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Using RECAST Theory to Examine Racial Stress Appraisal across High Schools: Differences in Racial Threat and Support

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Title: Using RECAST Theory to Examine Racial Stress Appraisal across High Schools: Differences in Racial Threat and Support
Language: English
Authors: Maureen C. Fleming (ORCID 0000-0003-0291-2495), Howard C. Stevenson (ORCID 0000-0001-8991-0059), Emily Aisenbrey (ORCID 0009-0007-8820-2799), Benedict T. McWhirter (ORCID 0009-0003-9016-3128)
Source: Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal. 2024 27(5):2503-2526.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 24
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: High Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: High School Students, High Schools, Racial Composition, Racial Discrimination, Ethnic Diversity, Ethnic Groups, Social Discrimination, Socioeconomic Status, Stress Variables, Test Validity, Educational Environment, Pupil Personnel Services, Stress Management, Coping
DOI: 10.1007/s11218-024-09950-y
ISSN: 1381-2890
1573-1928
Abstract: Data from 318 diverse high school students from three different types of high schools in the United States were collected. School types varied by location (e.g., suburban, urban), size, and student demographics (e.g., race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status). Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted to examine the factor structure of the STRESS-Y. Mean comparisons were performed to assess variations in Racial Stress Appraisal across different school types. The EFA of the STRESS-Y confirmed its factor structure, supporting its validity as a measure of RSA in youth and we were able to extract two robust factors--Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal. Mean comparisons revealed that Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal varied across different school types, highlighting the influence of school context on students' experiences of racial stress. This study provides evidence for the validity of the STRESS-Y as a measure of Racial Stress Appraisal in youth. The findings demonstrate the importance of considering school type as a factor influencing students' experiences of racial stress as well as how support, racial coping, and stress management skills may help mitigate ongoing interpersonal harm that youth are experiencing. The validated measure and the understanding of the factors contributing to Racial Stress Appraisal can inform interventions aimed at supporting students in managing and coping with racial stressors in their respective school environments.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1444651
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0180372556;luo01oct.24;2024Oct22.06:55;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0180372556-1">Using RECAST theory to examine racial stress appraisal across high schools: Differences in racial threat and support </title> <p>Data from 318 diverse high school students from three different types of high schools in the United States were collected. School types varied by location (e.g., suburban, urban), size, and student demographics (e.g., race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status). Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted to examine the factor structure of the STRESS-Y. Mean comparisons were performed to assess variations in Racial Stress Appraisal across different school types. The EFA of the STRESS-Y confirmed its factor structure, supporting its validity as a measure of RSA in youth and we were able to extract two robust factors—Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal. Mean comparisons revealed that Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal varied across different school types, highlighting the influence of school context on students' experiences of racial stress. This study provides evidence for the validity of the STRESS-Y as a measure of Racial Stress Appraisal in youth. The findings demonstrate the importance of considering school type as a factor influencing students' experiences of racial stress as well as how support, racial coping, and stress management skills may help mitigate ongoing interpersonal harm that youth are experiencing. The validated measure and the understanding of the factors contributing to Racial Stress Appraisal can inform interventions aimed at supporting students in managing and coping with racial stressors in their respective school environments.</p> <p>Keywords: Racial stress; Racial stress appraisal; Youth; High school students; Race</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Evidence shows that the experience of racial stress can have significant short-term, intermediate, and long-term consequences on young people's health and wellbeing (Brody et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref1">11</reflink>]; Kaholokula, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref2">28</reflink>]; O'Keefe et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref3">36</reflink>]). In fact, interracial interactions between youth in the U.S. tend to result in stress and threat reactions that impact individuals' biological, cognitive, and emotional processes—especially when accompanied by fear of discriminatory or inhumane treatment (Hoffman et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref4">26</reflink>]; O'Keefe et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref5">36</reflink>]; Richeson & Trawalter, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref6">43</reflink>]; Trawalter et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref7">55</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref8">56</reflink>]). The goal of this study is to add to current understanding of racial stress processes in high school students by (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref9">1</reflink>) validating a measure to evaluate racial stress experiences in school, and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref10">2</reflink>) assessing if racial stress processes differ based on the racial demographic makeup of students' schools. An individual's appraisal of a situation to be racially stressful and threatening coupled with a belief that they do not have the resources or support to manage the stress that ensues, limits the individual's ability to cope with the stress experienced (i.e., Racial Stress Appraisal; Lazarus & Folkman, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref11">29</reflink>]; Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref12">50</reflink>]). This not only causes immediate stress reactions but can also place the individual at risk for long-term consequences (Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref13">50</reflink>]). Conversely, if an individual can assess a racially stressful situation and have confidence in their ability to manage the resulting stress reactions, they are more likely to successfully cope with the stress when it occurs (Anderson et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref14">5</reflink>]; Lazarus & Folkman, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref15">29</reflink>]; Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref16">50</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-3">RECAST theory</hd> <p>The guiding theory for this study was the Racial Encounter Coping Appraisal and Socialization Theory (RECAST) developed by Stevenson ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref17">50</reflink>]). RECAST theory conceptualizes interpersonal racial conflict as anxiety ridden and, as such, theorizes that in order to decrease future racial harm from occurring, people's ability to cope with stress during interracial interactions needs to increase. RECAST Theory is an intervention-focused theory based on the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (Lazarus & Folkman, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref18">29</reflink>]). It purports that how an individual appraises a racially stressful situation impacts how they engage and cope with it (see Fig. 1).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 RECAST theory</p> <p>Within the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, stress comes after an individual cognitively appraises a situation through two processes. In the first, a person evaluates their environment for potential relevance and danger (i.e., primary appraisal; Lazarus & Folkman, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref19">29</reflink>]). If the situation is considered both self-relevant and dangerous, secondary appraisal follows. In this phase, the individual assesses whether they have the coping skills and capacity necessary to handle the demands of the stressor (Lazarus & Folkman, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref20">29</reflink>]). RECAST Theory extends the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping to include racial stress appraisal (RSA) by paying greater attention to the context in which the stress is taking place, specifically in the context of racism.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-4">Racial stress appraisal (RSA)</hd> <p>A main component of RECAST Theory is the RSA process (see Fig. 1). The theory also relies on past or present discriminatory racial encounters (DREs). It claims that the RSA process influences the impact of the DRE on one's racial coping abilities, which then leads to differing racial stress outcomes.</p> <p>As stated, within RECAST Theory, stress comes after an individual cognitively appraises a situation through two processes. In the first, a person evaluates their racial environment for potential racial relevance and danger (i.e., primary appraisal). If the situation is considered both racially self-relevant and dangerous, secondary appraisal follows. In this phase, the individual assesses whether they have the racial coping skills and capacity necessary to handle the demands of the stressor. If not, negative stress ensues, and coping strategies become necessary (Lazarus & Folkman, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref21">29</reflink>]; Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref22">50</reflink>]). RECAST Theory purports that if the latter process (i.e., #2) is possible, so is a "recasted", or reappraised, version (Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref23">50</reflink>]). After assessing a situation as racially stressful, an individual who has confidence in their ability to navigate the racially stressful situation could reassess the encounter as one that they could handle, rather than one that needs to be under- or over-reacted to. This is then thought to lead to adaptive coping, minimizing long-term racial stress outcomes (Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref24">50</reflink>]).