</reflink>]; Xu & Zhang, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref44">55</reflink>]; Zhang, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref45">58</reflink>]). However, the meaning function of the character is secondary. A character usually has multiple meanings, and the interpretation of the meaning is highly dependent on the compound word in which the character appears. For example, the character "机" can correspond to either the meaning of "machine" or "opportunity," and its interpretation relies on the compound word in which the character appears, such as "飞机" (airplane) or "时机" (timing).</item> <p></p> <item> Functionalities of characters and words rely on lexical expertise</item> <p></p> <item> In addition to specifying the primary functions of characters and words in reading Chinese, the CWDF model incorporates the dependence of these functions on lexical expertise developed through the reading experience, connecting learning to read with skilled reading. With sufficient reading exposure, learners can consolidate the orthographic representations of characters into a larger unit (word) (Perfetti & Stafura, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref46">39</reflink>]). This consolidation allows both word-level and character-level orthography to contribute to the optimization of skilled reading. Specifically, the processes of word-level orthography are illustrated by the word superiority effect: Characters in a real word are recognized more readily than characters in a nonword under conditions of very brief exposure (Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref47">12</reflink>]). Simultaneously, characters continue to contribute to skilled reading (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref48">29</reflink>]; Li & Pollatsek, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref49">28</reflink>]). The functioning of character-level orthography is reflected in the dependence of word superiority effects on character frequency. High-frequency characters exhibited smaller word superiority effects compared to low-frequency characters, indicating that high-frequency characters can be recognized rapidly in isolation, thus, diminishing the benefit of word-level activation (Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref50">12</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> In summary, the CWDF model recognizes that both words and characters are functional units in reading Chinese and contribute differently to orthographic and meaning processes. While characters serve as the basic orthographic unit, words function as the primary meaning units in reading. And their primary functionalities depend on the quality of their representations.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0180236086-5">The current study</hd> <p>The CWDF model, as a conceptual framework, serves as a basis for multiple implications and propositions which can be empirically evaluated. This study aims to examine one of the central implications of the model: That meaning processes during reading Chinese words are more constrained by the quality of the word-level representations compared to orthographic processes. To test this implication, we utilized word frequency as an indicator to reflect the accessibility of word-level representations. High-frequency words usually have well-established word representations due to sufficient reading exposure, whereas low-frequency words have less well-established representations (Perfetti & Hart, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref51">37</reflink>]). Orthographic and meaning priming effects were used to assess orthographic and meaning processes, respectively. In other words, we tested the influences of word frequency on the effect sizes of orthographic and meaning priming during reading Chinese compound words. We hypothesize that as the word frequency varies, the meaning priming will be more affected than the orthographic priming.</p> <p>Specifically, if the character is the basic orthographic unit, readers should benefit from orthographic priming of constituent characters in both high-frequency and low-frequency words. Correspondingly, if the word functions as the primary meaning unit, readers should exhibit rapid semantic access for high-frequency words (which have well-established lexical representations) without meaning priming from their constituent characters. In contrast, we expect that when readers read low-frequency words, this meaning priming effect will be more pronounced.</p> <p>We used a constituent priming paradigm, in which a single character/morpheme is the prime, followed by a two-character compound word for lexical decision. The constituent priming paradigm (Brooks & Cid de Garcia, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref52">4</reflink>]; Jarema et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref53">21</reflink>]; Libben et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref54">30</reflink>]) and the reversed word-to-morpheme priming paradigm (Rastle et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref55">43</reflink>]) are both used in investigating the priming effects of morphemes. In Chinese, the constituent priming paradigm requires a lexical decision, whereas the reversed word-to-morpheme priming paradigm requires a character decision (making a judgment of whether the presented form is a valid character). The current study used the constituent priming paradigm to observe the effect of a constituent character on a lexical decision; as pointed out by Taft ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref56">47</reflink>]), a character decision in the reversed word-to-morpheme priming task can be made on the orthography of the character rather than its meaning.</p> <p>To distinguish meaning effects from orthographic effects, we varied the meaning transparency (transparent or opaque) of the prime and the target. In transparent pairs, the prime character has a clear meaning in relation to the target word (e.g., 家-家庭 [home-family, meanings of each individual character in the target word are "home" and "yard"]). In opaque pairs, the character prime does not have a clear meaning in relation to the target word (e.g., 家-家伙[home-guy, meanings of each individual character in the target are "home" and "partner"]). Thus, transparent pairs are related both orthographically and semantically, whereas opaque pairs are related only orthographically. We chose two exposure durations for priming effects based on earlier studies that showed different time courses of orthographic and meaning priming using similar paradigms. A 50ms exposure duration was chosen for Experiment 1, sufficient for orthographic priming (Chen & Shu, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref57">8</reflink>]; Perfetti et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref58">38</reflink>]; Shen & Forster, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref59">45</reflink>]; Zhou et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref60">60</reflink>]) and a 216ms exposure duration was chosen for Experiment 2 to enable meaning priming (Zhou et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref61">60</reflink>]). We expect to see the orthographic and meaning priming effects with the brief and increased exposure durations, respectively.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-6">Experiments 1 and 2</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180236086-7">Method</hd> <p>Experiments 1 and 2 employed identical methods except for the exposure durations of the prime. In Experiment 1, the exposure duration of 50ms was to test the priming effect of the orthography, and the duration was increased to 216ms in Experiment 2 to examine the priming effect of meaning.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-8">Participants</hd> <p>Twenty-six college-level native Chinese speakers (14 females, average age 19.69, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.88) participated in Experiment 1 for compensation. A different group of thirty-three native Chinese speakers (17 females, average age 19.48, <emph>SD</emph> = 1.72) participated in Experiment 2. The sample size followed the recommendation of Brysbaert and Stevens ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref62">5</reflink>]) that 1600 observations per condition (such as 40 participants and 40 items) are sufficient to detect priming effects. As there were 58 items in each condition in this study, 24 participants should be sufficient. However, to account for the exclusion of incorrect responses and outliers with extremely long or short reaction times, we opted to include a slightly larger number of participants in our experiments.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-9">Stimuli</hd> <p>There were 464 sets of prime-target pairs. In each pair, the prime was an individual morpheme/character and the target was a two-morpheme/character compound word. There were four types of pairs in each set based on the different relationships between the prime and the target: transparent character-repetition condition, opaque character-repetition condition, transparent control condition, and opaque control condition.</p> <p>In the transparent character-repetition condition, the prime was a character of the transparent target word. The prime and the target shared the orthography of a morpheme and were semantically related (e.g., <uline>家</uline>-<uline>家</uline>庭 [home-family]). In the opaque character-repetition condition, the prime and the opaque target word shared orthography but were unrelated in meaning (e.g., <uline>家</uline>-<uline>家</uline>伙 [home-guy]). The primes in the transparent and opaque character-repetition conditions were the same. The semantic transparency of the prime-target pairs was manipulated to distinguish meaning effects from orthographic ones. Two control conditions (transparent and opaque control conditions) were designed to test the priming effect of characters by comparing them with the character-repetition conditions. In control conditions, the prime and the target did not have morphemic overlaps. The target in the control conditions was the same as in their respective character-repetition conditions. For example, in the transparent control condition, the target "家庭" in the pair 些-家庭 [some-family] was the same as in the transparent character-repetition condition <uline>家</uline>-<uline>家</uline>庭 [home-family].</p> <p>There were two versions of stimuli (See Tables 5, 6, 7, 8 in the appendix). Each participant received one of them, and they did not see a prime or target more than once. Thus, in each version, there were 116 trials in each condition. In half of the trials, the target words were high frequency, and the other half were low frequency (The characteristics of the prime and target words are in Table 1). The frequency of the prime (a constituent character of the target word) was matched for high- and low-frequency words to control the representations of constituent characters/morphemes. The character position was matched between the two character-repetition conditions, ensuring that the prime was always the first character of the target word. This decision was grounded in previous research by Zhou et al. ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref63">60</reflink>]), which revealed similar priming effects when the prime and target shared morphemes (characters) at either the first or second constituent position. Furthermore, to reduce the possibility of participants learning that the prime was consistently the first character of the target word and developing strategic approaches for lexical decisions, we included 116 filler pairs in which the prime appeared as the second character of the target word.