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Pre-Service Teachers' Experiences with Students Impacted by Trauma in the School Setting

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Title: Pre-Service Teachers' Experiences with Students Impacted by Trauma in the School Setting
Language: English
Authors: Ella Carton (ORCID 0000-0001-8195-1470), Alix Woolard (ORCID 0000-0003-3427-351X), Kate Fitzgerald (ORCID 0000-0002-1227-2914), Karen Martin (ORCID 0000-0003-2077-0929)
Source: Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal. 2025 28(1).
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 25
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Elementary Education
Descriptors: Risk, Preservice Teachers, Teacher Education Programs, Trauma, Helping Relationship, Teacher Student Relationship, Undergraduate Students, Foreign Countries, Identification, Educational Needs, Practicums, Student Attitudes, Self Efficacy, Elementary School Students
Geographic Terms: Australia
DOI: 10.1007/s11218-025-10037-5
ISSN: 1381-2890
1573-1928
Abstract: Experiencing trauma may adversely impact a child's education, and research in this field requires a deeper understanding about how those working in the education system, specifically pre-service teachers, can respond and support children impacted by trauma. Pre-service teachers, who are our future teachers, play a role in recognising and helping children when signs of trauma are revealed, but risk re-traumatising children if not adequately trained during their university education. The aim of this study was to identify pre-service teachers' perceptions on education they have received about trauma, along with their knowledge and experiences in supporting and working with trauma-impacted children whilst on practicums. A qualitative approach was utilised to gain insight into the experiences of 15 undergraduate pre-service teachers from three Western Australian (WA) universities. Results highlight the importance of teachers' training and education in preparation for appropriate responses to children potentially impacted by trauma. Our study provides evidence that pre-service teachers are not receiving sufficient university trauma training regarding how to support children potentially impacted by trauma and feel underprepared on practicums. Participants reported a lack of support from primary schools and their university, and limited trauma-informed practices in the classrooms, demonstrating the necessity for conceptual changes around education for schools and universities. The results of this study are relevant for education sectors in ensuring adequate training of our future teachers, universities in their teaching courses and for schools in how best to support their practicum students.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1463221
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0183853096;luo19mar.25;2025Mar21.05:47;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0183853096-1">Pre-service teachers' experiences with students impacted by trauma in the school setting </title> <p>Experiencing trauma may adversely impact a child's education, and research in this field requires a deeper understanding about how those working in the education system, specifically pre-service teachers, can respond and support children impacted by trauma. Pre-service teachers, who are our future teachers, play a role in recognising and helping children when signs of trauma are revealed, but risk re-traumatising children if not adequately trained during their university education. The aim of this study was to identify pre-service teachers' perceptions on education they have received about trauma, along with their knowledge and experiences in supporting and working with trauma-impacted children whilst on practicums. A qualitative approach was utilised to gain insight into the experiences of 15 undergraduate pre-service teachers from three Western Australian (WA) universities. Results highlight the importance of teachers' training and education in preparation for appropriate responses to children potentially impacted by trauma. Our study provides evidence that pre-service teachers are not receiving sufficient university trauma training regarding how to support children potentially impacted by trauma and feel underprepared on practicums. Participants reported a lack of support from primary schools and their university, and limited trauma-informed practices in the classrooms, demonstrating the necessity for conceptual changes around education for schools and universities. The results of this study are relevant for education sectors in ensuring adequate training of our future teachers, universities in their teaching courses and for schools in how best to support their practicum students.</p> <p>Keywords: Childhood trauma; Pre-service teachers; Initial teacher education; Trauma-informed practice; Primary school; Trauma-impacted; Education Curriculum and Pedagogy Specialist Studies In Education Medical and Health Sciences Public Health and Health Services</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-2">Background</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183853096-3">Trauma and its impact</hd> <p>Trauma is the psychological or emotional response to an event(s) or set of circumstances that is experienced by an individual as physically or emotionally harmful or life threatening (Dye, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref1">26</reflink>]; Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref2">47</reflink>]). Trauma may be a response to events such as maltreatment, disasters, witnessing violence, war, or suffering the loss of a loved one (Australian Institute Of Health And Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref3">47</reflink>]; Welfare, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>]). Trauma is recognised as a harmful, widespread public health issue (Moore et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref5">40</reflink>]). Data examining the prevalence of trauma is limited, due to the complex and sensitive topic nature and the variation in responses and definitions (Australian Bureau of Statistics, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref6">2</reflink>]). Recently, the Australian Child Maltreatment Study revealed how most Australians (62.2%) had endured some form of maltreatment during their childhood (Scott & Mathews, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref7">45</reflink>]). It is estimated that 2.5 million Australian adults experience childhood abuse (Australian Bureau of Statistics, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref8">2</reflink>]). There is increasing acknowledgment about the impact of childhood trauma within recent research literature (Dye, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref9">26</reflink>]). Children's responses to trauma vary (De Bellis & Zisk, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref10">6</reflink>]), and can involve demonstrating externalising behaviours (e.g., aggression, hyperactivity) or internalising behaviours (e.g., self-harm, dissociation; Burke et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref11">20</reflink>]). These behaviours are often evident in the school setting (Maynard et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref12">39</reflink>]). Children are extremely vulnerable to the effects of trauma, and are likely to experience social and emotional dysregulation (e.g., having unhelpful thoughts and being distrustful), as they lack the emotional capacity to cope with the distress inflicted upon them (Australian Institute Of Health And Teicher et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref13">48</reflink>]; Welfare, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref14">4</reflink>]). A child's stress responses may lead to increases in disruptive behaviours in the classroom (e.g., withdrawal, violence, impulsivity; Burke et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref15">20</reflink>]). Research demonstrates how a child's cognitive function, which is fundamental to educational development, is negatively impacted by trauma (Bick & Nelson, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref16">11</reflink>]; De Bellis & Zisk, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref17">6</reflink>]). Trauma may lead to neurological harm and impair the developmental processes, altering and permanently damaging the brain (Bick & Nelson, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref18">11</reflink>]; De Bellis & Zisk, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref19">6</reflink>]). One research study identified that higher numbers of adverse childhood experiences is linked with higher rates of academic failure, depicting the relationship between students experiencing trauma and negative academic outcomes (Blodgett & Lanigan, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref20">12</reflink>]). Traumatic experiences can adversely impact a child's learning and lead to school adjustment difficulties, resulting in lower grades, school attendance rates and school incompletions (Teicher et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref21">48</reflink>]). Long-term implications include issues with planning, problem-solving, memory and attention, which may impact social outcomes (Majer et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref22">36</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-4">Trauma in schools</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183853096-5">Teachers and schools response to trauma</hd> <p>Teachers play a pivotal role in acknowledging and helping children when signs of trauma are evident (Brunzell et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref23">18</reflink>]). Hence, schools are well-placed to provide a unique opportunity for prevention and early intervention associated with supporting a child's development (Avery et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref24">5</reflink>]; Chafouleas et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref25">22</reflink>]). Evidence suggests that teachers can mistake a child's behavioural response to trauma as inattention or non-compliance, and they may be unaware that school practices may re-traumatise students, especially with punishment-oriented responses to a child's behaviour (Jacobsen, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref26">32</reflink>]). Teachers may be oblivious to the complex characteristics of trauma and interpret a child's actions (e.g., difficulty focusing) as defiance or laziness, which can often result in punitive responses (Jacobsen, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref27">32</reflink>]). Punitive responses to disruptive classroom behaviours, such as excluding, reprimanding, dismissing or shaming the child, may hinder the child's ability to learn, mature and build positive relationships. These responses further perpetuate the impact of trauma, leading to increased feelings of humiliation, anger and disengagement from school (Jacobsen, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref28">32</reflink>]). This demonstrates the cyclic nature of trauma responses, when teachers are not equipped to respond appropriately to these behaviours, it may further intensify the negative outcomes children experience.