</p> <p>Given the ways that RSA is thought to mediate a DRE and negative consequences from the DRE, understanding the RSA process is imperative. Without this understanding, interventionists may struggle to intervene in the racial stress cycle. Minimizing the impact of racial stress is key, especially for adolescents, due to the various negative outcomes that are possible when the racial stress cycle is not interrupted.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-5">Racial stress</hd> <p>Racial stress can be understood as reactions (e.g., physiological, cognitive, emotional) to racial encounters that are perceived as too threatening or difficult to navigate with one's current coping abilities (Harrell, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref25">25</reflink>]; Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref26">50</reflink>]). Racial stress can look like a student of color experiencing a DRE, a White or student of color witnessing a DRE, a White student engaging in a conversation about race, or students of any background witnessing racial turmoil and systemic racism in their neighborhood, school, and/or community. Unaddressed racial stress has been connected to alterations in physical (Lewis et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref27">30</reflink>]), mental/emotional (Carter et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref28">15</reflink>]) and social (Piper et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref29">40</reflink>]; Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref30">50</reflink>]) wellbeing for youth of all ethnoracial backgrounds.</p> <p>Though all youth experience racial stress, youth of color are more likely to experience adversity and mistreatment than White youth (English et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref31">21</reflink>]; Liu et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref32">32</reflink>]; Pachter et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref33">37</reflink>]). Specifically, English et al. ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref34">21</reflink>]) found that students of color tend to experience at least five DREs (e.g., peer harassment, teasing, microaggressions) per day and that these experiences can impact their students' cognitive, emotional, social, and educational development. Other literature has supported that youth experiencing racial stress and discrimination have consistently shown higher rates of suicidality, anxiety, and conduct problems, as well as lower rates of self-esteem and life satisfaction (Assari et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref35">6</reflink>]; Brody et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref36">10</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref37">11</reflink>]; O'Keefe et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref38">36</reflink>]; Priest et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref39">42</reflink>]; Seaton et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref40">46</reflink>]; Sellers et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref41">47</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-6">Adolescence</hd> <p>Studying the RSA process in adolescents is of particular importance. The earlier individuals can gain confidence and support in their ability to manage racial stress, the lesser the build up of racial stress there is. Negative impacts have been observed at higher rates and intensity when youth feel unsure how to cope with their reactions or utilize withdrawal-related coping mechanisms (Anderson et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref42">5</reflink>]; Cooke et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref43">19</reflink>]; Glover et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref44">23</reflink>]). Each time a student feels overwhelmed by a DRE and engages in fight, flight, freeze, or faun, the racial stress builds up in their body without a release (Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref45">50</reflink>]). Over time, the stress builds upon itself leading to a plethora of negative outcomes. On the contrary, if adolescents are able to effectively manage their racial stress, they may save themselves from that pathway. Understanding the RSA process in individuals allows for a closer examination in what helps youth effectively cope and where there are barriers. If points of intervention are revealed, then hopefully racial stress can be intervened early and systematically, preventing racial stress from compounding throughout one's lifetime.</p> <p>As mentioned, when racial stress is not properly attended to, it does not just impact a person in that moment—the impacts linger. Unaddressed racial stress has been connected to alterations in physical (i.e., immune, neuroendocrine, and cardiovascular systems; Kaholokula, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref46">28</reflink>]; Lewis et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref47">30</reflink>]), mental/emotional (e.g., general distress, depressive symptoms, anxious symptoms, hyperarousal; Carter et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref48">15</reflink>]) and social (e.g., interpersonal trust and safety, self-esteem; Piper et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref49">40</reflink>]; Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref50">50</reflink>]) wellbeing for youth of all ethnoracial backgrounds. These alterations, over time, can lead to higher rates of physiological (e.g., hypertension, diabetes, cancer, heart disease, maternal and fetal health; Butler et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref51">13</reflink>]; Everage et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref52">22</reflink>]; Kaholohula, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref53">28</reflink>]; Mustillo et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref54">35</reflink>]), psychological (e.g., depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress, suicidality; Paradies et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref55">38</reflink>]; Pieterse et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref56">39</reflink>]), and social (e.g., familial, friendships, workplace/school-based; Carter, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref57">14</reflink>]; Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref58">50</reflink>]) health disorders and difficulties later in life for youth of all ethnoracial backgrounds.</p> <p>Experiencing racial stress has also been linked to negative school-based and sociological outcomes for youth. Using a meta-analysis including 214 sources, 489 unique effect sizes, and 91,338 unique adolescents, Benner et al. (2018) found when students perceived more experiences of racial/ethnic discrimination, they had lower academic achievement and engagement, and less academic motivation. They also experienced more depressive and internalizing symptoms, psychological distress, risky sexual and externalizing behaviors, substance use, and associations with deviant peers (Benner et al., 2018). These outcomes can build upon one another and fester into serious long-term consequences. The current study will add to this literature by looking at how students are perceiving DREs (i.e., RSA) and where intervention may be necessary to prevent negative outcomes.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-7">Gaps in the literature</hd> <p>To date, there have not been studies that examine the specific process of racial stress appraisal in school-aged individuals, nor have there been studies that examine this process across different racial makeups within schools. Given that racial stress processes have not yet been examined in adolescents, valid measures have not yet been developed to explore this concept. Importantly, a measure needs to be concise and broadly applicable so that it may be used in a school setting. A valid adolescent RSA measure is a prerequisite for gaining information on adolescent RSA processes. Though understanding how students are processing stress is just the start, it is a critical first step in mitigating the impact of racial stress on adolescents. While a plethora of research compares individuals by race and ethnicity, it is rare to see the comparison of environments by racial diversity. Studies have shown college-aged Black students at predominantly white institutions experience high levels of racial stress and discrimination (Harper, 2013; Griffith et al., 2019) especially when compared to peers attending historically Black colleges and universities (Greer & Chwalisz, 2007). Yet, research has yet to examine how different school environments affect racial stress for younger students. It seems logical that a Black student is going to have wholly different racial experiences if they are attending a school where the student body is reflective of their race, if they have a decent community of Black students in their school, or if they are one of the only Black students they encounter. As such, zooming out and comparing schools by their racial makeup offers a new and valuable perspective on racial stress.</p> <p>It is clear that experiencing racial discrimination and related racial stress leads to negative short-term, intermediate, and long-term outcomes for youth. Although it is not possible to shield young people from DREs, it may be possible, with the right intervention, to mediate the amount of subsequent racial stress. In order to best understand what type of intervention may be needed, a clear understanding of how students are processing DREs is imperative, as is an understanding of how these processes may differ depending on the racial makeup of a student's school.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-8">Current study</hd> <p>The current study uses RECAST Theory to examine RSA in schools with varying levels of racial diversity. The goals of the study are to validate a measure for RSA that can be used in school and to add to current understanding of what contributes to varying experiences of RSA to support interventions aimed at increasing related capabilities (Adames et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref59">1</reflink>]; Anderson & Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref60">2</reflink>]; Anderson et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref61">5</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref62">4</reflink>]). As such, this study includes two steps: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref63">1</reflink>) determining the psychometric properties of the <emph>School-Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale for Youth, short</emph> (<emph>STRESS-Y</emph>; Bentley-Edwards et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref64">8</reflink>]; Stevenson & Aisenbrey, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref65">51</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref66">52</reflink>])—a key measure for briefly assessing RSA, and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref67">2</reflink>) examining the relationship between broad school-based demographics, RSA, and the factors of RSA determined from Step 1. The research questions and hypotheses are as follows:<bold>RQ1:</bold> Does the <emph>School-Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale for Youth, short</emph> (<emph>STRESS-Y</emph>) measure distinct aspects of Racial Stress Appraisal?