</p> <p>Table 1 Characteristics of stimuli</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Conditions</p></th><th align="left"><p>Word frequency of target</p></th><th align="left"><p>Strokes of target</p></th><th align="left"><p>Character frequency of prime</p></th><th align="left"><p>Strokes of prime</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>High-frequency transparent character-repetition condition</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>27.62</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>17.09</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>528.75</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.93</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>High-frequency transparent control condition</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>28.54</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>17.15</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>539.22</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.75</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>High-frequency opaque character-repetition condition</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>34.47</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>17.16</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>528.75</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.93</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>High-frequency opaque control condition</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>33.89</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>16.70</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>539.22</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.75</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Low-frequency transparent character-repetition condition</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.49</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>17.21</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>480.20</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.77</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Low-frequency transparent control condition</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.49</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>17.50</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>479.22</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.61</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Low-frequency opaque character-repetition condition</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.26</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>17.18</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>480.20</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.77</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Low-frequency opaque control condition</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.26</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>17.13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>479.22</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.61</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>The prime and target frequency values are the frequency per million (Cai & Brysbaert, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref64">6</reflink>])</p> <p>Three hundred forty-eight pairs (foils), in which the target was a pseudo-word made up of two characters, were used to balance the lexical decision responses. In one-third of the pairs (116 trials), the prime shared the first character of the pseudo-word. In another one-third of pairs, the prime shared the second character of the pseudo-word. The remaining one-third pair had a prime that did not share a character with the pseudo-word.</p> <p>Transparency of target words was rated by a different sample of twenty college-level native Chinese speakers on a 5-point scale similar to the procedure used in Juhasz et al. ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref65">22</reflink>]). One indicated that the meanings of the constituent characters were completely unrelated to the meaning of the two-character compound word, and five indicated that the meanings of the characters were highly related to the meaning of the compound word (Juhasz et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref66">22</reflink>]). The mean relatedness rating for transparent words (3.82) was significantly higher than for opaque words (1.93) <emph>t</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib231" id="ref67">231</reflink>)</subs> = 35.38, <emph>p</emph><.001, <emph>r</emph><sups><emph>2</emph></sups> = 0.84. The relatedness rating between high- and low-frequency transparent words did not show differences: <emph>t</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib230" id="ref68">230</reflink>)</subs> = 1.19, <emph>p</emph> =.24, Cohen's<emph> d</emph> = 0.16, as was the case with opaque words: <emph>t</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib230" id="ref69">230</reflink>)</subs> = 0.09, <emph>p</emph> =.93, Cohen's<emph> d</emph> = 0.01.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-10">Procedure</hd> <p>The stimuli were presented using E-prime software (version 2.0.10, Psychology software tools, Pittsburgh, USA) on a monitor with a refresh rate of 60Hz. Each trial began with a central 500ms fixation (+), followed by a 500ms forward mask (#####). A prime (32-point Kaiti font) was presented in the center of the screen for 50ms, followed by a backward mask (#####) for 20ms. The target word (font Kaiti in 32 size) appeared with the offset of the backward mask, remaining until a response was made. Participants were instructed to make a lexical decision on the target word as accurately and as quickly as possible by pressing the corresponding keys with their right or left index finger. After the target disappeared, there was an inter-trial interval (range from 500ms to 900ms). The stimuli, fixation cross, and masks were displayed in white color against a black background. A brief practice session of five practice trials preceded the experimental session. A feedback message was displayed for 1500ms following the target in the practice session. No feedback occurred in the experimental session.</p> <p>The procedure of Experiment 2 was the same as Experiment 1, except that the presentation time of the prime was prolonged to 216ms. Experiments 1 and 2 lasted about 35 and 50 min, respectively. There were three breaks in each experiment.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-11">Results and discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180236086-12">Results of experiment 1</hd> <p>We focused on the lexical decision times on target words for data analysis. The key results are: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref70">1</reflink>) lexical decision times in character-repetition conditions were significantly shorter than in control conditions, indicating priming effects. (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref71">2</reflink>) Transparent and opaque words did not show differences in the size of priming effects, suggesting that the priming effects arose from the shared character-level orthography. (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref72">3</reflink>) Both high- and low-frequency words showed priming effects, supporting a robust orthographic priming effect. The lexical decision responses are shown in Table 2.</p> <p>Table 2 Means of accuracy and reaction times (ms) of lexical decision in Experiments 1 and 2</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2" /><th align="left" colspan="4"><p>Experiment 1 (50 ms)</p></th><th align="left" colspan="4"><p>Experiment 2 (216 ms)</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>High frequency</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>Low frequency</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>High frequency</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>Low frequency</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Condition</p></th><th align="left"><p>Accuracy</p></th><th align="left"><p>RTs</p></th><th align="left"><p>Accuracy</p></th><th align="left"><p>RTs</p></th><th align="left"><p>Accuracy</p></th><th align="left"><p>RTs</p></th><th align="left"><p>Accuracy</p></th><th align="left"><p>RTs</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Transparent character-repetition</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.99</p></td><td align="left"><p>653</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.96</p></td><td align="left"><p>715</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.98</p></td><td align="left"><p>662</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.94</p></td><td align="left"><p>732</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Opaque character-repetition</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.99</p></td><td align="left"><p>647</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.95</p></td><td align="left"><p>714</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.98</p></td><td align="left"><p>659</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.92</p></td><td align="left"><p>711</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Transparent control</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.98</p></td><td align="left"><p>671</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.96</p></td><td align="left"><p>743</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.97</p></td><td align="left"><p>713</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.94</p></td><td align="left"><p>784</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Opaque control</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.98</p></td><td align="left"><p>669</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.95</p></td><td align="left"><p>747</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.98</p></td><td align="left"><p>702</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.92</p></td><td align="left"><p>802</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>We analyzed the data using mixed-effects modeling (Baayen, Davidson, & Bates, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref73">1</reflink>]) with lexical decision times as the dependent variables. Models were implemented in the <emph>lme</emph>4 packages and <emph>lmerTest</emph> in R (Bates, Maechler, Bolker, & Walker, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref74">2</reflink>]; Kuznetsova, Brockhoff, & Christensen, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref75">23</reflink>]). The base model included the variables we manipulated and their interactions as the fixed effects and intercepts for participants and items as random effects. The fixed factors (prime type, transparency, and word frequency) were all contrast-coded. This modeling procedure produced estimates of the main effects analogous to those obtained in an analysis of variance (i.e., based on the mean differences between different levels of a variable; Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref76">17</reflink>]). To determine the best-fit model for each analysis, we followed two rules: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref77">1</reflink>) We used model comparisons to determine whether the best-fit model should include the random participant slope for manipulated variables based on the base model. Because the manipulation of variables was implemented by varying the items, there were no random item slopes for the manipulated variables. (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref78">2</reflink>) The best model had to be able to converge. Trials with incorrect lexical decision responses or reaction times that were shorter than 200ms or exceeded 2.5 standard deviations of each participant's average were excluded in the data analysis. After model comparisons for lexical decision times, the random participant slopes for word frequency significantly improve the model fitting compared with the base model. Thus, the best-fit model included three fixed effects (prime type, transparency, and word frequency), their interactions, random intercepts for participants and items, and random participant slopes for word frequency.</p> <p>The lexical decision times in character-repetition conditions were shorter than control conditions, estimate = 23.98ms, <emph>SE</emph> = 4.65 <emph>t</emph> = 5.16, <emph>p</emph><.001, indicating priming effects (Table 3 in the appendix summarizes the results). Nevertheless, transparency and prime type did not interact on lexical decision times, estimate = −4.00ms, <emph>SE</emph> = 7.00, <emph>t</emph> = −0.57, <emph>p</emph> =.57, demonstrating that transparent and opaque pairs did not show differences in the size of the priming effects. Thus, the priming effect was from the orthography and was independent of meaning.</p> <p>Low-frequency words showed slower lexical decisions than high-frequency words: estimate = 70.36ms, <emph>SE</emph> = 16.18, <emph>t</emph> = 4.35, <emph>p</emph><.001. Although the priming effect in reading the low-frequency words had a tendency greater than the one in reading high-frequency words (11.41ms), the differences were not significant: estimate = 11.41ms, <emph>SE</emph> = 9.30, <emph>t</emph> = 1.23, <emph>p</emph> =.22. Three-way interactions among prime type, transparency, and word frequency were not found, estimate = −7.57ms, <emph>SE</emph> = 18.60, <emph>t</emph> = −0.41, <emph>p</emph> =.68.</p> <p>Logistic models were used for analyzing the accuracy of lexical decisions because of the binominal distribution. Because random participant slopes did not significantly improve the model fit, the best-fit model was the base model that included three fixed effects, their interactions, and random intercepts for participants and items. Character-repetition conditions showed significantly higher lexical decision accuracy than the control conditions: estimate = −0.46, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.14, <emph>z</emph> = −3.18, <emph>p</emph><.001; prime type and transparency did not interact: estimate = −0.11, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.29, <emph>z</emph> = −0.37, <emph>p</emph> =.71; high-frequency words showed higher lexical decision accuracy than low-frequency words: estimate = −1.35, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.24, <emph>z</emph> = −5.73, <emph>p</emph><.001; word frequency and prime type showed a significant interaction: estimate = 0.65, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.29, <emph>z</emph> = 2.26, <emph>p</emph><.05. When there was a shared character/morpheme between the prime and target, the low-frequency words showed a greater increase in the accuracy of lexical decisions than the high-frequency words.