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-6">Trauma-informed teachers and schools</hd> <p>Due to the high prevalence of trauma, there is an increasing need for those who work in education to be well-informed about trauma (Chafouleas et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref29">22</reflink>]). Trauma-informed practice (TIP) in classrooms refers to the processes of acknowledging and understanding the existence and impact of trauma, and integrating this knowledge into school practices that supports students (West et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref30">51</reflink>]). Schools and their teachers who implement TIP improves the responses to children who may have been impacted by trauma, increases school staff support and reduces academic and behavioural challenges of students (Berger, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref31">8</reflink>]). Examples of TIPs include creating supportive and safe environments that promote wellness and resilience, such as having predictable classroom routines, utilising a compassionate approach, integrating social-emotional learning, facilitating collaboration and empowerment and developing trusting relationships (Dorado et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref32">25</reflink>]). One Australian study utilised a longitudinal qualitative design to examine how trauma-informed classrooms (e.g., having a chill-out corner to reduce stress and increase class engagement), can strengthen a child's regulatory abilities (Brunzell et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref33">16</reflink>]). Results demonstrated that, when teachers incorporated TIPs, it assisted in meeting the complex needs of children and resulted in a more positive environment that promoted successful academic and learning outcomes and subsequently improved a child's behaviour, emotional regulation and social competence (Brunzell et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref34">16</reflink>]). Progress towards becoming trauma-informed requires teachers to view children's behaviours in a trauma-informed way. Childhood trauma may hinder a student's ability to thrive at school, and pre-service teachers need to feel capable, prepared and be equipped with the knowledge and understanding to confidently support trauma-impacted children (Alisic, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref35">1</reflink>]; Berger et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref36">10</reflink>]; Howard, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref37">31</reflink>]; Teicher et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref38">48</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-7">Pre-service teacher training and vicarious trauma</hd> <p>A pre-service teacher is a tertiary education student enrolled in a teacher education program in preparation to become a teacher. It is critical pre-service teachers receive sufficient education in supporting trauma-impacted children (Alisic, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref39">1</reflink>]; Berger et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref40">10</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref41">9</reflink>]; Brunzell et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref42">17</reflink>]). A 2018 quantitative cross-sectional Australian study demonstrated teachers had no prior university training or professional development in regard to helping support trauma-impacted children, with teachers identifying they felt vulnerable due to the lack of pre-service teacher training (Brunzell et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref43">17</reflink>]). However, missing is the contextual input from pre-service teachers. Previous qualitative studies have not explored the experiences of pre-service teachers to guide future TIP education. If not adequately trained, listening to children recount their trauma, increases pre-service teachers risk of vicarious trauma, inadvertent re-traumatisation or a new traumatisation (Brown et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref44">15</reflink>]). Vicarious trauma, defined as indirect exposure, either through a narrative or a first-hand account of a traumatic event (Benuto et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref45">7</reflink>]), is an important issue that may negatively affect pre-service teachers. A 2020 Australian study with 27 teachers, noted large variations in teachers responses and experiences to trauma-impacted children (such as feelings of distress, guilt, fatigue, depersonalisation, detachment and emotional pain), varying levels of training and knowledge and differing school resources or policies to manage trauma (Berger et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref46">9</reflink>]).</p> <p>There is a dearth of literature relating to the knowledge and experiences of pre-service teachers about trauma, their university education surrounding trauma, and whether they know how to support trauma-impacted children. Limited research makes it difficult to provide recommendations for how universities can assist pre-service teachers on their practicums or what training is needed. With such a large gap in evidence surrounding pre-service teachers, this project aimed to identify pre-service teachers' training and experiences in working with potentially trauma-impacted children and their perception about how best to support them. To help understand pre-service teacher education, experiences and needs related to trauma, this research aimed to;</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Explore pre-service teachers' knowledge and understandings about the impact of childhood trauma;</item> <p></p> <item> Explore pre-service teachers' perception about how best to support children at school who may have been impacted by trauma;</item> <p></p> <item> Identify common experiences and challenges pre-service teachers face on their practicums when encountering children who may have been impacted by trauma;</item> <p></p> <item> Identify the extent of education about trauma and its impact received by pre-service teachers at university; and</item> <p></p> <item> Explore pre-service teachers' practicum experiences and perceptions about how schools respond to children who may have been impacted by trauma.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0183853096-8">Materials and methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183853096-9">Research design</hd> <p>This qualitative study utilised a phenomenological approach, focusing on individuals' lived experiences about responding to trauma-impacted school children and the relevant education and training prior to and during practicums (Larkin et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref47">34</reflink>]; Lewis, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref48">35</reflink>]). This approach was used as it permitted the exploration of issues that the researcher and participants felt were important, and for natural and meaningful discussion to emerge (Neubauer et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref49">42</reflink>]). This research was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of Western Australia.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-10">Sampling techniques and participant recruitment</hd> <p>This study initially utilised purposive sampling (a non-random technique in which participants are purposively selected for diversity) by; socioeconomic area the teaching practicum was located, university attended, age, and gender (Given, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref50">29</reflink>]). Snowball and convenience sampling were then utilised in order to achieve data saturation (Given, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref51">28</reflink>]). Potential participants meeting eligibility requirements (current undergraduate university students studying a Bachelor of Education (Primary Teaching) at any WA University, over 18 years of age and had been on at least one practicum at a WA primary school) were invited to participate in the study. The practicum, a practical section of a course of study, is a compulsory and necessary aspect of a teaching degree. In WA at the time of the research, four universities offered a four-year Bachelor of Education (Primary Teaching). The required time spent on the compulsory supervised teaching practice (the practicum) ranged from 585 to 1280 h (Curtin University, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref52">23</reflink>]; Edith Cowan University, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref53">27</reflink>]; Murdoch University, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref54">41</reflink>]; Notre Dame University, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref55">44</reflink>]). At one university, pre-service teachers completed five practicums, whilst the other three courses required four compulsory practicums. The practicums ranged in length from one full-time week to ten full-time weeks, two courses incorporated the longest period of ten weeks, one course eight weeks and the other course six weeks. Recruitment of participants ensued through existing networks, word of mouth and social media posts. Interested participants were given a Participant Information Form and if they were eligible, they provided informed consent. The researcher and participant organised an interview time and location or provided an option to participate via zoom if the participant requested, due to time or location difficulties.