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Coping Methods and College Adjustment in a Sample of U.S. Undergraduate Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic

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Title: Coping Methods and College Adjustment in a Sample of U.S. Undergraduate Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Language: English
Authors: Jacob S. Sawyer (ORCID 0000-0003-3295-4223), Amanda N. Moore
Source: Journal of American College Health. 2024 72(8):2348-2351.
Availability: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 4
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Coping, Student Adjustment, Undergraduate Students, COVID-19, Pandemics, Trauma, Racial Differences, Gender Differences, Academic Achievement, Social Adjustment, Mental Health, Psychological Patterns, Attachment Behavior
DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2022.2129976
ISSN: 0744-8481
1940-3208
Abstract: Objective: To examine the associations between coping methods and college adjustment among a sample of U.S. undergraduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants: We used a sample of 117 undergraduate students between the age of 18-25 years old. Approximately 76% of the sample identified as women and 58% identified as White. Methods: Participants completed online questionnaires that assessed the use of forward-focused coping, trauma-focused coping, and several domains of college adjustment (i.e., academic adjustment, social adjustment, personal-emotional adjustment, and attachment). We used multiple regression to identify the association between coping methods and college adjustment, using race and gender as control variables. Results: Forward-focused coping methods were significantly and positively related to academic adjustment, social adjustment, and attachment, while and trauma-focused coping methods were significantly and negatively related to personal-emotional adjustment. Conclusions: The use of forward-focused coping methods may be beneficial for undergraduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1448304
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0180828357;acl01nov.24;2024Nov14.03:52;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0180828357-1">Coping methods and college adjustment in a sample of U.S. Undergraduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic </title> <p>Objective: To examine the associations between coping methods and college adjustment among a sample of U.S. undergraduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants: We used a sample of 117 undergraduate students between the age of 18–25 years old. Approximately 76% of the sample identified as women and 58% identified as White. Methods: Participants completed online questionnaires that assessed the use of forward-focused coping, trauma-focused coping, and several domains of college adjustment (i.e., academic adjustment, social adjustment, personal-emotional adjustment, and attachment). We used multiple regression to identify the association between coping methods and college adjustment, using race and gender as control variables. Results: Forward-focused coping methods were significantly and positively related to academic adjustment, social adjustment, and attachment, while and trauma-focused coping methods were significantly and negatively related to personal-emotional adjustment. Conclusions: The use of forward-focused coping methods may be beneficial for undergraduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic.</p> <p>Keywords: College students; coping; COVID-19</p> <p>The coronavirus (COVID-19) has caused significant disruptions in the daily lives of people around the world. As of August 2022, there were over 583 million confirmed cases of COIVD-19, and around 6.4 million deaths from the virus worldwide.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] One group that has been especially impacted is college students. The rapid rise in cases during the spring 2020 semester resulted in the abrupt cancelation or transition to online-only instruction in over 1,300 colleges and universities in the United States.[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>]</p> <p>Although traditional college-aged students are less likely to experience severe health consequences, such as hospitalization or death, compared to older age groups,[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>] recent evidence suggests that college students are experiencing high amounts of stress during the pandemic. For instance, recent findings suggest that a large number of college students have experienced increased mental health concerns such as stress, anxiety, and depression.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>] One survey of college students found that about 71% had experienced higher stress and anxiety levels during the pandemic, and less than half (i.e., about 43%) believed they were able to cope adequately with this increased stress.[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>] Others have noted that colleges should be prepared to address the ongoing impact of COVID-19 on college student wellness.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>]</p> <p>While research is limited at this time, recent studies suggest that college students have unique challenges related to coping during the COVID-19 pandemic. One recent study found that college students utilized significantly more maladaptive coping methods than the general public during the pandemic, such as denial, disengagement, and self-blame.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>] Furthermore, college students in this sample reported lower levels of hope, conscientiousness, emotional engagement, and openness to new experience compared to the general public.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref8">7</reflink>]</p> <p>Historically, coping with loss or other potentially traumatic events was thought to require sufficient, and at times, extensive, emotional processing.[[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref9">8</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>]] More recent theories of coping have highlighted the role of additional factors that are beneficial for coping, including distraction, humor, planning, and other behaviors that do not necessary involve intensive emotional processing.[[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref12">13</reflink>]] Specifically, recent findings suggest that coping flexibility is predictive of more positive outcomes when coping with potentially traumatic events.