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-13">Discussion of experiment 1</hd> <p>In Experiment 1, transparent and opaque pairs did not show differences in priming effects with an exposure of 50ms of the prime, suggesting that the priming arose from the orthography of the shared character. We found that reading high-frequency words which have well-established word-level representations could also benefit from access to character-level orthography. These findings are consistent with the assumption of the CWDF model that character as the basic orthographic unit plays an important role in orthographic processing for both low-frequency and high-frequency words. Based on the third claim of the CWDF model (functionalities of characters and words rely on lexical expertise), we also expected that low-frequency words with less well-established lexical representations should show greater orthographic priming than high-frequency words. While this prediction was not exactly borne out in the differences of reaction times in these two conditions, the low-frequency words showed a greater increase in the accuracy of lexical decisions than the high-frequency words when the character-level orthography was shared. These results suggest that reading low-frequency words compared to high-frequency words did benefit more from the shared character-level orthography.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-14">Results of experiment 2</hd> <p>As in Experiment 1, trials with incorrect lexical decisions or decision times that were less than 200ms or more than 2.5 standard deviations from each participant's average were excluded from further analysis. The best-fit model for lexical decision times included three fixed effects (prime type, transparency, and word frequency), their interactions, random intercepts for participants and items, and random participant slopes for transparency and word frequency.</p> <p>The lexical decision times (Table 2) in the character-repetition conditions were significantly shorter than the control conditions, estimate = 59.85ms, <emph>SE</emph> = 4.67, <emph>t</emph> = 12.81, <emph>p</emph><.001, suggesting priming effects. Lexical decision times for low-frequency words were significantly longer than for high-frequency words: estimate = 77.91ms, <emph>SE</emph> = 14.70, <emph>t</emph> = 5.30, <emph>p</emph><.001. There was a significant interaction between word frequency and prime type: estimate = 26.43ms, <emph>SE</emph> = 9.35, <emph>t</emph> = 2.83, <emph>p</emph><.005, with low-frequency words showing greater priming effects than high-frequency words. However, there were no differences in the size of priming effects between transparent and opaque pairs: estimate = 13.44ms, <emph>SE</emph> = 9.35, <emph>t</emph> = 1.44, <emph>p</emph> =.15.</p> <p>With increased exposure duration of the prime, a three-way interaction between word frequency, transparency, and prime type emerged: estimate = 44.70ms, <emph>SE</emph> = 18.70, <emph>t</emph> = 2.39, <emph>p</emph> =.02. Low-frequency opaque pairs showed greater priming effects compared to low-frequency transparent pairs, while high-frequency ones did not show differences in the effect size of priming, indicating that the word frequency constrained the meaning priming (Table 4 in the appendix summarizes the results). The three-way interaction indicated that the priming effect of high-frequency words was from shared orthography, while the priming effect for low-frequency words was affected by shared meaning.</p> <p>The accuracy of the lexical decisions was analyzed using logistic models. The inclusion of random participant slopes did not significantly improve the model fit. Thus, the best-fit model was the base model that included three fixed effects, their interactions, and random intercepts for participants and items. Character-repetition conditions and control conditions did not show differences in the accuracy of lexical decisions: estimate = −0.04, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.10, <emph>z</emph> = −0.46, <emph>p</emph> =.65; However, high-frequency words showed significantly higher lexical decision accuracy than low-frequency words: estimate = −1.21, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.17, <emph>z</emph> = −6.97, <emph>p</emph><.001; prime type and transparency did not show an interaction: estimate = −0.09, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.19, <emph>z</emph> = −0.48, <emph>p</emph> =.63.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-15">Discussion of experiment 2</hd> <p>With an exposure duration of 216ms in Experiment 2, low-frequency transparent and opaque words showed differences in the size of priming effects, suggesting that the priming effects of low-frequency words were affected by shared meaning. But high-frequency words did not show a meaning effect. Because the frequencies of the constituent character/morphemes in high- and low-frequency words were matched, the differences between high- and low-frequency words had to be attributed to the different lexical-level representations of these two groups of words. The pattern supports the assumption of the CWDF model that word is the main meaning provider: For low-frequency words, which have less well-developed lexical meaning representations, their meaning access could benefit from meaning priming of their constituent characters/morphemes. For high-frequency words, the lexical meaning could be rapidly accessed due to their well-established lexical representations, and with those words, the meaning priming from constituent characters/morphemes was insignificant. Interestingly, we found the meaning priming of low-frequency words favored opaque words over transparent words, which was the opposite of what is expected for the transparency effect. This result was likely related to the feature of the constituent priming paradigm, coupled with the lack of visual word boundaries in Chinese. (The detailed interpretation is described in General Discussion.)</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-16">Combined analyses of experiment 1 and experiment 2</hd> <p>We combined the data from both experiments into a single model and included the exposure duration of the prime as a variable to test whether its effect would persist. If so, we expected to observe a four-way interaction among exposure duration of the prime, word frequency, transparency, and prime type. We observed a (marginally) significant four-way interaction: estimate = 49.13ms, <emph>SE = </emph>26.51, <emph>t = </emph>1.85, <emph>p = </emph>.06. When the exposure duration of the prime was 216ms, low-frequency opaque pairs showed greater priming effects than low-frequency transparent pairs, while high-frequency pairs did not show this transparency effect. On the other hand, when the exposure duration of the prime was 50ms, low-frequency pairs displayed orthographic priming similar to high-frequency pairs. These findings from the combined analysis align with the results obtained from the individual analysis for each experiment, suggesting that word frequency affects meaning processes and orthographic processes differently.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-17">General discussion</hd> <p>Regarding the specific roles of characters and words play in reading Chinese remain unclear, the CWDF model defines the primary functionalities of characters and words: characters serve as the basic orthographic units, while words function as the primary meaning units in reading Chinese. As a framework for reading Chinese, the CWDF model offers multiple implications. We used a constituent priming paradigm to test one specific implication of the model, namely, that meaning processes compared to orthographic processes during reading Chinese words are more constrained by the quality of the word-level representations. By examining the influences of word frequency affects the orthographic and meaning priming effects in reading Chinese compounds, there are two key findings that support the CWDF model: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref79">1</reflink>) Both high- and low-frequency words showed orthographic priming of constituent characters/morphemes and reading both groups of words benefits from shared character-level orthography. This finding supports the important role of the character-level orthographic processes in reading Chinese; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref80">2</reflink>) Meaning priming was heavily affected by word frequency. Only low-frequency words but not high-frequency words showed a meaning priming effect. High-frequency words allowed rapid access to word-level meaning that was not enhanced by the priming of its character meaning. This is consistent with the assumption that the word is the main meaning provider in reading Chinese. Our findings support the CWDF model that characters and words are both functional units in reading Chinese and contribute differently to orthographic and meaning processes.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-18">Characters in reading Chinese</hd> <p>The CWDF proposes that characters as the basic orthographic units are important in orthographic processes. This study yields two aspects of evidence that support this assumption. First, orthographic priming effects were found in reading both high- and low-frequency words in Experiment 1, suggesting the universal involvement of orthography at the character level in word processing, regardless of how well-established the lexical representation is. Second, the involvement of character-level orthography in word processing is long lasting, as we found in Experiment 2 that it facilitates lexical decisions on high-frequency words, regardless of transparency, with an exposure duration of 216ms. This long-lasting orthographic priming effect was also found in another of our studies (Chen, Perfetti, & Xu, under review), which used a reversed word-character priming paradigm to test priming effects in reading Chinese compounds. Echoing earlier studies (e.g., Cao et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref81">7</reflink>]; McBride-Chang & Ho, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref82">33</reflink>]; Tan et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref83">49</reflink>]), our findings point to the consistent involvement of visual orthographic processes at the character level in Chinese reading. This consistent involvement can be attributed to the important role that characters play as the reliable orthographic gateway to the written Chinese lexicon (Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref84">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref85">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref86">11</reflink>]).</p> <p>The CWDF model acknowledges that while characters play important orthographic functions in reading Chinese, they also represent meaningful morpheme units that they can facilitate learning new words with known character morphemes or contribute to identifying less familiar words (Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref87">14</reflink>]; Xu & Zhang, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref88">55</reflink>]). However, character meaning compared to word meaning is secondary in reading Chinese. As we mentioned earlier, this is because one character usually has multiple meanings and the meaning interpretation is highly word dependent.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-19">Words in reading Chinese</hd> <p>In the study, we found that the meaning priming effect was constrained by the quality of word-level meaning representations (indicated by word frequency). The constraint, reflected by the differences between reading high- and low-frequency words in the longer exposure duration condition in Experiment 2, supports the prominent role of word meaning proposed in the CWDF model.</p> <p>Different from our expectations, low-frequency opaque words showed greater priming effects than transparent words, contrasting with some earlier findings. In alphabetic studies, transparent words show greater priming effects than opaque words in the word-to-morpheme priming paradigm (Rastle et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref89">43</reflink>]) and as well as in the constituent priming paradigm (Brooks & Cid de Garcia, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref90">4</reflink>]; Jarema et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref91">21</reflink>]; Libben et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref92">30</reflink>]). As noted previously, written Chinese is subject to non-trivial lexical decisions even among native speakers because character boundaries are apparent while word boundaries are not. The results of our study can be directly attributed to this ambiguity which directly influenced participants' lexical decision times in the constituent priming paradigm. Each stimulus we used as target words in this study could plausibly represent either a single two-character word or two meaning-associated single-character words (a phrase). When the meanings of the prime and the target are transparent, the primed meaning may require extra effort for the reader to determine if the target is a word or not (two meaning-associated words), which may lead to longer lexical decision times for the transparent target word. This extra effort is particularly necessary during making lexical decisions for low-frequency words because their lexical representations are less well-developed. For example, after seeing the prime "红", its meaning "red" was active for the reader. Then when the reader saw the two characters "红花" (red flower), the meaning association between the second character (花, "flower") and the first character (红, "red") required additional cognitive resources for the reader to justify the addition of "flower" to "red". In contrast, opaque words (e.g., 红娘, "matchmaker") can only be interpreted as single meaning unit, ruling out possibilities that the target would be a phrase. Thus, the lexical decision task for the low-frequency opaque word was less demanding when it did not share meaning with the prime.