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-11">Sample</hd> <p>Fifteen interviews were completed. The mean age of the participants was 22.2 years (<emph>SD</emph> = 2.34, max = 27, min = 19). Four (26.7%) of the fifteen participants self-identified as male, eleven self-identified as female (73.3%), which is consistent with 2022 Australian full-time teaching staff data (71.9% female and 28.1% male; Australian Curriculum, Assessment & Reporting Authority, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref56">3</reflink>]). Students from all four WA undergraduate teaching universities were invited, participants attended all but one of these. The combined total number of practicums completed by participants was 34; 27 in the greater Perth region and seven in rural or remote WA at Government, Independent and Catholic schools. All 34 practicums were mandatory practicums required within pre-services teachers' university curriculum. The practicum length ranged from two weeks, four weeks, or ten weeks. One participant had been on one practicum, ten participants attended two practicums, three participants went on three practicums and one participant completed four practicums within their degree. Most participants when interviewed had attended two practicums in total, which were a two-week practicum and a ten-week practicum.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-12">Data collection</hd> <p>In-depth, semi-structured interviews were utilised, which allowed for the exploration of multifaceted ideas (Kallio et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref57">33</reflink>]). Twelve interviews were conducted in person, and three via Zoom. Interviews ranged from 17 to 44 min (mean = 30 min). Data collection occurred in August 2021. A semi-structured interview guide was used to facilitate the interviews, as it allowed for flexibility of questioning and for the participant and researcher to explore topics they thought were relevant (Kallio et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref58">33</reflink>]). All participants agreed to audio recording, interviews were transcribed verbatim, then reviewed (to maximise accuracy) and de-identified.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-13">Data analysis</hd> <p>A step by step guide to inductive thematic analysis provided the foundation for data analysis (Braun & Clarke, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref59">13</reflink>]). This allowed the researcher to immerse themselves into the data. Thematic analysis was reiterative and inductive and was undertaken to detect, examine and report on re-emerging patterns and themes within the data (Braun & Clarke, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref60">13</reflink>]). The data was read line by line to guarantee data immersion and familiarity and to check for errors. Initial codes were produced and subsequently arranged into themes. As the data analysis progressed, themes were evaluated and clearly named and defined before the report of the analysis was produced (Terry et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref61">49</reflink>]). The software package QSR NVivo 12 was used to assist in data management and analysis.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-14">Rigour</hd> <p>To increase study rigour, ensuring findings accurately reflected the participants' observations and views, and not the researcher, the other authors analysed multiple transcripts. In-depth discussions between all authors with their individual coding schemes, enabled themes to be slightly revised and finalised. Just over one quarter (n = 4) of participants were asked to member-check the findings of this study, all concurring with the results and interpretations.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-15">Results</hd> <p>Overall, pre-service teachers reported they received little education or training in how to support children who may have been impacted by trauma. Participants were reporting on experiences with their students who they perceived may have been impacted by trauma. Therefore, there is no certainty that the students the participants refer to have been impacted by trauma. Resonating with all participants was the importance of gaining an understanding of trauma to better equip pre-service teachers with the knowledge and confidence to support potentially trauma-impacted children. A range of themes and subthemes emerged relating to participants' practicum experiences and are summarised in Table 1 and discussed below.</p> <p>Table 1 Results summary of pre-service teachers' experiences with students who may have been impacted by trauma whilst on their practicums</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2" /><th align="left" colspan="5"><p>Main themes</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Theme one: teaching preparedness</p></th><th align="left"><p>Theme two: practicum experiences: what they encounter, learn and see</p></th><th align="left"><p>Theme three: practicum experiences: what they feel</p></th><th align="left"><p>Theme Four: support during and after practicums</p></th><th align="left"><p>Theme five: changing ways</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Subthemes</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.1 Negative emotions prior to practicum</p><p>1.2 Lack of university preparation and knowledge about trauma</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.1 Mixed experiences with children who may have been impacted by trauma</p><p>2.2 Varied knowledge about the factors influencing behaviour</p><p>2.3 Situations where they did not know how to respond</p><p>2.4 Varied techniques for responding to children who may have been impacted by trauma</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.1 Negative emotions</p><p>3.2 Supportive and unsupportive environments</p><p>3.3 Varied relationships with mentor and mentor knowledge</p><p>3.4 Challenges with managing a whole class, emotional regulation and authority</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.1 Very limited support and debrief</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.1 For universities</p><p>5.2 For primary schools</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0183853096-16">Theme one: teaching preparedness</hd> <p>Pre-service teachers' reported they had limited university training on trauma and behaviours and the factors influencing it, along with lacking confidence in themselves. Participants indicated they felt underprepared in supporting children potentially impacted by trauma. Their awareness of childhood trauma and its impact, as well as vicarious trauma, was limited.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-17">Negative emotions prior to practicum</hd> <p>When asking participants retrospectively about their feelings entering their practicum, all voiced their concern, using terms such as "overwhelmed," "daunting," "stressful" and "anxious." As one participant stated, "Super nervous and scared...I was just worried at what was to come...I felt really unprepared...and reading all the notes on some of the kids...how am I gonna cater for this?" (P12).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-18">Lack of university preparation and knowledge about trauma</hd> <p>Participants spoke on their lack of university preparation for supporting and responding to children potentially impacted by trauma. When reflecting upon their experiences, participants commented on how prepared they felt for responding to students who may have been impacted by trauma. One participant stated, "We did have one behaviour management [university class], but it was very generalised...was more just about asserting your dominance and setting rules and expectations in the classroom, but nothing for trauma kids." (P7) Participants reported low training about trauma and its impact. When asked about their preparedness, participants struggled to recall if there was any university training for how to respond and support students who may have been impacted by trauma. When asking if participants attended university classes specifically about the impact of childhood trauma, all 15 participants answered either that classes were not provided, or if discussed, it was not taught adequately. Two participants attended professional learning about trauma, however these sessions were provided because they were attending a regional practicum. Participants demonstrated low knowledge about trauma concepts. Participants were asked if they understood the meaning of specific terms that relate to the research aims and study focus, the first one being trauma. Responses demonstrated from none to very limited knowledge. When asked about vicarious trauma, 13 participants answered with 'no', 'I don't know' or stated they had never heard the word. When asked if they could describe what TIP means, fourteen mentioned they had not heard of it.