<bold>H1:</bold> The items on the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> will load onto more than one factor of Racial Stress Appraisal.<bold>RQ2:</bold> Does Racial Stress Appraisal (and its factors) vary significantly by school levels of racial diversity?<bold>H3:</bold> School B will demonstrate the highest Racial Stress Appraisal (and factor) rates, followed by School C, and finally School A.</p> <p>It was hypothesized that the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> would be a measure of RSA and the items of the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> would load onto more than one factor of RSA. This prediction was made for two reasons. First, at face value, the items on the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> seemed to align with the two steps of the RSA process. Second, when an EFA was conducted by Bentley-Edwards et al. ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref68">8</reflink>]) on the <emph>School/Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale</emph> (<emph>STRESS</emph>). The <emph>STRESS</emph> was designed for teachers, had 15 items instead of eight, and included questions around racial trauma that were not included in the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> (e.g., "The racially stressful events in my classroom affect me when I am away from school"). In the evaluation of the <emph>STRESS,</emph> 3 factors emerged and were labeled <emph>Teacher Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> (eight items; α = 0.71; <emph>M</emph> = 1.16, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.05), <emph>Teacher Racial Trauma Appraisal</emph> (three items; α = 0.75; <emph>M</emph> = 2.08, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.80), and <emph>Teacher Racial Support Appraisal</emph> (three items; α = 0.82; <emph>M</emph> = <emph>2.87, SD</emph> = <emph>0.88</emph>). The three-factor solution accounted for 48.35% of the variance. Given the lack of trauma questions on the <emph>STRESS-Y,</emph> and the two-part nature of RSA in RECAST theory, it was hypothesized that at least one, likely two, factors would be found in the current evaluation (<emph>Racial Trauma Appraisal</emph> and <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph>). Regarding the second research inquiry, RECAST theory posits that the racial threat of stressors differs by context, exposure, and meaning making of racial politics. As such, it was hypothesized that RSA and its factors would in fact vary across the three school types (i.e., strata) used in this study, given their diverse racial demographics, and likely diverse student experiences.</p> <p>Increasing racial coping and racial stress management skills are integral components of mitigating ongoing interpersonal harm caused by racialized interactions and racist experiences among youth and understanding the factors that contribute to these skills is imperative to the development of interventions and future research.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-9">Methods</hd> <p>This investigation was part of a larger data collection effort that included a variety of studies designed by scientists affiliated with Character Lab Research Network (CLRN), a consortium of schools across the country working collaboratively with scientists to advance research on wellbeing. The CLRN connects researchers with students and coordinates research study logistics in an effort to ease the research process, foster collaboration between participants and scientists, and advance scientific knowledge. Researchers are included in the network on an invitation-only basis and must apply for specific school-aged populations for their projects in either the Fall, Winter, or Spring. Prior to collecting any data, we pre-registered our hypotheses, study design, and analytic plan and CLRN provided the IRB. All data included in this study was collected in the Spring of 2021.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-10">Participants</hd> <p>Demographic data found in the Common Core of Data from the National Center for Education Statistics was used to define this population. To facilitate research and recruitment, this population of schools was divided into strata using k-means cluster analysis (Tipton, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref69">54</reflink>]). Character Lab then recruited schools (and their students) within each of these strata and matched researchers and studies to specific strata. Each school was chosen because of its unique demographic breakdown and its representation of high schools across the country. This study was conducted with students at several schools in three strata—C, D, and E—which included students from schools that were racially diverse, mostly Black, and mostly White, respectively.</p> <p>In all districts that approved our study, all students in attendance at schools in the relevant stratum during the predetermined data collection window were invited to participate in CLRN research activities, but not all were randomly assigned to our study. Students had an equal chance of being randomized to any of the study conditions running in their school. Students who were randomly assigned to this study (<emph>N</emph> = 412) included students aged 13- to 19-years old in grades 8 through 12 with a relatively equal number of males and females represented (63% females).</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-11">Stratum C</hd> <p>Stratum C included large and racially diverse high schools with students from both urban and suburban areas and is representative of 13% of high schools in the U.S. This stratum made up 136 of the students in the initial sample, accounting for about 33% of participants. The sample was 59.0% White, 29.0% Black, 8.7% Asian, and 1.5% multiracial. Additionally, 26.1% of students were categorized as Hispanic. No students were categorized as American Indian/Alaskan Native or Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. A little less than half (44.4%) of the students qualified for free/reduced price lunch. 21.5% of students received special education supports and 4.4% were English language learners. Student marking period GPA averaged 84.07% out of 100% (<emph>SD</emph> = 10.98).</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-12">Stratum D</hd> <p>Stratum D included urban high schools with mostly Black students. This stratum is representative of 12% of high schools across the U.S. (CRLN, 2022b). This stratum made up 73 of the students in the initial sample, accounting for 18% of participants. The group was 8.5% White, 90.1% Black, and 1.4% multiracial. Additionally, 9.9% of students were categorized as Hispanic. No students were categorized as Asian, American Indian/Alaskan Native or Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. A majority (73.2%) of the students qualified for free/reduced price lunch. 15.1% of students received special education supports and 8.5% were English language learners. Student marking period GPA averaged 84.32% out of 100% (<emph>SD</emph> = 7.20).</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-13">Stratum E</hd> <p>Stratum E was comprised of students from suburban high schools where a majority of students were White. Stratum E is representative of 21% of all high schools in the U.S. This stratum made up 203 of the students in the initial sample, accounting for 49% of participants. This group was 94.1% White, 2.0% Black, 3.0% Asian, and 1.0% multiracial. Additionally, 8.9% of students were categorized as Hispanic. No students were categorized as American Indian/Alaskan Native or Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. A relatively small percentage (14.8%) of the students qualified for free/reduced price lunch (FRPL). 6.4% of students received special education supports and 2.5% were English language learners. Student marking period GPA averaged 91.33% out of 100% (<emph>SD</emph> = 9.45) at the time of data collection.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-14">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180372556-15">Demographic data</hd> <p>Demographic data, including age, grade, race, ethnicity, gender, free/reduced priced lunch status, English-language learning status, special education status, and GPA were provided by the school districts, not the participants themselves. Free/reduced price lunch was used as a proxy for socioeconomic status (SES). Researchers were not able to ask further questions about SES (e.g., parental levels of education, occupation, income). Race was selected by parents upon enrolling their children in school from a small number of options. Ethnicity was determined through an additional question asking if parents identified their children as Hispanic or non-Hispanic. Students did not self-identify.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-16">Racial stress appraisal</hd> <p>The <emph>School-Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale for Youth, short (STRESS-Y;</emph> Stevenson & Aisenbrey, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref70">51</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref71">52</reflink>]), is an 8-item measure with a five-point Likert-type scale response format ranging from <emph>never</emph> to <emph>always</emph> (see Appendix for full scale). The <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> measures students' perceptions of racial encounters in school relationships with peers and teachers as threatening or supportive and is an abbreviated and modified version of the teacher scale (Bentley-Edwards et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref72">8</reflink>]). The prompt is "In the last year, how frequently have you experienced the following". Items were revised to include content that focused on student concerns about racial conflicts in student–teacher relationships in school. A sample item is "I see stress from racial conflicts with other students as threatening". The original <emph>School-Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale (STRESS)</emph> was reviewed and validated by Bentley-Edwards and colleagues (2020). One author from that paper, who is also an author on the current project and a racial stress expert, worked with other authors of this paper to adapt the <emph>STRESS</emph> to the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> to be used with youth. All questions were reviewed by members of a research collaborative focused on racial stress on top of three of the current authors. Agreement on the particular items used in the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> was determined after consultation with an ivy-league statistician.