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref13">11</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref14">12</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref15">14</reflink>] One method researchers have used to assess coping flexibility is the ability to use forward-focused and trauma-focused coping strategies after potentially traumatic events.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref16">11</reflink>] Forward-focused coping has been described as one's ability to disengage from the event, such as focusing on goals and plans, reducing painful emotions, and distraction. Trauma-focused coping has been described as that ability to engage with the event, such as fully experiencing thoughts and emotions related to the stressor.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref17">11</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref18">12</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref19">14</reflink>]</p> <p>Past research has generally found that the ability to effectively and flexibly use both forward-focused and trauma-focused coping is related to more positive outcomes after potentially traumatic events.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref20">11</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref21">14</reflink>] A study by Galatzer-Levy et al found that the flexible use of both styles was "strongly associated with a resilient outcome" in a sample of college students.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref22">14</reflink>] While research specifically related to coping during the COVID-19 pandemic is sparse at this time due to the ongoing nature of the event, several studies have examined the use of forward-focused and trauma-focused coping styles. A longitudinal analysis found that forward-focused coping was associated with lower levels of depression in all three waves of data collection and lower levels of stress at the second wave, while trauma-focused coping was associated with higher levels of depression at the first wave.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref23">15</reflink>] However, forward-focused and trauma-focused coping were both positively related to posttraumatic growth at the third wave. These authors concluded that efforts to engage in forward-focused coping behaviors such as distracting attention away from the pandemic, following a regular schedule, and staying engaged in activities was important, while emotional processing of the event, at least in the early stages of the pandemic, was overwhelming.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref24">15</reflink>] Similar outcomes were found in a sample of individuals aged 50 and older in the United States, with forward-focused coping methods predicting lower levels of depression and anxiety, and trauma-focused coping methods predicting slightly higher levels of depression during the pandemic.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref25">16</reflink>] Based on these previous findings, including those with college student samples,[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref26">11</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref27">12</reflink>],[[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref28">14</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref29">16</reflink>]] we predicted that the use of forward-focused and trauma-focused coping strategies would be significantly associated with college adjustment in a sample of undergraduate college students enrolled during the COVID-19 pandemic.</p> <hd id="AN0180828357-2">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180828357-3">Participants</hd> <p>Participants were 117 undergraduate college students who ranged in age from 18 to 25 years old (<emph>M</emph> = 19.44; <emph>SD</emph> = 1.61). Approximately 76% identified as women and 24% as men. Approximately 58% of the sample identified as White while around 42% were Students of Color.</p> <hd id="AN0180828357-4">Procedure</hd> <p>In order to participate, individuals had to confirm they were between 18 and 25 years of age, lived in the United States, and were currently enrolled as an undergraduate student at the U.S. college or university. Participants were recruited online between October and December of 2020 using snowball sampling methods on social networking sites (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Reddit). Individuals accessed the study through Qualtrics.com, where they were presented with an informed consent page and participant's rights page. Participants were able to proceed with the survey after indicating that they understood and agreed to the criteria for participation. All procedures were approved by the author's Institutional Review Board (IRB). Data cleaning procedures resulted in a sample of 117 participants.</p> <hd id="AN0180828357-5">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180828357-6">Coping</hd> <p>Coping was assessed with the two subscales of the 20-item Perceived Ability to Cope with Trauma scale (PACT).[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref30">12</reflink>] The forward-focused subscale assesses for perceptions of one's ability to utilize coping strategies related to goal setting and planning (e.g., "Stay focused on my current goals and plans"), while the trauma-focused subscale assesses one's ability to experience the cognitive and emotional reactions to an event (e.g., "Face the grim reality head on"). The PACT uses a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (<emph>not true</emph>) to 7 (<emph>extremely true</emph>). Items were averaged to create scores for each subscale. Cronbach's α for the current study was.82 for the forward-focused subscale and.76 for the trauma-focused subscale.</p> <hd id="AN0180828357-7">College adjustment</hd> <p>College adjustment was assessed with the 67-item Student Adjustment to College Questionnaire.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref31">17</reflink>] The SACQ assesses several domains of college adjustment using a 9-point Likert-type scale from 1 (<emph>doesn't apply to me at all</emph>) to 9 (<emph>applies very closely to me</emph>) across four subscales. The subscales include: Academic Adjustment (e.g., "I have been keeping up to date on my academic work"), Social Adjustment (e.g., "I feel that I fit in well as part of the college environment"), Personal-Emotional Adjustment (e.g., "I have been feeling tense or nervous lately"), and Attachment (e.g., "I am pleased now about my decision to go to college"). Appropriate items are reverse scored and averaged to generate subscale scores. Cronbach's α for the current study was.91 for the Academic Adjustment subscale,.83 for the Social Adjustment subscale,.91 for the Personal-Emotional Adjustment subscale, and.85 for the Attachment subscale.