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-19">Theme two: practicum experiences; what they encounter, see and learn</hd> <p>Participants explained their own stressful experiences relating to students impacted by trauma (which were mainly related to their behaviours), what they think caused this behaviour and different techniques they saw and used to respond to trauma-impacted children. Participants reported experiencing an array of situations to which they did know how to respond and being assigned to a student with difficulties.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-20">Mixed experiences with children who may have been impacted by trauma</hd> <p>Participants discussed a range of experiences with students who have potentially been impacted by trauma. Most participants spoke of students' behaviours they were faced with on practicums, as signs that children have been impacted by trauma. Following this, participants described how they observed staff responding to these children and what they experienced during some situations. Over two-thirds of participants recalled examples of students struggling with aggression, including students becoming physical with other students, or towards a teacher."We had one child in particular that showed lots of aggression to other kids and...became quite violent in the time that I was there...we'd have to call the principal to come down just because...us three females [other teachers] couldn't calm him down." (P8)."They'll just scream the house [down], like that was the chair throwing kid, like she just screams...there was a kid that just gets aggro [aggressive] and just punches all the kids...one of the kids punched the teacher in the face...that teacher quit the next week." (P9). One participant voiced concern about the unsafe behaviour of one student and their own safety fears."He was a really quite rough student. I never luckily experienced it, thank god...I always was terrified if he came in the class ...I have to deal with him if he like acts out. Like he could do anything. He was quite scary, and he nearly throw a brick at a kid." (P5). One half of participants discussed how students encouraged each other to 'act out', with one student beginning to be disruptive, incentivising other students, appearing to have a flow-on effect."We had the student with quite severe anger management problems, would then trigger off another child that would then become aggressive, and then that would trigger off another child...they all just triggered each other...the classroom was constantly changing and being disrupted." (P8). All participants discussed how some of these behaviours lead to class disruption. "Kids around him would try to work and he would just like smash their desk up and stuff." (P12) As another participant stated."They'd probably be about six kids that were just constantly...up and down kids or disengaged or leaving the class. There's one kid that was constantly crying. There was another kid that her... dad got sentenced to jail a couple of weeks before and...her mum had just been sentenced." (P9). Just under one third of participants were assigned to work with and support students who they perceived had been impacted by trauma and were displaying challenging behaviours. "He would just run out of the class go to the oval and my teacher would be like 'Oh go get him for me'...it took about 20 min to wrangle him up...I was there to teach, but then I was kind of being a babysitter." (P12).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-21">Varied knowledge about the factors influencing behaviour</hd> <p>When asking participants what they believed influences children to display challenging classroom behaviours, some noted it was due to their neurodevelopmental disorder and lack of medication, the climate of the classroom or the student's personality. However, the majority expressed how these behaviours were due to something related to the child's home environment and experiences of trauma."At the end of the day, every kid has a context that they bring to school. And you are, unfortunately...a product of your environment. So, if you think something's normal at home, then you're gonna think it's normal at school as well. And if they're in a safe and supportive environment like school often is, sometimes they feel like they can act out, or that's where things quite often do come out, because they don't have to hold it in anymore." (P14)."I just found it so ironic. Some days, I'd be sitting in there and you're watching all these kids come in from these crazy home lives and stuff. And then we're sitting them down, teaching them about, like, similes...I don't even know if I really care about this...the curriculum there just wasn't tailored to like, you know what's actually relevant to them." (P15)</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-22">Unsure about response</hd> <p>Almost all participants interviewed perceived there were situations with students in which they did not know how to respond."There were a couple of times where one, this one kid... would start to...just be defiant...it was just really hard to get through to him. And so...I have no idea what to do. I'm not being taught how to deal with this, you know." (P5) One participant explained an instance in which they were moved out of the class by the teacher."I actually got...pushed out by the teacher at one point, because they [boy students] were all starting to get like quite physical with each other...they were just throwing comments around the room at each other, and then it sort of started with this one kid walking out and bumping into each other...they all sort of formed two groups. So that was pretty intense. Yeah. It's pretty scary...the teacher told me to leave because I had also only been there for two days. So they didn't have any trust or anything like that in me so it was safer for me to just leave." (P15)</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-23">Varied techniques for responding to children who may have been impacted by trauma</hd> <p>When asking participants if any TIPs or behaviour management strategies were well implemented, many mentioned the strategies were only used in one classroom. "It was a whole school approach to managing emotions, but she [one teacher] was the only one who I saw actually implement it [traffic light system] they didn't do it every morning... It wasn't a consistent thing." (P15) The use and implementation of various classroom and school level practices to respond to students impacted by trauma, especially the behaviours displayed varied. Extrinsic techniques emerged as a theme from the data. Most participants discussed having rewards, such as stamps, stickers or technology, as a strategy to manage students' behaviours. "You're not just getting told, great work...it was all extrinsic motivation...there was tokens, there was gifting, there was posters." (P6) Another theme emerging from the data was direct punitive techniques. Participants were asked if their schools had any processes in place to help support students who have been impacted by trauma who are displaying challenging behaviours. Fourteen participants discussed employing a 'traffic light' or 'zones of regulation' system, which differed between schools. Generally, a visual traffic light was up in the classroom, and students were placed on a colour, dependent on their behaviour or feelings. Schools used this method to directly punish or reward students. One third of participants reported that a 'buddy class' was used as a form of punishment."You give them a warning... 'Okay, you've just disobeyed me again, go put your name on orange,'...then red they have to go to a buddy class...they would go to another class and just have to sit at the back facing the wall for like 20 min." (P7)."I never really got used to putting any kids on green because my teacher was more negative reinforcement, which was sad...the kids would go on red and be unfazed like didn't bother them at all that they were on red or they were gonna go to another classroom ... they would just go sit in another class and like a face the wall...It was so common kids coming in and out buddy class.'" (P6). The perception that the traffic light system was not trauma-informed was mentioned by one participant."There's a bit of research on not having the light system because the kids see their name up there and they get pissed off at it...you should be able to do like a 123 system, but then just keep it in your head...then the kid doesn't have to see that they're on the red traffic light and it just makes them more angry...That's a proper traumatising experience, why would you do that to a kid?" (P11). Reactive strategies also emerged as a theme, which was discussed by one third of participants. This included evacuating a classroom and leaving a child inside, sometimes alone, to de-escalate."When it came to kids that had really bad, anger issues...the kid would stay in the classroom, and everyone would just leave the classroom...The teacher would have to leave because the kids would throw like scissors and chairs...the state of the classrooms afterwards was terrifying. It looked like a monster had gone through, there was scissors and chairs and pencils, and everything was just tipped over." (P6)."This boy got really, really disruptive...we didn't really know what to do. So my, we had to all stand up and we all walked outside really, really quickly. And so it was me and the relief teacher outside with 45 kids.... We're all just sitting in lines outside our classroom waiting for that to happen inside and let that de-escalate...my actual other teacher was dealing with the situation inside, which I would have not been able to do because, she even said that she really struggled like carrying him off. And she was actually like shaking because it was so hard...She ended up having to like quickly lock the two doors so he couldn't go outside. She then had to then like pick him up from under his arms like not to bruise him because if you bruise a student, it looks really bad. So, she ended up picking him up and like walking off and like trying to distract him, while then we called the