</p> <p>These above explanations indicate that the higher-cost involved in low-frequency transparent words is task-dependent. In another of our studies (Chen, Perfetti, & Xu, under review), which used two-character compound words as the prime and characters as the target, we found results that were consistent with prior works which showed a greater priming effect in transparent than opaque pairs (Rastle & Davis, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref93">42</reflink>]). The design and materials in the study (Chen, Perfetti, & Xu, under review) were generally consistent with the current study, with the exception of the reversed prime-target arrangement. Thus, the extra effort involved in making lexical decisions of low-frequency transparent words in this study should be directly related to the processes involved in interpreting the two-character target after a constituent prime.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-20">Implications of the CWDF model</hd> <p>As we noted above, the CWDF model is useful in the generation of implications and hypotheses which can be evaluated experimentally to enhance our understanding of Chinese reading processes. In addition to examining the implications of the CWDF model supported by the current study, we examined two additional hypotheses suggested by the model's claims in other recent work.</p> <p>The first such hypothesis concerns its implications for the time course of morphological processing. The conversation about whether the meaning of morphemes is accessed in the early stages of morphological processing is long-standing in both alphabetic languages (Feldman et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref94">18</reflink>]; Rastle et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref95">43</reflink>]) and in Chinese (Tsang et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref96">53</reflink>]; Tsang & Chen, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref97">52</reflink>]). The CWDF's claims that the character serves as the basic orthographic unit and word functions the primary provider imply that the orthographic function of Chinese morphemes (characters) is more dominant than its semantic function in reading Chinese. Therefore, the CWDF model would suggest that the orthography and meaning processes of morphemes are expected to follow the orthography-first hypothesis. We evaluated this by comparing native Chinese speakers and adult Chinese second language learners (Chen, Perfetti, & Xu, under review). We found that the orthographic priming effect of morphemes emerged before the semantic priming effect in reading Chinese, which is consistent with the hypothesis generated from the CWDF model's claims.</p> <p>We extended the implications of the CWDF to instructional approaches for learning to read Chinese in another recent study (Chen, Xu, & Perfetti, under review). Similar to the long-standing debate in English instruction regarding whether novice readers should focus on whole words or the parts of the word (Bowers, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref98">3</reflink>]; National Reading Panel, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref99">34</reflink>]; Rayner et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref100">44</reflink>]), there are two different instructional approaches employed in teaching Chinese reading (Li, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref101">25</reflink>]; Pine et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref102">41</reflink>]): word-focus or word-part (character) focus. The CWDF model addresses these ongoing debates by proposing that Chinese reading instruction should involve dual focus on both characters and words. Character-level instruction should center on mappings between orthography and phonology, while word-level instruction should primarily attend to meaning. This instructional approach enables learners to acquire the systematic structure of the Chinese writing system. We validated the effectiveness of dual-focus instruction by conducting a study with American undergraduate students learning Chinese in real classroom settings, comparing it to the typical word-focus instruction (Chen, Perfetti, & Xu, under review). We found that students who received dual-focus instruction consistent with the tenets of the CWDF model performed better in both immediate and delayed tests than students who received typical word-focus instruction.</p> <p>In summary, the CWDF model provides a conceptual framework that highlights the primary functionalities of characters and words in reading Chinese and is generative of multiple hypotheses, including the one evaluated in the current study. As a conceptual framework, the CWDF model does not describe processing mechanisms that might allow mechanistic predictions; it serves as the generative basis for the exploration of Chinese reading processes. Further, it acts as a complementary perspective to existing cognitive models. One such model is the integrated model of word processing and eye-movement control during Chinese reading (CRM) (Li & Pollatsek, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref103">28</reflink>]). The CRM model suggests the presence of independent representations at both the character and word levels, interconnected by feedforward and feedback links. According to the CRM model, reading Chinese starts with the visual input of characters, which serves as the basis for bottom-up processes. This aligns with the CWDF model's claim that the character functions as the basic orthographic unit. Further, the CRM model assumes that eye-movement control is driven by lexicalized word representations, a more specific instantiation of the assumption that the word functions as the primary meaning unit in reading Chinese. These converging perspectives provide valuable insights into the cognitive processes underlying reading Chinese and support the cohesive conceptual lens offered by the CWDF model.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-21">Conclusion</hd> <p>The study proposed a Character-Word Dual Function (CWDF) model of reading Chinese and tested its predictions by examining the orthographic and meaning priming during reading Chinese compounds and how these priming effects were modulated by word frequency. We found that recognition of both high- and low-frequency words benefited from character-level orthographic priming. Low-frequency words but not high-frequency words showed a meaning priming effect. The findings supported the CWDF model that characters/morphemes and words are both functional units in reading Chinese words. Character is the basic orthographic unit and word is the main meaning provider in reading Chinese.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-22">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180236086-23">Conflict of interest</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.</p> <hd id="AN0180236086-24">Appendix</hd> <p>See Tables 3, 4, 5, 6 , 7, and 8</p> <p>Table 3 Summary of the fixed effects in the logistic mixed-effects model of lexical decision accuracy and fixed effects in the linear mixed-effects model of lexical decision reaction times in Experiment 1</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Fixed effect</p></th><th align="left" colspan="4"><p>Accuracy</p></th><th align="left" colspan="4"><p>Reaction times</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Estimate</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>z</italic> value</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>p</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Estimate</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>t</italic> value</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>p</italic></p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Intercept</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.94</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.19</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>25.94</p></td><td align="left"><p><.001</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>697.25</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>24.18</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>28.85</p></td><td align="left"><p><.001</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Prime type</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.46</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.14</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−3.18</p></td><td align="left"><p><.001</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>23.98</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.65</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>5.16</p></td><td align="left"><p><.001</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Transparency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.23</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.51</p></td><td align="left"><p>.61</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−4.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>7.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.57</p></td><td align="left"><p>.57</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Frequency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−1.35</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.24</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−5.73</p></td><td align="left"><p><.001</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>70.36</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>16.18</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.35</p></td><td align="left"><p><.001</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Prime type × transparency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>-0.11</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.29</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.37</p></td><td align="left"><p>.71</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.95</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.30</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.43</p></td><td align="left"><p>.67</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Prime type × Frequency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.65</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.29</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.26</p></td><td align="left"><p>.