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-17">Procedures</hd> <p>External reviewers examined the survey to ensure compliance with student and district privacy policies and laws. An Institutional Review Board approved the survey. Parents were informed of student participation through a letter from the school describing how to opt students out. Students were not compensated for participation.</p> <p>This study was conducted on school computers during class time in participating schools over the course of a two- to three-week testing window. On a predetermined testing day, a teacher proctor at each school administered the CLRN research activities to students. To introduce the study, teachers read a script that explained to students that all research activities were part of an educational research initiative at their school, that participation was voluntary, and they were not being graded, and that teachers would not see their answers. Teachers also instructed students to focus on their own computers and not to look at classmates' screens. Upon logging into the CLRN platform, all students first viewed an assent screen that reiterated this information and, in addition, explained that parents would not see their responses and that their names and any other unique identifying information would not be shared with researchers. Students who agreed to participate were then directed to the survey.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-18">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180372556-19">Missing data</hd> <p>Stratum E included 203 students, Stratum C included 136 students, and Stratum D included 73 students for a total overall original sample of 412 students. Of these participants, 94 had missing item responses on the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> that precluded their use in subsequent analyses as only complete cases were used. The demographic data was provided by each school district, so full demographic data was supplied for each student. As data were determined to be missing completely at random (Little's MCAR test: <emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib414" id="ref73">414</reflink>) = 136.33, <emph>p</emph> = 0.074), it was addressed through listwise deletion for the purposes of exploratory factor analyses (EFA) and mean comparisons (Buhi et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref74">12</reflink>]). After combining Strata C, D, and E, a total of 318 students were included in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-20">Preliminary analyses</hd> <p>Preliminary analyses were conducted to check for statistical assumptions and distribution of data including descriptive statistics and frequency distributions. Results of intra-item correlations were as expected and normality assumptions were met. Results from the frequency distributions of demographic data parsed out by stratum can be found in Table 1. Grade point average (GPA) was an additional descriptive finding that was analyzed but could not be categorized similarly to the variables in the table. The GPA means and standard deviations for each stratum are as follows: Stratum C (<emph>M</emph> = 84.07; <emph>SD</emph> = 10.98), Stratum D (<emph>M</emph> = 84.32; <emph>SD</emph> = 7.20), Stratum E (<emph>M</emph> = 91.33; <emph>SD</emph> = 9.45).</p> <p>Table 1 Percentages of demographic data organized by school</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Student demographic variables</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Stratum</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Stratum C %</p></th><th align="left"><p>Stratum D %</p></th><th align="left"><p>Stratum E %</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>White</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>59.0</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.5</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>94.1</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Black</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>29.0</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>90.1</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.0</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Asian</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.7</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.0</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.0</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Hispanic</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>26.1</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.9</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.9</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>American Indian/Alaska Native</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.0</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.0</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.0</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Hawaiian/Pacific Islander</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.0</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.0</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.0</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Multiracial</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.5</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.4</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.0</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>FRPL</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>44.4</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>73.2</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>14.8</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>ELL</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.4</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.5</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.5</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>SPED</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>21.5</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>15.5</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6.4</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Student Demographic variables are provided by each respective school district and are represented as percentages FRPL = Free/Reduced Price Lunch Status, ELL = English Language Learning Status, SPED = Special Education Status</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-21">Exploratory factor analyses</hd> <p>To address the first research question: does the <emph>School-Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale for Youth, short (STRESS-Y)</emph> measure distinct aspects of RSA, the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> was subjected to EFA procedures. A principal components analysis was conducted to determine the proper rotation needed for the principal-axis factor analysis. A direct Oblimin (i.e., oblique rotation) was chosen as there were at least two components that were sufficiently correlated (i.e., > 0.32; Jenrich & Sampson, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref75">27</reflink>]). <emph>Bartlett's test of sphericity</emph> demonstrated overall significance (χ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref76">28</reflink>) = 757.110, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) and the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy indicated the strength of relationships among variables was high (KMO = 0.743). Given these preliminary results, it was determined that it was appropriate to proceed with the EFA.</p> <p>Two factors were extracted, and all items were able to be included (i.e., loading values > 0.32), with 47.74% of the cumulative variance in the data being explained by the two factors. This supported the first hypothesis, on page 10, stating that the items on the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> would load onto more than one factor of RSA. The labels for each factor were based on findings from Bentley-Edwards et al. ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref77">8</reflink>]). The first factor, consisting of four items, was labeled <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph>. This factor accounted for 29.67% of the overall variance and demonstrated an internal consistency of α = 0.75. These items focused on the ways in which students are perceiving DREs and racially stress (i.e., threatening or nonthreatening). The second factor also had four items and was labeled <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph>. <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> accounted for 18.10% of the variance and had an internal consistency of α = 0.80. Items in this factor consisted of beliefs that participants could overcome school-based racial stress by accessing and utilizing the supports in their school. Table 2 displays the initial rotated factor matrix for the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> and the finalized rotated factor matrix for the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> once all factor criteria for item-to-factor loadings had been met (i.e., item loadings equal to or greater than 0.32; items restricted to a unique factor when loading; demonstrated sufficient internal consistency; Bentley-Edwards et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref78">8</reflink>]; Costello & Osborne, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref79">20</reflink>]). The rotated factor matrix for with small coefficients suppressed was determined to be the best model fit.