principal. And then kind of just waited...It was intense." (P8). Ignoring a student emerged as another theme. Just under one half of participants were told by teachers to ignore students who were acting out in class or not engaging. "To be honest, even the teacher was like, you can't really do anything, but I just found it so tough just to be teaching and then just kind of excluding her...it was very challenging." (P4) Fewer positive examples were provided by participants. Existence of a breakfast club, where students were provided food when arriving to school, was reported by one third of participants."The office ladies made I think, 150 sandwiches every day, and gave them out to kids. So, if the kids didn't have lunch, they would collect them. And some of them would even collect extra to take home for dinner...They also had a breakfast club there. And the parents were invited to come and eat." (P9) Some participants discussed how they incorporated wellbeing or mindfulness sessions into their classroom routine (e.g., listen to music or colour-in). Just over one half of participants mentioned having classrooms with chillout zones/corners. "They did have in a few of the classrooms, like they literally had the teepees...like little like IKEA ones kind of thing, the kids could like go in there. And they did." (P7) Two participants mentioned having a school counsellor available. One participant discussed their 'twenty-first century classroom' on practicum, which involved a classroom design for different levels of learning, including high and low desks, couches, cushions etc., which they spoke about being more accommodating for students' learning.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-24">Theme three: practicum experiences; feelings on practicum</hd> <p>Participants described negative feelings towards their practicums, which was often due to the difficulties faced when trying to manage a whole class; their negative relationships with mentors, making them apprehensive to ask mentors for guidance; unsupportive school environments; their limited knowledge about trauma, being unsure about their authority and having difficulties with their own emotional regulation.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-25">Negative emotions about experiences</hd> <p>Every participant used a negative word to describe how their experiences about challenging behaviours made them feel, ranging from "saddening", "confronting", "frustrating", "intense", "clueless", "uncertain" etc., with many saying they did not expect it, and did not know what to do. "It was scary at some stages...one of these boys had such anger tantrum, we had to just close the sliding doors and he just push up tables, chuck pencils, chuck scissors." (P8)."I think 80% of my kids had trauma in their, in their youth. So like growing up and stuff. So I think we had 60% with a parent in jail or out of their life...I felt really unprepared...very stressful. I felt useless." (P12). However, some participants discussed the positive aspect of being put in situations with challenging students. "I was kind of grateful that I did have challenging students...at the end of the day, that's what you're gonna get in a classroom." (P4).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-26">Supportive and unsupportive environments</hd> <p>Participants had very different experiences with regards to the direction and support offered to them when responding to children potentially impacted by trauma. Some participants experienced positive and supportive environments, whilst others experienced negative and unsupportive environments. When discussing participant's introduction to their practicum and if they knew who to turn to at the school for help, 9 of 15 participants reported a negative experience. "I didn't love the staff. I didn't feel greatly comfortable with the staff. I felt a bit...judged." (P7) However, the other 6 pre-service teachers discussed the practicum taking place in a supportive environment. "The deputies were pretty welcoming, like they were definitely there to support us and stuff, especially the administrative staff. Like, they were just the kindest people to see every time in the morning." (P10).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-27">Varied relationships with mentor and mentor knowledge</hd> <p>Participants reported different experiences regarding their relationship with their mentors. One half of participants reported having a poor relationship with their mentor or were reluctant to ask their mentor for guidance in responding to a student acting out."I didn't really feel as if I got as much support as I would have liked...never really felt like she really put that much effort into getting to know me, and I think we were just very, very different. And it wasn't a welcoming environment...If I have a question, I'm like, 'Oh, can you help me?' She's like, 'You're the teacher. Like, it's not up to me now.' Like, I'm not even a teacher, like I'm literally this student that you are trying to teach." (P6). The other half of participants reported a good relationship with their mentor, "I got along really well with my mentor. So that was pretty good." (P11) Following on from this comment, the participant mentioned "but it's kind of luck of the draw to be honest with that stuff because I've heard of pre-service teachers having terrible support from their schools." (P11) Some participants heard from other students about negative experiences and were able to recognise why mentors and pre-service teachers may not get along. When asking participants if their mentor teacher pointed out students potentially impacted trauma or likely to display behaviours that needed attending to, multiple participants were not made aware of this. In some instances, participants were told about students to look out for, but still did not feel supported."I was aware that some of the kids did have some behavioural issues, because my mentor teacher did tell me, and it was just kind of tough...I asked, 'what do you do to help?' And she was kind of at that point where she was kind of giving up...she was like, 'I don't know, like, I struggle so much'...I was like, how am I meant to deal with this kid?" (P4).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-28">Challenges with managing a whole class, emotional regulation and authority</hd> <p>A reoccurring theme was that participants did not know how to manage a whole class when students displayed signs of potentially being impacted by trauma. "You've got you know, 25 or 30 kids...how do I quiet you down without giving you everything and ignoring everybody else?" (P15). Struggling to maintain composure with students was a common point of discussion for participants. "I lost my cool a little bit...I really stressed out because I think a lot was going on in the classroom...and [student] was just doing my head in and...I almost got angry, I just am frustrated...and you don't know what to do." (P4) Half of the participants vocalised their confusion about the level of authority they had, especially regarding the responsibility they had in terms of responding to students engaging in inappropriate behaviours."I was the only adult around for a fight incident...a very large year five or six, was trying to catch and beat up a very small probably year four, and they used me in between as a boundary...it was a little bit stressful...I wasn't sure what my requirements were in that situation, just because I was a prac student. And I don't know, you know, they tell us that we have a duty of care, but we also don't?" (P9).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-29">Theme four: support during and after practicums</hd> <p>Participants' overall perspectives about university support during and after practicums was that they felt unsupported. When participants were asked if they knew who to contact at the university whilst on their practicum if they needed support or guidance, and if they felt comfortable to do so, over two-thirds reported they felt confused about who to contact. "I don't feel like we're informed enough on who we can contact, who we can come to...if we're struggling, or if we're feeling overwhelmed." (P13)."Nup. I kind of went to mates...For even like emotional support and stuff like, it is a lot to deal with. But yeah, I was looking towards other people on prac, just to see how they were dealing with, if like similar situations if they experienced it. So, but nup, no one at uni." (P12). Participants spoke about when they attended regional practicums, the university supervisor assessor is a teacher from the school."It makes me a little bit disappointed in the uni...I didn't really feel I had any, I couldn't reach out to anyone, and I didn't know who to reach out to...we didn't have our supervisor, our supervisor was from the school. So it wasn't our uni supervisor...I didn't really feel like the uni had really supported me at all." (P5). When asking participants about the university support offered to them after their practicum, all but one reported they generally felt unsupported, as their university did not proactively reach out to them once their practicum finished. "No actually, you sort of just finished your prac. And you finish your assignment. And that's sort of it?...it wasn't like, support...nothing like that." (P4).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-30">Theme five: changing ways</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183853096-31">For universities</hd> <p>Participants highlighted recommendations for universities to help pre-service teachers be more prepared, including universities to provide more education about trauma, increasing the training for teachers and increasing overall preparation. All participants voiced the need of introducing a trauma specific unit at university. "We need a course or a unit or something on trauma...every school you go to is going to be different. And all kids are different, but it's just sort of having that basis understanding of what I'm getting myself into, instead of not knowing how to deal with it and doing the wrong thing." (P7).