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>11.41</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.30</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.23</p></td><td align="left"><p>.22</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Transparency × frequency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.28</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.47</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.60</p></td><td align="left"><p>.55</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>10.91</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>13.99</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.78</p></td><td align="left"><p>.44</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Prime type × transparency × frequency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.18</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.58</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.31</p></td><td align="left"><p>.76</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−7.57</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>18.60</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.41</p></td><td align="left"><p>.68</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 4 Summary of the fixed effects in the logistic mixed-effects model of lexical decision accuracy and fixed effects in the linear mixed-effects model of lexical decision reaction times in Experiment 2</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Fixed effect</p></th><th align="left" colspan="4"><p>Accuracy</p></th><th align="left" colspan="4"><p>Reaction times</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Estimate</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>z</italic> value</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>p</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Estimate</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>t</italic> value</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>p</italic></p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Intercept</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>30.61</p></td><td align="left"><p><.001</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>722.77</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>19.60</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>36.88</p></td><td align="left"><p><.001</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Prime type</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.46</p></td><td align="left"><p>.65</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>59.85</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.67</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>12.81</p></td><td align="left"><p><.001</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Transparency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.17</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.12</p></td><td align="left"><p>.90</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−3.84</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>7.41</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.52</p></td><td align="left"><p>.61</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Frequency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−1.21</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.17</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−6.94</p></td><td align="left"><p><.001</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>77.91</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>14.70</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>5.30</p></td><td align="left"><p><.001</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Prime type × transparency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.09</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.19</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.48</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.63</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>13.44</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.35</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.44</p></td><td align="left"><p>.15</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Prime type × frequency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.19</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.63</p></td><td align="left"><p>.53</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>26.43</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.35</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.83</p></td><td align="left"><p><.005</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Transparency × frequency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.65</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.35</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−1.87</p></td><td align="left"><p>.062</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6.96</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>14.10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.49</p></td><td align="left"><p>.62</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Prime type × transparency × frequency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.38</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−0.27</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.79</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>44.70</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>18.70</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.39</p></td><td align="left"><p>.017</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 5 Low frequency stimuli (version 1)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>Transparent character-repetition</p></th><th align="left"><p>Transparent control</p></th><th align="left"><p>Opaque character-repetition</p></th><th align="left"><p>Opaque control</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>郎—郎君</p></td><td align="left"><p>旅—按压</p></td><td align="left"><p>按—按揭</p></td><td align="left"><p>姻—郎中</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>狼—狼群</p></td><td align="left"><p>此—抱养</p></td><td align="left"><p>抱—抱负</p></td><td align="left"><p>祸—狼藉</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>牢—牢固</p></td><td align="left"><p>段—标示</p></td><td align="left"><p>标—标本</p></td><td align="left"><p>拳—牢骚</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>冷—冷风</p></td><td align="left"><p>胜—伯父</p></td><td align="left"><p>伯—伯乐</p></td><td align="left"><p>练—冷门</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5</p></td><td align="left"><p>利—利害</p></td><td align="left"><p>杰—参演</p></td><td align="left"><p>参—参赞</p></td><td align="left"><p>始—利索</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>6</p></td><td align="left"><p>淋—淋雨</p></td><td align="left"><p>奋—草丛</p></td><td align="left"><p>草—草包</p></td><td align="left"><p>港—淋巴</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>7</p></td><td align="left"><p>零—零售</p></td><td align="left"><p>拖—沉没</p></td><td align="left"><p>沉—沉着</p></td><td align="left"><p>痕—零星</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>8</p></td><td align="left"><p>令—令牌</p></td><td align="left"><p>它—成真</p></td><td align="left"><p>成—成色</p></td><td align="left"><p>圣—令尊</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>流—流体</p></td><td align="left"><p>展—承重</p></td><td align="left"><p>承—承蒙</p></td><td align="left"><p>唱—流苏</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>10</p></td><td align="left"><p>笼—笼罩</p></td><td align="left"><p>任—吃药</p></td><td align="left"><p>吃—吃香</p></td><td align="left"><p>筒—笼统</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>陆—陆路</p></td><td align="left"><p>串—赤红</p></td><td align="left"><p>赤—赤字</p></td><td align="left"><p>贴—陆续</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>12</p></td><td align="left"><p>伦—伦理</p></td><td align="left"><p>灯—抽查</p></td><td align="left"><p>抽—抽象</p></td><td align="left"><p>仅—伦次</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>13</p></td><td align="left"><p>落—落日</p></td><td align="left"><p>托—除去</p></td><td align="left"><p>除—除夕</p></td><td align="left"><p>雷—落实</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>14</p></td><td align="left"><p>麻—麻药</p></td><td align="left"><p>险—传话</p></td><td align="left"><p>传—传神</p></td><td align="left"><p>控—麻将</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>15</p></td><td align="left"><p>盲—盲童</p></td><td align="left"><p>罢—春雨</p></td><td align="left"><p>春—春卷</p></td><td align="left"><p>贡—盲肠</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>16</p></td><td align="left"><p>眉—眉毛</p></td><td align="left"><p>扭—抬高</p></td><td align="left"><p>抬—抬杠</p></td><td align="left"><p>畏—眉批</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>17</p></td><td align="left"><p>盘—盘绕</p></td><td align="left"><p>孩—错字</p></td><td align="left"><p>错—错落</p></td><td align="left"><p>莎—盘缠</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>18</p></td><td align="left"><p>抛—抛洒</p></td><td align="left"><p>故—弹跳</p></td><td align="left"><p>弹—弹劾</p></td><td align="left"><p>帐—抛锚</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>泡—泡沫</p></td><td align="left"><p>知—得救</p></td><td align="left"><p>得—得体</p></td><td align="left"><p>扫—泡汤</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>20</p></td><td align="left"><p>汽—汽水</p></td><td align="left"><p>崩—吊床</p></td><td align="left"><p>吊—吊销</p></td><td align="left"><p>补—汽笛</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>前—前后</p></td><td align="left"><p>轮—顶楼</p></td><td align="left"><p>顶—顶嘴</p></td><td align="left"><p>最—前卫</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>青—青翠</p></td><td align="left"><p>椅—端正</p></td><td align="left"><p>端—端庄</p></td><td align="left"><p>尾—青睐</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>23</p></td><td align="left"><p>秋—秋叶</p></td><td align="left"><p>移—短裙</p></td><td align="left"><p>短—短路</p></td><td align="left"><p>俗—秋波</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>24</p></td><td align="left"><p>柔—柔弱</p></td><td align="left"><p>辛—范例</p></td><td align="left"><p>范—范畴</p></td><td align="left"><p>姿—柔道</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>25</p></td><td align="left"><p>撒—撒播</p></td><td align="left"><p>今—分界</p></td><td align="left"><p>分—分寸</p></td><td align="left"><p>滚—撒娇</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>26</p></td><td align="left"><p>散—散装</p></td><td align="left"><p>谅—粉尘</p></td><td align="left"><p>粉—粉刺</p></td><td align="left"><p>搜—散文</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>27</p></td><td align="left"><p>桑—桑蚕</p></td><td align="left"><p>低—封路</p></td><td align="left"><p>封—封建</p></td><td align="left"><p>忠—桑田</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>28</p></td><td align="left"><p>杀—杀菌</p></td><td align="left"><p>幸—复婚</p></td><td align="left"><p>复—复方</p></td><td align="left"><p>全—杀青</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>29</p></td><td align="left"><p>烧—烧坏</p></td><td align="left"><p>停—格子</p></td><td align="left"><p>格—格外</p></td><td align="left"><p>暗—烧酒</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>30</p></td><td align="left"><p>稍—稍候</p></td><td align="left"><p>搞—根茎</p></td><td align="left"><p>根—根号</p></td><td align="left"><p>朝—稍息</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>31</p></td><td align="left"><p>鼠—鼠疫</p></td><td align="left"><p>哦—跟读</p></td><td align="left"><p>跟—跟头</p></td><td align="left"><p>幕—鼠标</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>32</p></td><td align="left"><p>素—素食</p></td><td align="left"><p>决—够用</p></td><td align="left"><p>够—够呛</p></td><td align="left"><p>夏—素质</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>33</p></td><td align="left"><p>索—索取</p></td><td align="left"><p>沙—姑母</p></td><td align="left"><p>姑—姑息</p></td><td align="left"><p>角—索性</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>34</p></td><td align="left"><p>从—从政</p></td><td align="left"><p>秒—挂钟</p></td><td align="left"><p>挂—挂彩</p></td><td align="left"><p>诉—从容</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>35</p></td><td align="left"><p>桃—桃园</p></td><td align="left"><p>回—果园</p></td><td align="left"><p>果—果断</p></td><td align="left"><p>炮—桃李</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>36</p></td><td align="left"><p>哈—哈气</p></td><td align="left"><p>队—体形</p></td><td align="left"><p>体—体制</p></td><td align="left"><p>嘛—哈达</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>37</p></td><td align="left"><p>含—含意</p></td><td align="left"><p>站—调配</p></td><td align="left"><p>调—调皮</p></td><td align="left"><p>宗—含蓄</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>38</p></td><td align="left"><p>寒—寒风</p></td><td align="left"><p>敌—铁门</p></td><td align="left"><p>铁—铁血</p></td><td align="left"><p>岗—寒暄</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>39</p></td><td align="left"><p>和—和善</p></td><td align="left"><p>块—投掷</p></td><td align="left"><p>投—投机</p></td><td align="left"><p>样—和尚</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>40</p></td><td align="left"><p>荷—荷花</p></td><td align="left"><p>切—玩耍</p></td><td align="left"><p>玩—玩命</p></td><td align="left"><p>益—荷包</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>41</p></td><td align="left"><p>红—红花</p></td><td align="left"><p>莫—委派</p></td><td align="left"><p>委—委员</p></td><td align="left"><p>冲—红娘</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>42</p></td><td align="left"><p>胡—胡须</p></td><td align="left"><p>镜—温差</p></td><td align="left"><p>温—温存</p></td><td align="left"><p>脏—胡同</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>43</p></td><td align="left"><p>化—化作</p></td><td align="left"><p>羞—灰尘</p></td><td align="left"><p>灰—灰心</p></td><td align="left"><p>终—化石</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>44</p></td><td align="left"><p>话—话音</p></td><td align="left"><p>晃—窝棚</p></td><td align="left"><p>窝—窝囊</p></td><td align="left"><p>所—话梅</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>45</p></td><td align="left"><p>问—问询</p></td><td align="left"><p>男—物种</p></td><td align="left"><p>物—物色</p></td><td align="left"><p>它—问鼎</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>46</p></td><td align="left"><p>挥—挥动</p></td><td align="left"><p>闹—席位</p></td><td align="left"><p>席—席卷</p></td><td align="left"><p>吵—挥霍</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>47</p></td><td align="left"><p>间—间隔</p></td><td align="left"><p>舒—雄蜂</p></td><td align="left"><p>雄—雄心</p></td><td align="left"><p>电—间接</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>48</p></td><td align="left"><p>江—江南</p></td><td align="left"><p>炸—修建</p></td><td align="left"><p>修—修长</p></td><td align="left"><p>侄—江湖</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>49</p></td><td align="left"><p>讲—讲课</p></td><td align="left"><p>骨—秀美</p></td><td align="left"><p>秀—秀才</p></td><td align="left"><p>吸—讲究</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>50</p></td><td align="left"><p>脚—脚尖</p></td><td align="left"><p>债—袖子</p></td><td align="left"><p>袖—袖珍</p></td><td align="left"><p>预—脚本</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>51</p></td><td align="left"><p>阶—阶梯</p></td><td align="left"><p>来—要饭</p></td><td align="left"><p>要—要素</p></td><td align="left"><p>汗—阶乘</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>52</p></td><td