</p> <p>Table 2 Rotated factor matrix for STRESS-Y without small coefficients suppressed and with small coefficients suppressed</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Scale items</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>Factor without small</p><p>coefficients suppressed</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>Factor with small</p><p>coefficients suppressed</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>1</p></th><th align="left"><p>2</p></th><th align="left"><p>1</p></th><th align="left"><p>2</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Stressful events in class related to race affect me negatively</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.79*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.13</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.79</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>I feel anxious when my teacher and I don't get along because of racial issues</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.76*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.16</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.76</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>The racial events that happen in my school will affect my future</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.73*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.06</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.73</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>I see stress from racial conflicts with other students as threatening</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.55*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.56</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>I have the supports I need to overcome racial stressors in school</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.77*</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.77</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>I can positively handle racial conflicts with other students in school</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.69*</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.68</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>There is someone I can turn to for help when I experience racial conflicts</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.64*</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.64</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>I have the ability to overcome racial stress in my school</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.50*</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.50</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Small coefficients were defined as less than 0.32. Factor 1 represents <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> and Factor 2 represents <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph><sups>*</sups>Indicates loading was greater than the absolute value of 0.32</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-22">Mean comparisons</hd> <p>Mean comparisons were conducted to address the second research question: Does RSA and its factors vary across strata? Descriptive statistics were run in order to compare RSA, <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph>, and <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> scores between strata (see Table 3). In order to see if the means from each stratum were statistically different from one another, simple linear regressions were utilized. Specifically, Stratum type was regressed on each main variable (i.e., RSA, RCSE) and each factor.</p> <p>Table 3 Summary of descriptive statistics for racial stress appraisal and its factors for all strata</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>Variables</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>N</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>M</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SD</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Min</p></th><th align="left"><p>Max</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="7"><p><italic>Stratum C (ethnoracially diverse)</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>RSA</p></td><td align="left"><p>106</p></td><td align="left"><p>23.32</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.27</p></td><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>40</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>Racial threat appraisal</p></td><td align="left"><p>112</p></td><td align="left"><p>9.80</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.83</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>20</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>Racial support appraisal</p></td><td align="left"><p>110</p></td><td align="left"><p>13.75</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.28</p></td><td align="left"><p>6</p></td><td align="left"><p>20</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="7"><p><italic>Stratum D (mostly Black)</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>RSA</p></td><td align="left"><p>44</p></td><td align="left"><p>23.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.39</p></td><td align="left"><p>8</p></td><td align="left"><p>36</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>Racial threat appraisal</p></td><td align="left"><p>48</p></td><td align="left"><p>9.46</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.63</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>18</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>Racial support appraisal</p></td><td align="left"><p>49</p></td><td align="left"><p>13.41</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.51</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>20</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="7"><p><italic>Stratum E (mostly White)</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>RSA</p></td><td align="left"><p>168</p></td><td align="left"><p>23.42</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.80</p></td><td align="left"><p>8</p></td><td align="left"><p>34</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>Racial threat appraisal</p></td><td align="left"><p>172</p></td><td align="left"><p>8.35</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.53</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>19</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>Racial support appraisal</p></td><td align="left"><p>172</p></td><td align="left"><p>15.19</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.34</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>20</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>RSA = Racial Stress Appraisal. <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> and <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> are both factors of RSA. Highest possible score on the <emph>STRESS-Y,</emph> measuring RSA, was 40, with 8 being the lowest score. Highest possible score on <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> and <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> were both 20, with the lowest scores being 4</p> <p>Contrary to our third hypothesis on page 10, the means from the overall <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> (i.e., RSA) did not vary statistically significantly by Strata. The factors that were extracted from RSA (i.e., <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph>, <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph>)<emph>,</emph> however, were connected to differences between Strata C, D, and E. Specifically, Stratum E (mostly White) had the lowest mean for <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> (<emph>M</emph> = 8.35; <emph>SD</emph> = 3.53). Strata C (ethnoracially diverse) and D (mostly Black) had significantly higher <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> scores, with Stratum C (<emph>M</emph> = 9.80; <emph>SD</emph> = 3.83, <emph>p</emph> = 0.01) being higher than Stratum D (<emph>M</emph> = 9.46; <emph>SD</emph> = 3.63; <emph>p</emph> < 0.01). Regarding <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph>, Stratum E had a significantly higher mean (<emph>M</emph> = 15.19; <emph>SD</emph> = 3.34) than Strata C and D. Strata C and D again had similar scores, with Stratum C having slightly higher <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> scores (<emph>M</emph> = 13.75; <emph>SD</emph> = 3.28) than Stratum D (<emph>M</emph> = 13.41; <emph>SD</emph> = 3.51).</p> <p>Overall, these findings indicate that while overall RSA did not differ significantly by strata in our sample, the factors of RSA did. To be specific, students in Stratum E identified the lowest levels of <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> but the highest rates of <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph>. Students in Stratum C identified the highest rates of <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> and the second highest rates of <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph>, and students in Stratum D shared the second highest levels of <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph>, but the lowest rates of <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph>. These findings partially supported the second hypothesis that RSA would differ by strata.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-23">Discussion</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was to understand the experience of RSA in youth from diverse ethnoracial school settings to further inform RECAST Theory and measurement of RSA. As RECAST Theory can be used to propose that levels of RSA are dependent on school racial climate (Collins & Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref80">18</reflink>]), it can also illuminate how racial threat and support are linked to school demographics. The hypotheses for the present study were: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref81">1</reflink>) When conducting EFAs, the items on the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> would load onto more than one factor of RSA and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref82">2</reflink>) RSA, along with its factors, would vary by Stratum.</p> <p>A significant contribution of this study is that it is the first study to validate the <emph>STRESS-Y,</emph> an innovative and novel measure for assessing an important aspect of RECAST Theory in a time-limited setting. This measure will be useful for researchers and practitioners working in school-based settings and aiming to assess either RSA at large, or the subscales identified through the EFA process. The large, extremely representative sample adds to the robust nature of the measure validation that was conducted, highlighting the usefulness of these scales for high school students, especially. The sample size and its representativeness also draw attention to the mean comparison findings which highlighted that <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> and <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> levels varied significantly by Strata. It seems probable that students across the country in schools with similar demographics would report comparable <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> and <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> levels.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-24">Measure validation</hd> <p>Exploratory factor analyses were conducted on each of the measures used in the present study to address research question 1. Factor analysis of the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> demonstrated two factors were adequate in describing RSA for high schoolers. The factors that emerged were labeled <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> and <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-25">RSA factors</hd> <p>Results align with research conducted by Bentley-Edwards and colleagues (2020), validating the <emph>School/Teacher Racial Encounter Stress Scale</emph> (<emph>STRESS</emph>). Specifically, the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> mimicked two of the factors extracted from the <emph>STRESS</emph> (<emph>Racial Trauma Appraisal</emph> and <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph>) but lacked a factor relating to trauma. This was expected given the lack of trauma-focused question in the shorter <emph>STRESS-Y.