</p> <hd id="AN0180828357-8">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180828357-9">Predictors of college adjustment</hd> <p>We used a multiple regression analysis with control variables of gender and race, and predictor variables of forward-focused coping and trauma-focused coping. These variables were regressed on the four subscales of the SACQ. In terms of academic adjustment, the full model was statistically significant, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref32">4</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib112" id="ref33">112</reflink>) = 2.901, <emph>p</emph> =.025, adj. <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.06, with forward-focused coping emerging as a significant predictor for higher levels of academic adjustment. For social adjustment, the full model was not significant, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref34">4</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib112" id="ref35">112</reflink>) = 2.231, <emph>p</emph> =.070, adj. <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.07, though forward-focused coping emerged as a significant predictor for higher levels of social adjustment. For personal-emotional adjustment, the full model was statistically significant, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref36">4</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib112" id="ref37">112</reflink>) = 3.119, <emph>p</emph> =.018, adj. <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.07, with trauma-focused coping emerging as a significant predictor of lower levels of personal-emotional adjustment. Additionally, gender emerged as a significant predictor, with women experiencing significantly lower levels of personal-emotional adjustment compared to men. Finally, the full model was not significant for attachment, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref38">4</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib112" id="ref39">112</reflink>) = 1.971, <emph>p</emph> =.104, adj. <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> =.03, though forward-focused coping emerged as a significant predictor for higher levels of attachment. A full summary of the results can be found in Table 1.</p> <p>Table 1. Multiple regression model predicting outcomes of college adjustment.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>SACQ: academic adjustment</td><td>SACQ: social adjustment</td><td>SACQ: personal-emotional adjustment</td><td>SACQ: attachment</td></tr><tr><td>Variable</td><td><italic>B</italic></td><td><italic>SE B</italic></td><td>β</td><td><italic>B</italic></td><td><italic>SE B</italic></td><td>β</td><td><italic>B</italic></td><td><italic>SE B</italic></td><td>β</td><td><italic>B</italic></td><td><italic>SE B</italic></td><td>β</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Gender</td><td char=".">.28</td><td char=".">.28</td><td char=".">.09</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.28</td><td char=".">.02</td><td>–.81</td><td char=".">.38</td><td>–.20*</td><td char=".">.38</td><td char=".">.29</td><td char=".">.12</td></tr><tr><td>Race</td><td char=".">.15</td><td char=".">.24</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.24</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.43</td><td char=".">.33</td><td char=".">.12</td><td char=".">.15</td><td char=".">.25</td><td char=".">.06</td></tr><tr><td>FFC</td><td char=".">.40</td><td char=".">.13</td><td char=".">.29**</td><td char=".">.37</td><td char=".">.13</td><td char=".">.27**</td><td char=".">.09</td><td char=".">.18</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.32</td><td char=".">.14</td><td char=".">.22*</td></tr><tr><td>TFC</td><td>–.04</td><td char=".">.11</td><td>–.03</td><td>–.06</td><td char=".">.11</td><td>–.05</td><td>–.36</td><td char=".">.15</td><td>–.22*</td><td>–.07</td><td char=".">.11</td><td>–.06</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note</emph>. <emph>N</emph> = 116. Gender (0 = Man, 1 = Woman). Race (0 = White, 1 = Student of Color). SACQ = Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire. FFC = forward-focused coping. TFC = trauma-focused coping. * <emph>p</emph> <.05, ** <emph>p</emph> <.01, *** <emph>p</emph> <.001.</p> <hd id="AN0180828357-10">Discussion</hd> <p>The present study adds to the growing literature on adjustment to college and coping during the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on prior research suggesting that forward-focused and trauma-focused coping methods are significantly related to psychological outcomes,[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref40">11</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref41">12</reflink>],[[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref42">14</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref43">16</reflink>]] we hypothesized that coping methods related to goal setting and planning (i.e., forward-focused coping) and coping related to emotionally and cognitively engaging with the stressful event (i.e., trauma-focused coping) would both be significantly related to academic adjustment. Results provided support for this hypothesis.</p> <p>Forward-focused coping was significantly and positively related to academic adjustment, social adjustment, and attachment. Forward-focused coping was not related to personal-emotional adjustment. This finding may highlight the importance of forward-focused behaviors more generally in academic contexts. For instance, the ability to effectively and proactively plan for new events, distract oneself, and maintain engagement in hobbies and other activities is likely a key factor in academic success during rapidly changing circumstances (e.g., classes shifting online and transitioning to an online learning format) and uncertainty during the COVID-19 pandemic. These findings are consistent with recent research suggesting that forward-focused coping during the pandemic is related to lower levels of depression (Zhou et al., 2020).[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref44">14</reflink>]</p> <p>Trauma-focused coping was unrelated to academic adjustment, social adjustment, and attachment. However, trauma-focused coping was significantly and negatively related to personal-emotional adjustment. One explanation for this finding is that the COVID-19 pandemic is an unprecedented event for college students, and the implications for the pandemic are outside of their control. As a result, focusing on emotional reactions may serve to decrease emotional wellbeing. This finding is consistent with recent research suggesting that emotional coping was related to depression for some during the COVID-19 pandemic, especially in the early stages.