align="left"><p>结—结冰</p></td><td align="left"><p>攻—优良</p></td><td align="left"><p>优—优惠</p></td><td align="left"><p>朋—结肠</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>53</p></td><td align="left"><p>景—景点</p></td><td align="left"><p>连—造纸</p></td><td align="left"><p>造—造次</p></td><td align="left"><p>悲—景气</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>54</p></td><td align="left"><p>酒—酒瓶</p></td><td align="left"><p>吐—扎手</p></td><td align="left"><p>扎—扎实</p></td><td align="left"><p>清—酒窝</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>55</p></td><td align="left"><p>就—就职</p></td><td align="left"><p>初—折叠</p></td><td align="left"><p>折—折桂</p></td><td align="left"><p>说—就范</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>56</p></td><td align="left"><p>绝—绝交</p></td><td align="left"><p>仪—阵雨</p></td><td align="left"><p>阵—阵脚</p></td><td align="left"><p>姐—绝世</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>57</p></td><td align="left"><p>刻—刻字</p></td><td align="left"><p>枪—指明</p></td><td align="left"><p>指—指标</p></td><td align="left"><p>惊—刻板</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>58</p></td><td align="left"><p>拉—拉扯</p></td><td align="left"><p>判—状告</p></td><td align="left"><p>状—状元</p></td><td align="left"><p>刚—拉倒</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 6 Low frequency stimuli (version 2)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>Transparent character-repetition</p></th><th align="left"><p>Transparent control</p></th><th align="left"><p>Opaque character-repetition</p></th><th align="left"><p>Opaque control</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>按—按压</p></td><td align="left"><p>姻—郎君</p></td><td align="left"><p>郎—郎中</p></td><td align="left"><p>旅—按揭</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>抱—抱养</p></td><td align="left"><p>祸—狼群</p></td><td align="left"><p>狼—狼藉</p></td><td align="left"><p>此—抱负</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>标—标示</p></td><td align="left"><p>拳—牢固</p></td><td align="left"><p>牢—牢骚</p></td><td align="left"><p>段—标本</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>伯—伯父</p></td><td align="left"><p>练—冷风</p></td><td align="left"><p>冷—冷门</p></td><td align="left"><p>胜—伯乐</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5</p></td><td align="left"><p>参—参演</p></td><td align="left"><p>始—利害</p></td><td align="left"><p>利—利索</p></td><td align="left"><p>杰—参赞</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>6</p></td><td align="left"><p>草—草丛</p></td><td align="left"><p>港—淋雨</p></td><td align="left"><p>淋—淋巴</p></td><td align="left"><p>奋—草包</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>7</p></td><td align="left"><p>沉—沉没</p></td><td align="left"><p>痕—零售</p></td><td align="left"><p>零—零星</p></td><td align="left"><p>拖—沉着</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>8</p></td><td align="left"><p>成—成真</p></td><td align="left"><p>圣—令牌</p></td><td align="left"><p>令—令尊</p></td><td align="left"><p>它—成色</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>承—承重</p></td><td align="left"><p>唱—流体</p></td><td align="left"><p>流—流苏</p></td><td align="left"><p>展—承蒙</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>10</p></td><td align="left"><p>吃—吃药</p></td><td align="left"><p>筒—笼罩</p></td><td align="left"><p>笼—笼统</p></td><td align="left"><p>任—吃香</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>赤—赤红</p></td><td align="left"><p>贴—陆路</p></td><td align="left"><p>陆—陆续</p></td><td align="left"><p>串—赤字</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>12</p></td><td align="left"><p>抽—抽查</p></td><td align="left"><p>仅—伦理</p></td><td align="left"><p>伦—伦次</p></td><td align="left"><p>灯—抽象</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>13</p></td><td align="left"><p>除—除去</p></td><td align="left"><p>雷—落日</p></td><td align="left"><p>落—落实</p></td><td align="left"><p>托—除夕</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>14</p></td><td align="left"><p>传—传话</p></td><td align="left"><p>控—麻药</p></td><td align="left"><p>麻—麻将</p></td><td align="left"><p>险—传神</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>15</p></td><td align="left"><p>春—春雨</p></td><td align="left"><p>贡—盲童</p></td><td align="left"><p>盲—盲肠</p></td><td align="left"><p>罢—春卷</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>16</p></td><td align="left"><p>抬—抬高</p></td><td align="left"><p>畏—眉毛</p></td><td align="left"><p>眉—眉批</p></td><td align="left"><p>扭—抬杠</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>17</p></td><td align="left"><p>错—错字</p></td><td align="left"><p>莎—盘绕</p></td><td align="left"><p>盘—盘缠</p></td><td align="left"><p>孩—错落</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>18</p></td><td align="left"><p>弹—弹跳</p></td><td align="left"><p>帐—抛洒</p></td><td align="left"><p>抛—抛锚</p></td><td align="left"><p>故—弹劾</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>得—得救</p></td><td align="left"><p>扫—泡沫</p></td><td align="left"><p>泡—泡汤</p></td><td align="left"><p>知—得体</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>20</p></td><td align="left"><p>吊—吊床</p></td><td align="left"><p>补—汽水</p></td><td align="left"><p>汽—汽笛</p></td><td align="left"><p>崩—吊销</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>顶—顶楼</p></td><td align="left"><p>最—前后</p></td><td align="left"><p>前—前卫</p></td><td align="left"><p>轮—顶嘴</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>端—端正</p></td><td align="left"><p>尾—青翠</p></td><td align="left"><p>青—青睐</p></td><td align="left"><p>椅—端庄</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>23</p></td><td align="left"><p>短—短裙</p></td><td align="left"><p>俗—秋叶</p></td><td align="left"><p>秋—秋波</p></td><td align="left"><p>移—短路</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>24</p></td><td align="left"><p>范—范例</p></td><td align="left"><p>姿—柔弱</p></td><td align="left"><p>柔—柔道</p></td><td align="left"><p>辛—范畴</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>25</p></td><td align="left"><p>分—分界</p></td><td align="left"><p>滚—撒播</p></td><td align="left"><p>撒—撒娇</p></td><td align="left"><p>今—分寸</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>26</p></td><td align="left"><p>粉—粉尘</p></td><td align="left"><p>搜—散装</p></td><td align="left"><p>散—散文</p></td><td align="left"><p>谅—粉刺</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>27</p></td><td align="left"><p>封—封路</p></td><td align="left"><p>忠—桑蚕</p></td><td align="left"><p>桑—桑田</p></td><td align="left"><p>低—封建</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>28</p></td><td align="left"><p>复—复婚</p></td><td align="left"><p>全—杀菌</p></td><td align="left"><p>杀—杀青</p></td><td align="left"><p>幸—复方</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>29</p></td><td align="left"><p>格—格子</p></td><td align="left"><p>暗—烧坏</p></td><td align="left"><p>烧—烧酒</p></td><td align="left"><p>停—格外</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>30</p></td><td align="left"><p>根—根茎</p></td><td align="left"><p>朝—稍候</p></td><td align="left"><p>稍—稍息</p></td><td align="left"><p>搞—根号</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>31</p></td><td align="left"><p>跟—跟读</p></td><td align="left"><p>幕—鼠疫</p></td><td align="left"><p>鼠—鼠标</p></td><td align="left"><p>哦—跟头</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>32</p></td><td align="left"><p>够—够用</p></td><td align="left"><p>夏—素食</p></td><td align="left"><p>素—素质</p></td><td align="left"><p>决—够呛</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>33</p></td><td align="left"><p>姑—姑母</p></td><td align="left"><p>角—索取</p></td><td align="left"><p>索—索性</p></td><td align="left"><p>沙—姑息</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>34</p></td><td align="left"><p>挂—挂钟</p></td><td align="left"><p>诉—从政</p></td><td align="left"><p>从—从容</p></td><td align="left"><p>秒—挂彩</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>35</p></td><td align="left"><p>果—果园</p></td><td align="left"><p>炮—桃园</p></td><td align="left"><p>桃—桃李</p></td><td align="left"><p>回—果断</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>36</p></td><td align="left"><p>体—体形</p></td><td align="left"><p>嘛—哈气</p></td><td align="left"><p>哈—哈达</p></td><td align="left"><p>队—体制</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>37</p></td><td align="left"><p>调—调配</p></td><td align="left"><p>宗—含意</p></td><td align="left"><p>含—含蓄</p></td><td align="left"><p>站—调皮</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>38</p></td><td align="left"><p>铁—铁门</p></td><td align="left"><p>岗—寒风</p></td><td align="left"><p>寒—寒暄</p></td><td align="left"><p>敌—铁血</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>39</p></td><td align="left"><p>投—投掷</p></td><td align="left"><p>样—和善</p></td><td align="left"><p>和—和尚</p></td><td align="left"><p>块—投机</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>40</p></td><td align="left"><p>玩—玩耍</p></td><td align="left"><p>益—荷花</p></td><td align="left"><p>荷—荷包</p></td><td align="left"><p>切—玩命</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>41</p></td><td align="left"><p>委—委派</p></td><td align="left"><p>冲—红花</p></td><td align="left"><p>红—红娘</p></td><td align="left"><p>莫—委员</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>42</p></td><td align="left"><p>温—温差</p></td><td align="left"><p>脏—胡须</p></td><td align="left"><p>胡—胡同</p></td><td align="left"><p>镜—温存</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>43</p></td><td align="left"><p>灰—灰尘</p></td><td align="left"><p>终—化作</p></td><td align="left"><p>化—化石</p></td><td align="left"><p>羞—灰心</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>44</p></td><td align="left"><p>窝—窝棚</p></td><td align="left"><p>所—话音</p></td><td align="left"><p>话—话梅</p></td><td align="left"><p>晃—窝囊</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>45</p></td><td align="left"><p>物—物种</p></td><td align="left"><p>它—问询</p></td><td align="left"><p>问—问鼎</p></td><td align="left"><p>男—物色</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>46</p></td><td align="left"><p>席—席位</p></td><td align="left"><p>吵—挥动</p></td><td align="left"><p>挥—挥霍</p></td><td align="left"><p>闹—席卷</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>47</p></td><td align="left"><p>雄—雄蜂</p></td><td align="left"><p>电—间隔</p></td><td align="left"><p>间—间接</p></td><td align="left"><p>舒—雄心</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>48</p></td><td align="left"><p>修—修建</p></td><td align="left"><p>侄—江南</p></td><td align="left"><p>江—江湖</p></td><td align="left"><p>炸—修长</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>49</p></td><td align="left"><p>秀—秀美</p></td><td align="left"><p>吸—讲课</p></td><td align="left"><p>讲—讲究</p></td><td align="left"><p>骨—秀才</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>50</p></td><td align="left"><p>袖—袖子</p></td><td align="left"><p>预—脚尖</p></td><td align="left"><p>脚—脚本</p></td><td align="left"><p>债—袖珍</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>51</p></td><td align="left"><p>要—要饭</p></td><td align="left"><p>汗—阶梯</p></td><td align="left"><p>阶—阶乘</p></td><td align="left"><p>来—要素</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>52</p></td><td align="left"><p>优—优良</p></td><td align="left"><p>朋—结冰</p></td><td align="left"><p>结—结肠</p></td><td align="left"><p>攻—优惠</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>53</p></td><td align="left"><p>造—造纸</p></td><td align="left"><p>悲—景点</p></td><td align="left"><p>景—景气</p></td><td align="left"><p>连—造次</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>54</p></td><td align="left"><p>扎—扎手</p></td><td align="left"><p>清—酒瓶</p></td><td align="left"><p>酒—酒窝</p></td><td align="left"><p>吐—扎实</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>55</p></td><td align="left"><p>折—折叠</p></td><td align="left"><p>说—就职</p></td><td align="left"><p>就—就范</p></td><td align="left"><p>初—折桂</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>56</p></td><td align="left"><p>阵—阵雨</p></td><td align="left"><p>姐—绝交</p></td><td align="left"><p>绝—绝世</p></td><td align="left"><p>仪—阵脚</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>57</p></td><td align="left"><p>指—指明</p></td><td align="left"><p>惊—刻字</p></td><td align="left"><p>刻—刻板</p></td><td align="left"><p>枪—指标</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>58</p></td><td align="left"><p>状—状告</p></td><td align="left"><p>刚—拉扯</p></td><td align="left"><p>拉—拉倒</p></td><td align="left"><p>判—状元</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 7 High frequency stimuli (version 1)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>Transparent character-repetition</p></th><th align="left"><p>Transparent control</p></th><th align="left"><p>Opaque character-repetition</p></th><th align="left"><p>Opaque control</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>毕—毕业</p></td><td align="left"><p>让—把握</p></td><td align="left"><p>把—把戏</p></td><td align="left"><p>充—毕竟</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>别—别处</p></td><td align="left"><p>希—表面</p></td><td align="left"><p>表—表情</p></td><td align="left"><p>多—别墅</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>处—处境</p></td><td align="left"><p>捕—彩虹</p></td><td align="left"><p>彩—彩排</p></td><td align="left"><p>办—处女</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>粗—粗糙</p></td><td align="left"><p>坦—刺伤</p></td><td align="left"><p>刺—刺激</p></td><td align="left"><p>涉—粗鲁</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5</p></td><td align="left"><p>打—打倒</p></td><td align="left"><p>编—搭配</p></td><td