</emph></p> <p>In addition, RSA, which the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> aimed to capture, has two components (i.e., primary appraisal, secondary appraisal). Factor analysis of the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> extracted two factors that mimic those processes. <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> referred to a student's perception of how threatening racially stressful experiences at school are. This mapped on to the primary appraisal process in which an individual evaluates their environment for potential racial relevance and danger because it attended to student's <emph>perception</emph> of the threatening nature of DREs and racial stress they were experiencing (Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref83">50</reflink>]). <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> referred to a student's perception of the resources they have available, including both personally and interpersonally, to handle the racially stressful situations at school. This factor aligned with the secondary appraisal process, which follows the first when an individual deems the situation both racially self-relevant and dangerous. In this phase, the individual assesses whether they have the resources (e.g., capacity, coping skills, support) necessary to handle the demands of the stressor (Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref84">50</reflink>]).</p> <p>As it stands, given the results of the present study, the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> appears to be an accurate measure of RSA in high school populations and can be used to assess the RSA as a whole as well as to break down the two steps of the process. Based on the RECAST Theory, the data gathered from this measure can be informative of racial coping behaviors, and as such, predictive of racial stress outcomes.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-26">Comparing means</hd> <p>Contrary to the second hypothesis on page 10, the total RSA means did not differ significantly between schools. The factors extracted from RSA, however, did differ statistically significantly between Strata C, D, and E, confirming part of the second hypothesis. Stratum E, with the majority of students categorized as White, reported the highest <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> levels out of all of the schools included in the study. Stratum C, with a high level of ethnoracial diversity, reported a level of <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> level slightly below Stratum D, and Stratum E, with a majority of students categorized as Black, reported the lowest <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> levels. Stratum E reported the lowest <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> levels out of all of the schools included in the study. Stratum C reported the highest <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> levels and Stratum D reported <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> slightly below Stratum C.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-27">Connections to the literature</hd> <p>School climate can be defined as the school social experience (Cohen et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref85">16</reflink>]), and includes a student's ability to have meaningful, caring, supportive, and respectful relationships with peers and adults at school (Voight et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref86">57</reflink>]). Though the present study did not have any measures that specifically addressed school climate, both <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> and <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> touch on unique aspects of how students might feel within their schools (e.g., safety, care), most specifically as it pertains to racial stress (Collins & Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref87">17</reflink>]).</p> <p>In a study examining various aspects of school climate that included 58 high schools, researchers found that Black and White high school students perceived lower levels of equity within their school when schools were more racially and ethnically diverse (Bottiani et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref88">9</reflink>]). Similarly in the present study, students in Strata C and D, with more racial and ethnic diversity than Stratum E, reported feeling like they had less access to support when feeling racially stress and were more concerned about the impact to their wellbeing and future when racially stressful events occurred. In the U.S., there are clear differences in the financial support schools receive based on the race of their students. Specifically, when schools have higher proportions of Black or Latine students, they tend to receive less funding than schools with higher proportions of White students. This discrepancy was found to be more significant between Black and White populated schools (Sosina & Weathers, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref89">48</reflink>]). It seems likely that students in schools with higher proportions of students of color feel the impact of lower funding and are accurately perceiving lower levels of support, due to the way their school functions within its budget.</p> <p>Supporting the study's results and the aforementioned literature, two studies to date, one with Latino high school students (Sánchez et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref90">45</reflink>]) and another with Black college students (Prelow et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref91">41</reflink>]), found that in schools with higher rates of perceived discrimination, students reported lower levels of perceived social support (i.e., <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph>). Both studies pointed to Barrera's ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref92">7</reflink>]) social support deterioration model, which purports that the more stressful events an individual experiences, the lower their perceptions will be of the effectiveness and/or availability of the social support they have, especially when stressful events are ambiguous, stigmatizing, and potentially less visible, (e.g., racial stress).</p> <p>Additionally, researchers have found that BIPOC students are significantly more likely than their White counterparts to be suspended, expelled, or referred to law enforcement while in school (Losen & Hewitt, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref93">33</reflink>]; Mallett, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref94">34</reflink>]). Notably, when Black and Brown students experience racial stress at school, whether or not they are the statistical minority, they report less engagement within the school community, less academic effort, more developmental difficulty in adolescence, less willingness to develop relationships with staff members, and decreased academic achievement (Carter, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref95">14</reflink>]; Golden et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref96">24</reflink>]; Harrell, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref97">25</reflink>]; Piper et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref98">40</reflink>]). It seems clear, then, that the climate in one's school, especially for students of color, is related to their help seeking behaviors. <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph> findings underscore the importance of students feeling like they have somewhere to go for support. Coupled with these studies and the social deterioration model, it seems that the more racial stress students are experiencing, the more difficulty students may have accessing support systems in their schools, especially if the racial climate in the school is not a positive one.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-28">Limitations</hd> <p>This study has a number of strengths as well as some key areas to improve upon. Partnering with the Character Lab Research Network (CLRN) provided a plethora of advantages, but also limited some researcher oversight in the data collection phase of the study. For example, time constraints were placed on study procedures and full survey completion was not achieved. Moreover, the race and ethnicity categories were limited. Parents are asked to select only one of the following options for their child: White, Black, Asian, American Indian, Pacific Islander, or Multirace. In a separate question, they are asked to select either Hispanic or Non-Hispanic for ethnicity. Future studies should include opportunities for students to self-identify their race and ethnicity to confirm the findings described here. Additionally, demographic data was only provided at the student level (by parents). When discussing school climate, it would be beneficial to also have at least race and ethnicity data for the staff at each school as well.</p> <p>Furthermore, The <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> asked about racial stress generally but did not specify whether experiences were happening cross-racially or within one's race. This information would have been helpful in explaining the variance in <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> levels between two strata with high proportions of students of color (i.e., Stratum C, Stratum D). Stratum C had higher rates of <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> than Stratum D and it would be interesting to know if that was because students in Stratum C were having higher rates of interracial interactions than Stratum D and could have helped to make more pointed conclusions.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-29">Implications</hd> <p>Voight et al. ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref99">57</reflink>]) found a significant relationship between the racial climate gap and the racial achievement gap in middle schools. Specifically, schools with larger Black-White or Hispanic-White achievement gaps also had larger racial and ethnic gaps in perceived safety and connectedness and adult-student relationships. While that seems like motivation enough to address students' appraisal of racial threat and support, it begs the question if another racial and ethnic gap exists that has not been yet assessed: a racial stress gap. Are students experiencing differential levels of racial stress? Could the amount of racial stress they are experiencing, and their lack of coping skills be impacting their ability to perceive access to social support? Could those same things be impacting their perception of how threatening racially stressful encounters are? Is racial stress and lack of coping what are ultimately leading to the racial achievement gap?