</p> <p>One participant stated, "there needs to be more [trauma] training", such as professional learning provided by the university, suggesting students get a 'certificate' for attendance as an 'incentive.' (P5) A suggestion was that there is increased on the job training, with the following ideas. "Teachers should have to do like a year of EA [Education Assistant] work...I don't feel confident to walk into a working class and start teaching right now." (P9)."Teaching should be an apprenticeship...you do learn a lot more when you're in the classroom. Like yes, there's a need for, for the theory side of it. But again, like with an apprenticeship comes, you know, TAFE [Technical and Further Education] blocks...if you spent more time in the classroom, and you were getting a minimum wage for it, like it would make more people want to be teachers and actually compete to be better teachers and quality of teaching goes up as well." (P13).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-32">For primary schools</hd> <p>Recommendations were put forward by participants about changes primary schools can make to help create a more supportive environment for both children and pre-service teachers. Multiple participants discussed how schools should include health and wellbeing classes, making that a focus."Encouraging students to talk. Because I feel like a lot of kids who go through trauma at such a young age, they bottle up a lot of feelings and even just having a support group...actually incorporating into the curriculum, even ways to deal with emotions, like life skills, that are actually going to be so beneficial." (P4). Increased information for teachers about specific children and different trauma management strategies emerged as a theme."The biggest thing I think that schools can do is to educate teachers on it [trauma]. Because there's only so much you can do in a sense of, at a classroom or school level, to help specific kids that have gone through trauma without the teachers sort of knowing how to deal with it...how can you know how to teach them or whether or not they're going to learn if you don't know how to respond to their specific needs and stuff?" (P15). The importance of education about trauma was identified by participants because they specified it was inevitable pre-service teachers would teach a student whose been impacted by trauma. "They definitely could do more...there will be kids in any school that would have experienced trauma." (P6).</p> <p>"You're learning how to be a teacher, but then once you get to school, if they then need to teach you how to teach a kid with trauma...you'll always have a child at some point in your career who does suffer from trauma, you'd be so naive to think that you wouldn't, I've been on two pracs and on both of them just like that -kids with trauma." (P15).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-33">Discussion</hd> <p>This study explored the knowledge, experiences, training, and responses of pre-service teachers in working with and supporting children who may have experienced trauma in a variety of primary school settings across WA. It appeared pre-service teachers believed their trauma training was inadequate. Pre-service teachers reflected that they were not confident in responding to the many challenging behaviours and needs of children that they identified as stemming from trauma. Before, during and after practicums, participants overall felt unsupported, from both universities and schools, and underprepared to help children likely to have experienced trauma. From the results, it appears that barriers to supporting children include the intensity of children's challenging behaviours; managing student wellbeing and learning simultaneously; poor modelling from mentors; and limited education surrounding trauma. These factors are likely to impact pre-service teacher's knowledge in the way they respond to school children and their practicum experiences.</p> <p>Overall, participants had limited awareness about how trauma can influence a child's behaviour and development. Our results parallel with one study that found 76% of teachers interviewed reported a need to improve their skills in responding to trauma-impacted students, while 73% indicated a need for more knowledge in working with those students (Howard, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref62">31</reflink>]). Educating pre-service teachers to respond appropriately to trauma-impacted children, is essential for increasing their sense of preparedness and allows them to develop a skillset to better support children (Alisic, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref63">1</reflink>]; Hobbs et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref64">30</reflink>]). Some studies' analyses indicated that teachers who have greater training surrounding trauma are more confident and competent when responding to their students (Alisic, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref65">1</reflink>]; Berger et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref66">9</reflink>]). However despite that, some studies have noted that confident and trained teachers are in the minority (Berger et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref67">9</reflink>]), which also mirrors our findings about pre-service teachers not being adequately trained in trauma and being unsure about how to support trauma-impacted children.</p> <p>Teachers play a pivotal role in students' lives, their responses to trauma and behaviours in class (Brunzell et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref68">18</reflink>]). Hence, pre-service teachers should be equipped with adequate knowledge to recognise the impact that trauma has on a child's capabilities in the classroom. An array of factors may contribute to pre-service teachers feeling unsupported and underprepared when responding to trauma-impacted children, with our results demonstrating the prime reasoning was due to a lack of education on trauma, which is consistent within the literature (Brunzell et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref69">18</reflink>]). Our results indicated that participants appeared to experience poor, ineffective, and deficient modelling from schools in responding to trauma-impacted children. This, combined with lack of education, suggests there will be an ongoing cycle of teachers lacking the training and knowledge needed to understand the complex dynamics of trauma and how to respond to children. The lack of education about trauma may reflect the low priority of this in Initial Teacher Education curriculums and indeed schools. This presents an opportunity for universities to better support their students during practicums. By listening directly to pre-service teachers, we can fill in some of the missing gaps identifying what teachers are learning, or not learning, whilst at university. These results also present guidance for schools to embed school-wide TIP into classrooms and improve modelling by mentor teachers.</p> <p>Curriculums for Initial Teacher Education do integrate some information about childhood trauma. However this usually centres around recognising and reporting abuse (i.e., mandatory reporting), and is not focused on how adverse experiences can lead to ongoing trauma-induced responses (Hobbs et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref70">30</reflink>]). These findings, which were from a 2019 Australian study that explored TIP for teachers, indicated Initial Teacher Education programs already have overflowing curriculums, which is a major barrier to covering trauma content at university (Hobbs et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref71">30</reflink>]). Embedding extra material may be a considerable challenge for universities, denoting there could be the possibility that trauma education is recognised as being important, but with a focus on academic learning and success, it is not a priority. Maslow's hierarchy of needs suggests the basic needs (safety, love, belonging, physiological and esteem) of children must be met before being driven by growth needs (e.g., good grades; Martin et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref72">37</reflink>]; Maslow, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref73">38</reflink>]; Noltemeyer et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref74">43</reflink>]) Whilst the emphasis of schooling has been traditionally on education and academics, it was noted by one of our study participants that it is not possible for children to focus in class if they are experiencing trauma at home (such as abuse or neglect) and not having their immediate needs met (e.g., food, housing, or feeling nurtured; Carello & Butler, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref75">21</reflink>]; Martin et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref76">37</reflink>]). The participant found it 'ironic' that students are being taught maths equations when they have 'crazy home lives' and are unable to focus in class, stating the curriculum is not suitable for children who may have been impacted by trauma. Some of the experiences reported by pre-service teachers in this study have likely impacted their own wellbeing. Therefore, it would be beneficial for universities and schools to have an awareness of the impact of trauma on teachers, and ensure pre-service teachers are educated so they are able to be aware of the potential impact on themselves. Almost all participants experienced stressful situations and indicated they did not know how to respond. The potential impact of the experiences faced by participants (i.e., leaving a child in a room alone to de-escalate) may cause vicarious trauma and/or distress for the pre-service teacher themselves. During the past decade there has been increasing research examining teacher self-efficacy and compassion fatigue (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref77">46</reflink>]). Studies have reported teachers having high rates of exhaustion, doubt, shock, helplessness, distress, guilt and detachment (Berger et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref78">9</reflink>]). These experiences are congruent with sentiments communicated by our participants. Pre-service teachers may face fatigue and emotional burnout due to student's behavioural difficulties, which may be due to trying to manage a whole classroom; poor modelling and support from the school; or not having school-wide TIP embedded in the classrooms. This could lead to further uncertainty and a lack of understanding in how to respond to behaviours that are likely caused by trauma.