align="left"><p>搭—搭讪</p></td><td align="left"><p>妈—打动</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>6</p></td><td align="left"><p>单—单身</p></td><td align="left"><p>忙—代替</p></td><td align="left"><p>代—代码</p></td><td align="left"><p>宝—单位</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>7</p></td><td align="left"><p>点—点燃</p></td><td align="left"><p>呢—地面</p></td><td align="left"><p>地—地步</p></td><td align="left"><p>怎—点心</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>8</p></td><td align="left"><p>肥—肥胖</p></td><td align="left"><p>晚—动作</p></td><td align="left"><p>动—动机</p></td><td align="left"><p>址—肥皂</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>概—概括</p></td><td align="left"><p>约—服装</p></td><td align="left"><p>服—服务</p></td><td align="left"><p>镇—概念</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>10</p></td><td align="left"><p>钢—钢铁</p></td><td align="left"><p>爱—感应</p></td><td align="left"><p>感—感冒</p></td><td align="left"><p>押—钢琴</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>革—革职</p></td><td align="left"><p>第—高度</p></td><td align="left"><p>高—高手</p></td><td align="left"><p>宰—革命</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>12</p></td><td align="left"><p>勾—勾引</p></td><td align="left"><p>友—公开</p></td><td align="left"><p>公—公主</p></td><td align="left"><p>币—勾当</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>13</p></td><td align="left"><p>官—官员</p></td><td align="left"><p>摸—鼓声</p></td><td align="left"><p>鼓—鼓舞</p></td><td align="left"><p>留—官司</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>14</p></td><td align="left"><p>海—海浪</p></td><td align="left"><p>馆—规划</p></td><td align="left"><p>规—规模</p></td><td align="left"><p>待—海绵</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>15</p></td><td align="left"><p>喝—喝茶</p></td><td align="left"><p>而—行走</p></td><td align="left"><p>行—行头</p></td><td align="left"><p>使—喝彩</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>16</p></td><td align="left"><p>何—何时</p></td><td align="left"><p>备—合并</p></td><td align="left"><p>合—合同</p></td><td align="left"><p>记—何况</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>17</p></td><td align="left"><p>忽—忽然</p></td><td align="left"><p>恩—黑夜</p></td><td align="left"><p>黑—黑客</p></td><td align="left"><p>齿—忽悠</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>18</p></td><td align="left"><p>花—花园</p></td><td align="left"><p>怕—护理</p></td><td align="left"><p>护—护照</p></td><td align="left"><p>光—花生</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>环—环球</p></td><td align="left"><p>碎—滑雪</p></td><td align="left"><p>滑—滑稽</p></td><td align="left"><p>汉—环节</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>20</p></td><td align="left"><p>活—活人</p></td><td align="left"><p>省—荒野</p></td><td align="left"><p>荒—荒唐</p></td><td align="left"><p>保—活该</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>机—机长</p></td><td align="left"><p>祝—休息</p></td><td align="left"><p>休—休克</p></td><td align="left"><p>比—机关</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>基—基于</p></td><td align="left"><p>渴—积蓄</p></td><td align="left"><p>积—积极</p></td><td align="left"><p>量—基金</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>23</p></td><td align="left"><p>集—集合</p></td><td align="left"><p>奶—即将</p></td><td align="left"><p>即—即使</p></td><td align="left"><p>类—集团</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>24</p></td><td align="left"><p>假—假装</p></td><td align="left"><p>些—家庭</p></td><td align="left"><p>家—家伙</p></td><td align="left"><p>游—假设</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>25</p></td><td align="left"><p>简—简单</p></td><td align="left"><p>努—坚强</p></td><td align="left"><p>坚—坚持</p></td><td align="left"><p>答—简直</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>26</p></td><td align="left"><p>戒—戒酒</p></td><td align="left"><p>谈—解开</p></td><td align="left"><p>解—解放</p></td><td align="left"><p>耳—戒指</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>27</p></td><td align="left"><p>尽—尽快</p></td><td align="left"><p>亮—紧急</p></td><td align="left"><p>紧—紧张</p></td><td align="left"><p>军—尽管</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>28</p></td><td align="left"><p>经—经过</p></td><td align="left"><p>爸—进出</p></td><td align="left"><p>进—进化</p></td><td align="left"><p>听—经济</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>29</p></td><td align="left"><p>居—居住</p></td><td align="left"><p>歌—精力</p></td><td align="left"><p>精—精灵</p></td><td align="left"><p>鱼—居然</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>30</p></td><td align="left"><p>客—客房</p></td><td align="left"><p>律—科技</p></td><td align="left"><p>科—科学</p></td><td align="left"><p>首—客观</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>31</p></td><td align="left"><p>劳—劳动</p></td><td align="left"><p>妻—恐慌</p></td><td align="left"><p>恐—恐龙</p></td><td align="left"><p>势—劳驾</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>32</p></td><td align="left"><p>礼—礼服</p></td><td align="left"><p>望—离家</p></td><td align="left"><p>离—离谱</p></td><td align="left"><p>份—礼拜</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>33</p></td><td align="left"><p>临—临近</p></td><td align="left"><p>国—理智</p></td><td align="left"><p>理—理想</p></td><td align="left"><p>许—临床</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>34</p></td><td align="left"><p>漫—漫长</p></td><td align="left"><p>谎—领先</p></td><td align="left"><p>领—领袖</p></td><td align="left"><p>触—漫画</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>35</p></td><td align="left"><p>明—明显</p></td><td align="left"><p>挺—秘密</p></td><td align="left"><p>秘—秘书</p></td><td align="left"><p>被—明星</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>36</p></td><td align="left"><p>难—难忘</p></td><td align="left"><p>副—默认</p></td><td align="left"><p>默—默契</p></td><td align="left"><p>准—难怪</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>37</p></td><td align="left"><p>普—普遍</p></td><td align="left"><p>英—品尝</p></td><td align="left"><p>品—品位</p></td><td align="left"><p>奥—普通</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>38</p></td><td align="left"><p>器—器材</p></td><td align="left"><p>给—起床</p></td><td align="left"><p>起—起码</p></td><td align="left"><p>察—器官</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>39</p></td><td align="left"><p>情—情感</p></td><td align="left"><p>掉—演戏</p></td><td align="left"><p>演—演习</p></td><td align="left"><p>找—情节</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>40</p></td><td align="left"><p>认—认识</p></td><td align="left"><p>楚—热情</p></td><td align="left"><p>热—热狗</p></td><td align="left"><p>欢—认真</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>41</p></td><td align="left"><p>神—神像</p></td><td align="left"><p>恢—软弱</p></td><td align="left"><p>软—软件</p></td><td align="left"><p>报—神经</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>42</p></td><td align="left"><p>随—随身</p></td><td align="left"><p>年—实力</p></td><td align="left"><p>实—实习</p></td><td align="left"><p>烦—随机</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>43</p></td><td align="left"><p>提—提出</p></td><td align="left"><p>猪—淘汰</p></td><td align="left"><p>淘—淘气</p></td><td align="left"><p>歉—提供</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>44</p></td><td align="left"><p>通—通信</p></td><td align="left"><p>买—条款</p></td><td align="left"><p>条—条件</p></td><td align="left"><p>试—通缉</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>45</p></td><td align="left"><p>外—外套</p></td><td align="left"><p>博—痛恨</p></td><td align="left"><p>痛—痛快</p></td><td align="left"><p>边—外婆</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>46</p></td><td align="left"><p>系—系列</p></td><td align="left"><p>受—完事</p></td><td align="left"><p>完—完蛋</p></td><td align="left"><p>每—系统</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>47</p></td><td align="left"><p>纤—纤细</p></td><td align="left"><p>称—细菌</p></td><td align="left"><p>细—细胞</p></td><td align="left"><p>纷—纤维</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>48</p></td><td align="left"><p>象—象牙</p></td><td align="left"><p>特—相处</p></td><td align="left"><p>相—相当</p></td><td align="left"><p>穿—象征</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>49</p></td><td align="left"><p>效—效果</p></td><td align="left"><p>战—消除</p></td><td align="left"><p>消—消极</p></td><td align="left"><p>脏—效劳</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>50</p></td><td align="left"><p>星—星球</p></td><td align="left"><p>阳—协助</p></td><td align="left"><p>协—协会</p></td><td align="left"><p>赛—星期</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>51</p></td><td align="left"><p>伙—伙伴</p></td><td align="left"><p>陪—形状</p></td><td align="left"><p>形—形容</p></td><td align="left"><p>加—伙计</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>52</p></td><td align="left"><p>银—银色</p></td><td align="left"><p>向—选择</p></td><td align="left"><p>选—选手</p></td><td align="left"><p>档—银河</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>53</p></td><td align="left"><p>影—影像</p></td><td align="left"><p>盖—营业</p></td><td align="left"><p>营—营养</p></td><td align="left"><p>嘛—影响</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>54</p></td><td align="left"><p>犹—犹如</p></td><td align="left"><p>酱—幽静</p></td><td align="left"><p>幽—幽默</p></td><td align="left"><p>扮—犹豫</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>55</p></td><td align="left"><p>杂—杂物</p></td><td align="left"><p>周—原地</p></td><td align="left"><p>原—原则</p></td><td align="left"><p>导—杂志</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>56</p></td><td align="left"><p>证—证书</p></td><td align="left"><p>限—针孔</p></td><td align="left"><p>针—针对</p></td><td align="left"><p>或—证券</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>57</p></td><td align="left"><p>总—总共</p></td><td align="left"><p>抗—执行</p></td><td align="left"><p>执—执照</p></td><td align="left"><p>变—总理</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>58</p></td><td align="left"><p>作—作业</p></td><td align="left"><p>往—组合</p></td><td align="left"><p>组—组织</p></td><td align="left"><p>等—作用</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 8 High frequency stimuli (version 2)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>Transparent character-repetition</p></th><th align="left"><p>Transparent control</p></th><th align="left"><p>Opaque character-repetition</p></th><th align="left"><p>Opaque control</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>把—把握</p></td><td align="left"><p>充—毕业</p></td><td align="left"><p>毕—毕竟</p></td><td align="left"><p>让—把戏</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>表—表面</p></td><td align="left"><p>多—别处</p></td><td align="left"><p>别—别墅</p></td><td align="left"><p>希—表情</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>彩—彩虹</p></td><td align="left"><p>办—处境</p></td><td align="left"><p>处—处女</p></td><td align="left"><p>捕—彩排</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>刺—刺伤</p></td><td align="left"><p>涉—粗糙</p></td><td align="left"><p>粗—粗鲁</p></td><td align="left"><p>坦—刺激</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5</p></td><td align="left"><p>搭—搭配</p></td><td align="left"><p>妈—打倒</p></td><td align="left"><p>打—打动</p></td><td align="left"><p>编—搭讪</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>6</p></td><td align="left"><p>代—代替</p></td><td align="left"><p>宝—单身</p></td><td align="left"><p>单—单位</p></td><td align="left"><p>忙—代码</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>7</p></td><td align="left"><p>地—地面</p></td><td align="left"><p>怎—点燃</p></td><td align="left"><p>点—点心</p></td><td align="left"><p>呢—地步</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>8</p></td><td align="left"><p>动—动作</p></td><td align="left"><p>址—肥胖</p></td><td align="left"><p>肥—肥皂</p></td><td align="left"><p>晚—动机</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>服—服装</p></td><td align="left"><p>镇—概括</p></td><td align="left"><p>概—概念</p></td><td align="left"><p>约—服务</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>10</p></td><td align="left"><p>感—感应</p></td><td align="left"><p>押—钢铁</p></td><td align="left"><p>钢—钢琴</p></td><td align="left"><p>爱—感冒</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>高—高度</p></td><td align="left"><p>宰—革职</p></td><td align="left"><p>革—革命</p></td><td align="left"><p>第—高手</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>12</p></td><td align="left"><p>公—公开</p></td><td align="left"><p>币—勾引</p></td><td align="left"><p>勾—勾当</p></td><td align="left"><p>友—公主</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>13</p></td><td align="left"><p>鼓—鼓声</p></td><td align="left"><p>留—官员</p></td><td align="left"><p>官—官司</p></td><td align="left"><p>摸—鼓舞</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>14</p></td><td align="left"><p>规—规划</p></td><td align="left"><p>待—海浪</p></td><td align="left"><p>海—海绵</p></td><td align="left"><p>馆—规模</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>15</p></td><td align="left"><p>行—行走</p></td><td align="left"><p>使—喝茶</p></td><td align="left"><p>喝—喝彩</p></td><td align="left"><p>而—行头</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>16</p></td><td align="left"><p>合—合并</p></td><td align="left"><p>记—何时</p></td><td align="left"><p>何—何况</p></td><td align="left"><p>备—合同</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>17</p></td><td align="left"><p>黑—黑夜</p></td><td align="left"><p>齿—忽然</p></td><td align="left"><p>忽—忽悠</p></td><td align="left"><p>恩—黑客</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>18</p></td><td