</p> <p>Though none of these questions can be answered at present, the results from this study draw attention to the differential experiences that high schoolers have depending on the demographics (and likely resources) of the school they attend. Specifically, that students' experiences and subsequent processing of racial stress are impacted by the racial breakdown of their school. When schools are majority White, students feel more threatened by DREs but also more supported. When schools are majority Black, students feel the least threatened by DREs, and when schools are diverse, students are situated in the middle of those two extremes. Although we did not assess how these factors play into academic achievement, it does give us a look at how students are racially interacting and processing across the three stratum evaluated. With the results from Voight et al. ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref100">57</reflink>]) showing a connection between the racial climate gap and the racial achievement gap, it is likely that how students are perceiving the threat and support in their school related to race influences their academic success.</p> <p>Collins and Stevenson ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref101">17</reflink>]) evaluated high schoolers of color in Predominantly White Independent Schools. When high schoolers of color reported high levels of racial stress within their school climates, students who believed in their ability to cope with the stress reported greater school belonging and perceived their schools to be less threatening. Comparatively, students who were not confident in their racial stress coping ability experienced less belonging and higher levels of threat. As such, if these differences do exist, interventions aimed at increasing students' RSA fluency and racial coping self-efficacy (sometimes broadly called racial literacy), can be useful and should be prioritized. Future studies interested in these connections would benefit from directly assessing and comparing (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref102">1</reflink>) frequency/severity of racial stress experiences, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref103">2</reflink>) RSA processes, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref104">3</reflink>) racial coping behaviors, and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref105">4</reflink>) academic achievement in varying strata across the country and within ethnoracial groups. If equal educational and social experiences are not possible for students across the country, the next question must be how can interventions be targeted and accessible so that students might have a chance at equity if not equality?</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-30">Recommendations</hd> <p>Results from the current study inform both clinical and future research recommendations. First, implementation of school-based interpersonal (Anderson et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref106">3</reflink>]; Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref107">50</reflink>]) and structural (Saleem et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref108">44</reflink>]) interventions that directly address increasing students' perceptions of support and decreasing perceptions of threat as they pertain to racial stress are imperative. RECAST-theory based interventions have been developed to build (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref109">1</reflink>) racial socialization competence for African American children and parents in family therapy sessions (Anderson et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref110">3</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref111">4</reflink>]); (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref112">2</reflink>) retaliation violence restraint for Black young adult men via Black barbers as health educators in barbershops (Stevenson et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref113">53</reflink>]); and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref114">3</reflink>) emotional regulation and discrimination confrontation for Black teens traumatized by conflicts in schools and playgrounds (Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref115">49</reflink>]). Stevenson ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref116">50</reflink>]) and the Lion's Story Village ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref117">31</reflink>]) have developed Lion's Story Racial Literacy Trainings based on RECAST Theory that directly addresses increasing aspects of RSA and RCSE. Intervention components focus solely on interpersonal aspects of racial stress and helping participants gain skills to feel more, and be more, prepared to engage in racially stressful interactions. Facilitators guide participants in the recognition and processing of their racial stories, including but not limited to, the first racial messages they received and racially stressful incidents they have experienced in school. Lion's Story Racial Literacy Trainings involve the practices of storytelling, journaling, and role-playing through the medium of individual, paired, small, and large group work. Utilizing Lion's Story Racial Literacy Trainings would hopefully decrease participant's <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> (i.e., help participants feel less threatened by racially stressful events) but increase their overall ability to appraise racially stressful encounters as well as increase their RCSE. Unfortunately, it was not possible to assess the validity of this model in the present study, but future studies utilizing racial literacy interventions and similar measures used in this study would be in a perfect position to do so.</p> <p>To address potential structural factors that prevent students at different types of schools from feeling like they have access to support in the face of racial stress, as well as feeling safe when engaging in racially stressful encounters, a structural intervention is an additional recommended approach. Saleem et al. ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref118">44</reflink>]) developed the School Trauma and Racial Stress (STARS) blueprint that focuses on racial stress and trauma across three levels of the school ecology: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref119">1</reflink>) systems, policies, and practices, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref120">2</reflink>) school staff, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref121">3</reflink>) students. At the first level, the emphasis of the intervention is on attending to the racial bias that exists within the behavioral, academic, disciplinary, and curriculum-based systems, policies, and practices within the school that convey messages to students about race. The second level focuses on increasing school staff's self-reflection and skills to manage racial stress in school; minimizing the racial harm they cause; and helping them to engage in culturally sensitive and inclusive school-based practices. In the third level, students' critical consciousness surrounding racial injustice is raised and they are equipped with skills to respond to racially stressful situations. The STARS blueprint also includes principles of trauma-informed care. The STARS blueprint is a unique intervention as it addresses both structural and interpersonal aspects of racial stress in the school setting and would help students increase their ability to navigate both <emph>Racial Threat Appraisal</emph> and <emph>Racial Support Appraisal</emph>.</p> <p>Future studies examining racial stress experiences in school and potential mechanisms for increasing coping efforts would benefit from including the components that follow. Due to the small sample size, we lacked statistical power to detect differences in RSA by race between the strata. Future studies should examine RSA with larger samples and utilize CFA to confirm findings, test for invariance, and examine differences across racial groups. Though the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> in its shortened form was validated in this study, if future studies take place in settings with less time restrictions, validation of the full scale is recommended. Additionally, it is recommended that questions be added to the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> that evaluate the stress induced from both cross-racial and intra-racial interactions with peers and teachers in schools. Relatedly, for the purposes of this study, the school district supplied only student demographic data. This allowed for a relatively clear idea of each school's make-up, but if researchers can obtain access to teacher demographic data, they would have a much more robust picture of school climate. If this addition is done in conjunction with the added questions on the <emph>STRESS-Y,</emph> the results could be extremely valuable.</p> <p>The main focus of the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> is to provide information about specific groups that can be later used to develop and enhance school-based interventions. The scale, however, has a variety of uses. It can be used for purely sociological reasons to see how successful different types of people, on a micro or macro scale, are at engaging in the RSA process. Data from the <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> could be helpful for school districts to assess how their policies and procedures are impacting students' RSA processes on the whole or by demographic or school. It could even be helpful for teachers, to see how their students are responding to racial stress and who might need more support. It could also be used in settings other than high school, specifically higher education settings, to gauge climate and students' ability to cope. Overall, results from this study can be used to inform intervention efforts for high schools across the country and the validated <emph>STRESS-Y</emph> can used to meet a variety of objectives and can be improved/altered in the process if needed.