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref45">14</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref46">15</reflink>] Undergraduates in this sample may have found it difficult to emotionally cope with the uncertainty around the COVID-19 pandemic during the timeframe of data collection for this study (i.e., October to December 2020).</p> <p>These findings must be interpreted in light of several limitations. This sample was collected using an online, self-reported, retrospective measurement which can be limited by several factors, such as social desirability and recall accuracy. In addition, this is a cross-sectional study and results cannot be used to infer causation. Longitudinal studies will be necessary to examine the effectiveness of forward-focused and trauma-focused coping styles at different timepoints throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, especially as colleges and universities begin to relax social distancing and masking protocols.</p> <p>Despite these limitations, the present study offers many directions that can be taken for future research. The findings highlight a need for a more nuanced approach to assessing coping strategies for college adjustment. Understanding the implications that forward-focused and trauma-focused coping has on the struggles that students face in college can offer clinicians and institutions better tools to assist students in their journey through college and ease some of the burdens that are increasingly affecting college student populations during the COVID-19 pandemic.</p> <hd id="AN0180828357-11">Acknowledgment</hd> <p>Findings from this study were presented at the virtual 2020 convention of the American Psychological Association.</p> <hd id="AN0180828357-12">Conflict of interest disclosure</hd> <p>The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements, of United States and received approval from the Institutional Review Board of Pennsylvania State University.</p> <hd id="AN0180828357-13">Funding</hd> <p>No funding was used to support this research and/or the preparation of the manuscript.</p> <ref id="AN0180828357-14"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> World Health Organization, WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. Available at: https://covid19.who.int/ Updated December 1, 2021. Accessed August 10, 2021.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Smalley A. Higher Education Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19). National Conference of State Legislatures. 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  Data: 4
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Coping%22">Coping</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Adjustment%22">Student Adjustment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Undergraduate+Students%22">Undergraduate Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22COVID-19%22">COVID-19</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pandemics%22">Pandemics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Trauma%22">Trauma</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Differences%22">Racial Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Achievement%22">Academic Achievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Adjustment%22">Social Adjustment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mental+Health%22">Mental Health</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychological+Patterns%22">Psychological Patterns</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attachment+Behavior%22">Attachment Behavior</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/07448481.2022.2129976
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0744-8481<br />1940-3208
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Objective: To examine the associations between coping methods and college adjustment among a sample of U.S. undergraduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants: We used a sample of 117 undergraduate students between the age of 18-25 years old. Approximately 76% of the sample identified as women and 58% identified as White. Methods: Participants completed online questionnaires that assessed the use of forward-focused coping, trauma-focused coping, and several domains of college adjustment (i.e., academic adjustment, social adjustment, personal-emotional adjustment, and attachment). We used multiple regression to identify the association between coping methods and college adjustment, using race and gender as control variables. Results: Forward-focused coping methods were significantly and positively related to academic adjustment, social adjustment, and attachment, while and trauma-focused coping methods were significantly and negatively related to personal-emotional adjustment. Conclusions: The use of forward-focused coping methods may be beneficial for undergraduate students during the COVID-19 pandemic.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1448304
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1448304
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/07448481.2022.2129976
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 4
        StartPage: 2348
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Coping
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Adjustment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Undergraduate Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: COVID-19
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pandemics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Trauma
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academic Achievement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Adjustment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mental Health
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Psychological Patterns
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Attachment Behavior
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Coping Methods and College Adjustment in a Sample of U.S. Undergraduate Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Jacob S. Sawyer
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Amanda N. Moore
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2024
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0744-8481
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1940-3208
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 72
            – Type: issue
              Value: 8
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of American College Health
              Type: main
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