align="left"><p>护—护理</p></td><td align="left"><p>光—花园</p></td><td align="left"><p>花—花生</p></td><td align="left"><p>怕—护照</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>滑—滑雪</p></td><td align="left"><p>汉—环球</p></td><td align="left"><p>环—环节</p></td><td align="left"><p>碎—滑稽</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>20</p></td><td align="left"><p>荒—荒野</p></td><td align="left"><p>保—活人</p></td><td align="left"><p>活—活该</p></td><td align="left"><p>省—荒唐</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>休—休息</p></td><td align="left"><p>比—机长</p></td><td align="left"><p>机—机关</p></td><td align="left"><p>祝—休克</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>积—积蓄</p></td><td align="left"><p>量—基于</p></td><td align="left"><p>基—基金</p></td><td align="left"><p>渴—积极</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>23</p></td><td align="left"><p>即—即将</p></td><td align="left"><p>类—集合</p></td><td align="left"><p>集—集团</p></td><td align="left"><p>奶—即使</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>24</p></td><td align="left"><p>家—家庭</p></td><td align="left"><p>游—假装</p></td><td align="left"><p>假—假设</p></td><td align="left"><p>些—家伙</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>25</p></td><td align="left"><p>坚—坚强</p></td><td align="left"><p>答—简单</p></td><td align="left"><p>简—简直</p></td><td align="left"><p>努—坚持</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>26</p></td><td align="left"><p>解—解开</p></td><td align="left"><p>耳—戒酒</p></td><td align="left"><p>戒—戒指</p></td><td align="left"><p>谈—解放</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>27</p></td><td align="left"><p>紧—紧急</p></td><td align="left"><p>军—尽快</p></td><td align="left"><p>尽—尽管</p></td><td align="left"><p>亮—紧张</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>28</p></td><td align="left"><p>进—进出</p></td><td align="left"><p>听—经过</p></td><td align="left"><p>经—经济</p></td><td align="left"><p>爸—进化</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>29</p></td><td align="left"><p>精—精力</p></td><td align="left"><p>鱼—居住</p></td><td align="left"><p>居—居然</p></td><td align="left"><p>歌—精灵</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>30</p></td><td align="left"><p>科—科技</p></td><td align="left"><p>首—客房</p></td><td align="left"><p>客—客观</p></td><td align="left"><p>律—科学</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>31</p></td><td align="left"><p>恐—恐慌</p></td><td align="left"><p>势—劳动</p></td><td align="left"><p>劳—劳驾</p></td><td align="left"><p>妻—恐龙</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>32</p></td><td align="left"><p>离—离家</p></td><td align="left"><p>份—礼服</p></td><td align="left"><p>礼—礼拜</p></td><td align="left"><p>望—离谱</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>33</p></td><td align="left"><p>理—理智</p></td><td align="left"><p>许—临近</p></td><td align="left"><p>临—临床</p></td><td align="left"><p>国—理想</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>34</p></td><td align="left"><p>领—领先</p></td><td align="left"><p>触—漫长</p></td><td align="left"><p>漫—漫画</p></td><td align="left"><p>谎—领袖</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>35</p></td><td align="left"><p>秘—秘密</p></td><td align="left"><p>被—明显</p></td><td align="left"><p>明—明星</p></td><td align="left"><p>挺—秘书</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>36</p></td><td align="left"><p>默—默认</p></td><td align="left"><p>准—难忘</p></td><td align="left"><p>难—难怪</p></td><td align="left"><p>副—默契</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>37</p></td><td align="left"><p>品—品尝</p></td><td align="left"><p>奥—普遍</p></td><td align="left"><p>普—普通</p></td><td align="left"><p>英—品位</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>38</p></td><td align="left"><p>起—起床</p></td><td align="left"><p>察—器材</p></td><td align="left"><p>器—器官</p></td><td align="left"><p>给—起码</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>39</p></td><td align="left"><p>演—演戏</p></td><td align="left"><p>找—情感</p></td><td align="left"><p>情—情节</p></td><td align="left"><p>掉—演习</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>40</p></td><td align="left"><p>热—热情</p></td><td align="left"><p>欢—认识</p></td><td align="left"><p>认—认真</p></td><td align="left"><p>楚—热狗</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>41</p></td><td align="left"><p>软—软弱</p></td><td align="left"><p>报—神像</p></td><td align="left"><p>神—神经</p></td><td align="left"><p>恢—软件</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>42</p></td><td align="left"><p>实—实力</p></td><td align="left"><p>烦—随身</p></td><td align="left"><p>随—随机</p></td><td align="left"><p>年—实习</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>43</p></td><td align="left"><p>淘—淘汰</p></td><td align="left"><p>歉—提出</p></td><td align="left"><p>提—提供</p></td><td align="left"><p>猪—淘气</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>44</p></td><td align="left"><p>条—条款</p></td><td align="left"><p>试—通信</p></td><td align="left"><p>通—通缉</p></td><td align="left"><p>买—条件</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>45</p></td><td align="left"><p>痛—痛恨</p></td><td align="left"><p>边—外套</p></td><td align="left"><p>外—外婆</p></td><td align="left"><p>博—痛快</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>46</p></td><td align="left"><p>完—完事</p></td><td align="left"><p>每—系列</p></td><td align="left"><p>系—系统</p></td><td align="left"><p>受—完蛋</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>47</p></td><td align="left"><p>细—细菌</p></td><td align="left"><p>纷—纤细</p></td><td align="left"><p>纤—纤维</p></td><td align="left"><p>称—细胞</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>48</p></td><td align="left"><p>相—相处</p></td><td align="left"><p>穿—象牙</p></td><td align="left"><p>象—象征</p></td><td align="left"><p>特—相当</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>49</p></td><td align="left"><p>消—消除</p></td><td align="left"><p>脏—效果</p></td><td align="left"><p>效—效劳</p></td><td align="left"><p>战—消极</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>50</p></td><td align="left"><p>协—协助</p></td><td align="left"><p>赛—星球</p></td><td align="left"><p>星—星期</p></td><td align="left"><p>阳—协会</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>51</p></td><td align="left"><p>形—形状</p></td><td align="left"><p>加—伙伴</p></td><td align="left"><p>伙—伙计</p></td><td align="left"><p>陪—形容</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>52</p></td><td align="left"><p>选—选择</p></td><td align="left"><p>档—银色</p></td><td align="left"><p>银—银河</p></td><td align="left"><p>向—选手</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>53</p></td><td align="left"><p>营—营业</p></td><td align="left"><p>嘛—影像</p></td><td align="left"><p>影—影响</p></td><td align="left"><p>盖—营养</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>54</p></td><td align="left"><p>幽—幽静</p></td><td align="left"><p>扮—犹如</p></td><td align="left"><p>犹—犹豫</p></td><td align="left"><p>酱—幽默</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>55</p></td><td align="left"><p>原—原地</p></td><td align="left"><p>导—杂物</p></td><td align="left"><p>杂—杂志</p></td><td align="left"><p>周—原则</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>56</p></td><td align="left"><p>针—针孔</p></td><td align="left"><p>或—证书</p></td><td align="left"><p>证—证券</p></td><td align="left"><p>限—针对</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>57</p></td><td align="left"><p>执—执行</p></td><td align="left"><p>变—总共</p></td><td align="left"><p>总—总理</p></td><td align="left"><p>抗—执照</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>58</p></td><td align="left"><p>组—组合</p></td><td align="left"><p>等—作业</p></td><td align="left"><p>作—作用</p></td><td align="left"><p>往—组织</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0180236086-25">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0180236086-26"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl 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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: A Character-Word Dual Function Model of Reading Chinese: Evidence from Reading Chinese Compounds
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lin+Chen%22">Lin Chen</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3225-9415">0000-0003-3225-9415</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yi+Xu%22">Yi Xu</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3673-057X">0000-0002-3673-057X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Charles+Perfetti%22">Charles Perfetti</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0211-8518">0000-0002-0211-8518</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Reading+and+Writing%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Journal%22"><i>Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal</i></searchLink>. 2024 37(9):2429-2455.
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 27
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
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  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Chinese%22">Chinese</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Vocabulary%22">Vocabulary</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Morphemes%22">Morphemes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Orthographic+Symbols%22">Orthographic Symbols</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading%22">Reading</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grammar%22">Grammar</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Word+Frequency%22">Word Frequency</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s11145-023-10478-4
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0922-4777<br />1573-0905
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: There is a long-standing argument about whether words or character morphemes are the functional units in reading Chinese. We propose a Character-Word Dual Function (CWDF) model of reading Chinese in which both characters and words are functional units that contribute differentially to orthographic and meaning processes in reading Chinese. Two masked constituent priming experiments examined one of the model's predictions by testing orthographic and meaning priming effects in reading Chinese compounds. The meaning transparency of the prime (a constituent character) and the target (a compound word) was manipulated to distinguish meaning effects from orthographic effects. In transparent pairs, the prime and target were orthographically and semantically related (e.g., [characters omitted] [home-family]); in opaque pairs, the prime and target shared orthography only (e.g., [characters omitted] [home-guy]). Exposure durations of the prime were varied (50ms and 216ms) to allow orthographic and meaning priming, respectively. We manipulated word frequency to reflect the accessibility of word-level representations. The results are as follows: (1) Sharing character level orthography facilitated word reading for both high- and low-frequency words, supporting the assumption of an important role for the character level in orthographic processes. (2) The meaning priming effect was found with the longer exposure duration and only for low-frequency words. High-frequency words produced rapid access, which was not enhanced by the meaning priming of its constituent characters, suggesting that the word functions as the primary meaning provider in reading. These findings are congruent with the CWDF model, which posits that characters are the fundamental orthographic units of written Chinese and that words are primary meaning providers.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
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  Data: As Provided
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  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ1443731
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        Value: 10.1007/s11145-023-10478-4
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 27
        StartPage: 2429
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Chinese
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Vocabulary
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Morphemes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Orthographic Symbols
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reading
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grammar
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Word Frequency
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: A Character-Word Dual Function Model of Reading Chinese: Evidence from Reading Chinese Compounds
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            NameFull: Lin Chen
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            NameFull: Yi Xu
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            NameFull: Charles Perfetti
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 11
              Type: published
              Y: 2024
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              Value: 0922-4777
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              Value: 1573-0905
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              Value: 37
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              Value: 9
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            – TitleFull: Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal
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