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-31">Conclusion</hd> <p>The implications of the present study point to the potential for measurement and intervention for high school students that address specific aspects of RSA. Students in three categories of schools (i.e., White and racially homogenous; racially diverse, Black and racially homogenous,) varied in their reports of the feelings of threat and support they feel at school in relation to racial stress. We argue that because all students are experiencing racial stress, and because racial stress has significant short-term and long-term impacts on students' lives, they should all have equitable access to support for racial stress and should feel as equally equipped to handle it as possible. We hope this goal may be achieved through the continued development of reliable measures of school-based RSA and coping as well as the implementation of racial stress interventions. This study has helped to advance that goal toward that end.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-32">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>This project was supported by Character Lab and facilitated through the Character Lab Research Network, a consortium of schools across the country working collaboratively with scientists to advance scientific insights that help kids thrive. It was also supported by the Racial Empowerment Collaborative at the University of Pennsylvania's Graduate School of Education</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-33">Author contributions</hd> <p>All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation and measure design were performed by Howard C. Stevenson and Emily Aisenbrey. Data collection and data cleaning were performed by Emily Aisenbrey. Theory design and theoretical support was performed by Howard C. Stevenson. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Maureen Fleming and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-34">Funding</hd> <p>No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-35">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180372556-36">Conflict of interest</hd> <p>Authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.</p> <hd id="AN0180372556-37">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0180372556-38"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref9" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Adames HY, Chavez-Dueñas NY, Lewis JA, Neville HA, French BH, Chen GA, Mosley DV. 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American Journal of Community Psychology. 2015; 56; 3–4: 252-267. 10.1007/s10464-015-9751-x</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Maureen C. Fleming; Howard C. Stevenson; Emily Aisenbrey and Benedict T. McWhirter</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Maureen C. Fleming is a recent graduate of University of Oregon's Counseling Psychology doctoral program. She is currently completing her post-doctoral fellowship at University of Pennsylvania's Student Health and Wellness and is a part-time lecturer in the Human Development & Quantitative Methods Division of the Graduate School of Education at the University of Pennsylvania. Her main research interests concern racial stress and related interventions as well as social justice, liberation, and decolonization practices in counseling.</p> <p>Howard C. Stevenson is the Constance Clayton Professor of Urban Education, Professor of Africana Studies, in the Human Development & Quantitative Methods Division of the Graduate School of Education at the University of Pennsylvania. He is a nationally sought expert on how to resolve racial stress and trauma, develops racial socialization-based culturally responsive therapeutic interventions and research to resolve face-to-face racial conflicts and build racial literacy skill, and is the Executive Director of the Racial Empowerment Collaborative at the University of Pennsylvania.</p> <p>Emily Aisenbrey is a doctoral candidate in Interdisciplinary Studies in Human Development at the Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania. Her research focuses on helping educators and adolescents develop racial coping self-efficacy to enhance their ability to manage racial stress in schools.</p> <p>Benedict T. McWhirter is a Professor of Counseling Psychology at University of Oregon. His research focuses on risk, resilience, and connectedness among adolescents and in particular Latine youth, as well as retention and support of college students, especially those with diverse ethnocultural backgrounds and first-generation status.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib414" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref74"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref85"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref86"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref89"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref90"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref91"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref93"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref94"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref96"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref108"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref113"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref115"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref117"></nolink>
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Using RECAST Theory to Examine Racial Stress Appraisal across High Schools: Differences in Racial Threat and Support
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Maureen+C%2E+Fleming%22">Maureen C. Fleming</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0291-2495">0000-0003-0291-2495</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Howard+C%2E+Stevenson%22">Howard C. Stevenson</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8991-0059">0000-0001-8991-0059</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Emily+Aisenbrey%22">Emily Aisenbrey</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0009-0007-8820-2799">0009-0007-8820-2799</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Benedict+T%2E+McWhirter%22">Benedict T. McWhirter</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0009-0003-9016-3128">0009-0003-9016-3128</externalLink>)
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  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Social+Psychology+of+Education%3A+An+International+Journal%22"><i>Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal</i></searchLink>. 2024 27(5):2503-2526.
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  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 24
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+School+Students%22">High School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Composition%22">Racial Composition</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Discrimination%22">Racial Discrimination</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ethnic+Diversity%22">Ethnic Diversity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ethnic+Groups%22">Ethnic Groups</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Discrimination%22">Social Discrimination</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Socioeconomic+Status%22">Socioeconomic Status</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Variables%22">Stress Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Test+Validity%22">Test Validity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Environment%22">Educational Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pupil+Personnel+Services%22">Pupil Personnel Services</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Management%22">Stress Management</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Coping%22">Coping</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s11218-024-09950-y
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1381-2890<br />1573-1928
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Data from 318 diverse high school students from three different types of high schools in the United States were collected. School types varied by location (e.g., suburban, urban), size, and student demographics (e.g., race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status). Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted to examine the factor structure of the STRESS-Y. Mean comparisons were performed to assess variations in Racial Stress Appraisal across different school types. The EFA of the STRESS-Y confirmed its factor structure, supporting its validity as a measure of RSA in youth and we were able to extract two robust factors--Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal. Mean comparisons revealed that Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal varied across different school types, highlighting the influence of school context on students' experiences of racial stress. This study provides evidence for the validity of the STRESS-Y as a measure of Racial Stress Appraisal in youth. The findings demonstrate the importance of considering school type as a factor influencing students' experiences of racial stress as well as how support, racial coping, and stress management skills may help mitigate ongoing interpersonal harm that youth are experiencing. The validated measure and the understanding of the factors contributing to Racial Stress Appraisal can inform interventions aimed at supporting students in managing and coping with racial stressors in their respective school environments.
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  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
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  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1444651
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1444651
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  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s11218-024-09950-y
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 24
        StartPage: 2503
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: High School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: High Schools
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Composition
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Discrimination
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      – SubjectFull: Ethnic Diversity
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      – SubjectFull: Socioeconomic Status
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      – SubjectFull: Stress Variables
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      – SubjectFull: Educational Environment
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      – SubjectFull: Pupil Personnel Services
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      – SubjectFull: Stress Management
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      – SubjectFull: Coping
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    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Using RECAST Theory to Examine Racial Stress Appraisal across High Schools: Differences in Racial Threat and Support
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              Y: 2024
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