</p> <p>Our findings are consistent with research indicating that a significant proportion of teaching staff have inadequate training in how to respond to a student when they reveal a personal traumatic experience or how to appropriately manage the emotions that may be triggered when such revelations happen (Carello & Butler, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref79">21</reflink>]). This can consequently increase the risk for vicarious traumatisation amongst teachers if they do not have the knowledge to support children (Didham et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref80">24</reflink>]). Such experiences faced by pre-service teachers may impact upon their desire to continue their teaching career or lead to negative experiences within their early career stages.</p> <p>Participants recognised the large gap in their training and consequently, this lack of training and knowledge furthered their feelings of inadequacy and emotional distress. Perhaps validating for pre-service teachers, is knowing that it may be the education system that needs changing, and there may be a role for pre-service teachers in assisting to facilitate this change to Initial Teacher Education curriculums and helping inform the education sector.</p> <p>As participants within our study described their experiences and the schools' priorities, they began to question current behaviour management practices employed within schools, recognising that some (e.g., buddy class), were not the best for children's needs. Often participants gained an awareness of these inconsistencies between theory and practice, and how they often contradict. Furthermore, the disconnect between theory and practice evident in this study, may deter pre-service teachers from implementing appropriate TIPs in their classrooms, as it is not what they observed on practicums. If pre-service teachers are not provided with the best strategies to respond to trauma-impacted children and how to implement TIP, then subsequently they may be re-traumatising children and perpetuating the adverse outcomes associated with childhood trauma (Brunzell et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref81">18</reflink>]).</p> <p>One way to mitigate the challenging experiences pre-services teachers often face with trauma-impacted children on their practicums is to embed TIPs into schools (Chafouleas et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref82">22</reflink>]). Berger ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref83">8</reflink>]) noted "research on multi-tiered frameworks in response to trauma is limited but growing." Assessments of TIP and frameworks are demonstrating a positive impact, for example, the <emph>Healthy Environments and Response to Trauma in Schools</emph> (HEARTS) Program, which is one of the few available evidence based trauma-informed interventions (Dorado et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref84">25</reflink>]). This multi-level, whole-school prevention and intervention framework encourages school success for trauma-impacted children (Dorado et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref85">25</reflink>]). The study illustrates that without understanding the impact of trauma, children experiencing trauma are often seen as students with 'problem behaviours' as opposed to having made adjustments in order to process their trauma (Dorado et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref86">25</reflink>]). Our results illustrate the extensive need for adequate training to change this perspective. The impact of training is exemplified in the <emph>HEARTS</emph> study, which depicts that education about trauma positively improved teachers' knowledge when responding to trauma-impacted children (Dorado et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref87">25</reflink>]). There are other examples available where schools and teachers are participating in professional learning regarding trauma-informed positive education and trauma-informed classrooms, which all convey evidence of the benefits of using trauma-informed models in schools and training teachers (Brunzell & Norrish, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref88">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>Increased education about the impact of trauma may increase pre-service teachers' confidence in supporting trauma-impacted children. This may lower the levels of stress and burnout for teachers and enable them to develop proactive strategies and practices for responding and supporting trauma-impacted children. Universities play a significant role in educating students about trauma. Such education may increase pre-service teachers' coping skills in responding to students, help acknowledge the role of vicarious trauma and create an awareness of this issue amongst students.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-34">Limitations and future considerations</hd> <p>Limited literature, along with the concerning findings (Berger, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref89">8</reflink>]; Brown et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref90">15</reflink>]), highlights the potential impact of this study and the necessity of instigating change within sectors. Additional robust research regarding the influence and role pre-service teachers play in the wellbeing of trauma-impacted children must be embarked upon, as there is a clear gap. It would be wise to sample from both primary and secondary pre-service teachers either studying Undergraduate or Postgraduate education. Incorporating perspectives of university education lecturers and employees from the various education sectors will help understand pre-service teachers' training needs and explore the systematic changes needed in education. Different training outcomes should be explored in future research, along with evaluating current TIP in schools, and the long-term implications and effectiveness of educating pre-service teachers about TIP. The results will help inform teacher training internationally and may contribute to future recommendations for schools about how best to support new teachers in responding appropriately to trauma-impacted children. Application of these findings is likely to greatly benefit school children, staff and communities, and pre-service teachers.</p> <p>One limitation of this research is that semi-structured, in-depth interviews are not devised to capture participants' behaviour. Further, all information provided by participants was self-reported, hence the possibility of social desirability bias exists. Participants volunteered, which can result in self-selection bias for participants who may want to share their negative experiences or those who may be more interested in creating a change around pre-service teacher education and how best to support trauma-impacted children. This could potentially skew the results to participants who favour the use of TIP and those who want to highlight the lack of training and support regarding how to respond to trauma-impacted children. This could be prevented by using purposive sampling, where the researchers choose the participants, which may improve the accuracy and quality of the data by having a broader range of participants with differing perspectives (Given, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref91">29</reflink>]). Participant's definitions of trauma and other terms demonstrated none to limited knowledge, and this may have impacted the results, as participants may have thought about different issues when referring to interview questions relating to trauma. One limitation could be the relatively small number of participants. However, fifteen participants is deemed appropriate for a qualitative analysis (Braun & Clarke, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref92">14</reflink>]). Interviews occurred until data saturation was reached and no new themes were emerging from the data, suggesting a sufficient sample size. Therefore, the sample size is justified, and we are confident with the number of participants, as research has stated this number is an acceptable sample size for qualitative research (Braun & Clarke, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref93">14</reflink>]; Vasileiou et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref94">50</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-35">Conclusions</hd> <p>This study provides evidence that pre-service teachers are not receiving adequate trauma training at university and feel underprepared on practicums when dealing with children potentially impacted by trauma. Participants reported a lack of support from both primary schools and their university, and limited TIP in the classrooms, demonstrating the necessity for conceptual changes in education for schools and universities. Knowledge about trauma and its impact is a dynamic issue, therefore it necessitates an agile, multidimensional, and complex approach if the current teaching system is going to change. Such change may help with implementing trauma-specific training at university and the development and implementation of policies and strategies for more appropriate responses to trauma-impacted children.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-36">Author Contributions</hd> <p>All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Data collection and analysis were performed by Ella Carton. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Ella Carton and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-37">Funding</hd> <p>Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and its Member Institutions.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-38">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183853096-39">Conflict of interests</hd> <p>The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-40">Ethics approval</hd> <p>This project was provided approval by The University of Western Australia Human Research Ethics Committee (reference number: 2021/ET000653).</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-41">Informed consent</hd> <p>Informed consent was provided by all participants.</p> <hd id="AN0183853096-42">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0183853096-43"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref35" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Alisic E. 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Her PhD focuses on exploring pre-service teachers and early career teachers' knowledge, perceptions and experiences surrounding trauma-informed practice in a school environment. Ella's project is investigating if university Initial Teacher Education programs impact the way teachers respond and support trauma-impacted children. Ella has developed a strong passion for trauma-informed practice and improving the health of vulnerable or disadvantaged populations.</p> <p>Alix Woolard Alix Woolard is a research fellow in Child Mental Health in the Healing Kids, Healing Families team in at the Kids Institute and is working on the Embrace project. Alix's current research investigates childhood trauma and the ways we can identify, target, intervene and improve the lives of children and young people who have experienced adversity. Alix co-leads the childhood trauma research program which encompasses; childhood maltreatment, medical trauma, intergenerational trauma, trauma responses in schools, trauma experienced by vulnerable populations, and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander social and emotional wellbeing.</p> <p>Kate Fitzgerald Kate Fitzgerald is a PhD Candidate and Research Officer in the School of Allied Health at UWA. Kate is committed to research that promotes social justice and aims to improve physical and mental health outcomes for vulnerable populations. She is particularly interested in trauma-informed and restorative practice research within the education sector. Kate's current doctoral research is exploring facilitators and barriers to positive relationship development between teachers and students in Western Australian schools, viewed through a trauma-informed lens.</p> <p>Karen Martin Karen Martin is an Adjunct Professor at the University of Tasmania and Adjunct Associate Professor at The University of Western Australia. She is a leading international researcher and educator in trauma-informed practice. She has led research and the development of evidence-based resources to assist schools to embed trauma-informed practice into their culture (including the International Trauma-Informed Practice Principles for Schools and the Thoughtful Schools Program).</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref74"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref77"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref92"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref94"></nolink>
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  Data: Pre-Service Teachers' Experiences with Students Impacted by Trauma in the School Setting
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  Data: English
– Name: Author
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ella+Carton%22">Ella Carton</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8195-1470">0000-0001-8195-1470</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Alix+Woolard%22">Alix Woolard</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3427-351X">0000-0003-3427-351X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kate+Fitzgerald%22">Kate Fitzgerald</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1227-2914">0000-0002-1227-2914</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Karen+Martin%22">Karen Martin</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2077-0929">0000-0003-2077-0929</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Social+Psychology+of+Education%3A+An+International+Journal%22"><i>Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal</i></searchLink>. 2025 28(1).
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Data: 25
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  Label: Publication Date
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  Data: 2025
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  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink>
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  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Risk%22">Risk</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preservice+Teachers%22">Preservice Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Education+Programs%22">Teacher Education Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Trauma%22">Trauma</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Helping+Relationship%22">Helping Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Student+Relationship%22">Teacher Student Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Undergraduate+Students%22">Undergraduate Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Identification%22">Identification</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Needs%22">Educational Needs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Practicums%22">Practicums</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Students%22">Elementary School Students</searchLink>
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  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Australia%22">Australia</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s11218-025-10037-5
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  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1381-2890<br />1573-1928
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Experiencing trauma may adversely impact a child's education, and research in this field requires a deeper understanding about how those working in the education system, specifically pre-service teachers, can respond and support children impacted by trauma. Pre-service teachers, who are our future teachers, play a role in recognising and helping children when signs of trauma are revealed, but risk re-traumatising children if not adequately trained during their university education. The aim of this study was to identify pre-service teachers' perceptions on education they have received about trauma, along with their knowledge and experiences in supporting and working with trauma-impacted children whilst on practicums. A qualitative approach was utilised to gain insight into the experiences of 15 undergraduate pre-service teachers from three Western Australian (WA) universities. Results highlight the importance of teachers' training and education in preparation for appropriate responses to children potentially impacted by trauma. Our study provides evidence that pre-service teachers are not receiving sufficient university trauma training regarding how to support children potentially impacted by trauma and feel underprepared on practicums. Participants reported a lack of support from primary schools and their university, and limited trauma-informed practices in the classrooms, demonstrating the necessity for conceptual changes around education for schools and universities. The results of this study are relevant for education sectors in ensuring adequate training of our future teachers, universities in their teaching courses and for schools in how best to support their practicum students.
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  Data: 2025
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ1463221
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  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s11218-025-10037-5
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 25
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Risk
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preservice Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Education Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Trauma
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Helping Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Student Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Undergraduate Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Identification
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Needs
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      – SubjectFull: Practicums
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Efficacy
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      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Australia
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    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Pre-Service Teachers' Experiences with Students Impacted by Trauma in the School Setting
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            NameFull: Kate Fitzgerald
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            – D: 01
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              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1381-2890
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              Value: 1573-1928
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            – Type: issue
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          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal
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