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Chinese College Students' Cognitive Biases toward Suicide Prevention and Associated Strategies to Improve Life Education

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Title: Chinese College Students' Cognitive Biases toward Suicide Prevention and Associated Strategies to Improve Life Education
Language: English
Authors: Jiaxin Chen
Source: Psychology in the Schools. 2025 62(5):1313-1322.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 10
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, College Students, Student Attitudes, Bias, Suicide, Prevention, Misconceptions, Family Life Education, Maturity (Individuals), Crisis Intervention, Reflection, Ethics, Problem Solving
Geographic Terms: China
DOI: 10.1002/pits.23396
ISSN: 0033-3085
1520-6807
Abstract: Life education is an essential element of suicide prevention in colleges. However, the existing practice of life education in China may be insufficient to match the new spectrum of students' knowledge needs. The study exemplified the participants' responses to common suicide myths with a 3-year follow-up investigation (Study 1), and the optimal strategies individuals chose to manage the people in crisis in a hypothetical scenario (Study 2). The results revealed that generally, college students in China have mature cognitive attitudes toward suicide-related issues, and have systematic structural representations of crisis intervention. However, there are some prominent cognitive biases, mainly focusing on concerns in the process of communication and evaluation, difficulty in considering suicide as a complex moral phenomenon, and insufficient awareness of problem orientation in crisis interventions. To match the students' new cognitive changes and modern education's higher moral requirements, the optimization direction should focus on the response to students' personalized cognitive reality by adding meta-suicidology reflection, learning ethical reduction in case analysis, and cultivating problem-solving skills.
Abstractor: As Provided
Notes: https://doi.org/10.57760/sciencedb.17667
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1466217
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0184274953;pis01may.25;2025Apr08.06:14;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0184274953-1">Chinese College Students' Cognitive Biases Toward Suicide Prevention and Associated Strategies to Improve Life Education </title> <p>Life education is an essential element of suicide prevention in colleges. However, the existing practice of life education in China may be insufficient to match the new spectrum of students' knowledge needs. The study exemplified the participants' responses to common suicide myths with a 3‐year follow‐up investigation (Study 1), and the optimal strategies individuals chose to manage the people in crisis in a hypothetical scenario (Study 2). The results revealed that generally, college students in China have mature cognitive attitudes toward suicide‐related issues, and have systematic structural representations of crisis intervention. However, there are some prominent cognitive biases, mainly focusing on concerns in the process of communication and evaluation, difficulty in considering suicide as a complex moral phenomenon, and insufficient awareness of problem orientation in crisis interventions. To match the students' new cognitive changes and modern education's higher moral requirements, the optimization direction should focus on the response to students' personalized cognitive reality by adding meta‐suicidology reflection, learning ethical reduction in case analysis, and cultivating problem‐solving skills.</p> <p>Summary: Suicide cognitive biases shown to be most common among first‐year college students in China include the ambivalent attitude toward the relationship between socioeconomic factors and suicidal ideation, the belief that suicide is selfish and the talking taboo.Students believe that giving hope (but without substantive advice) and reminding responsibility are the most effective strategies in crisis intervention.Life education in China should focus on debunking these specific cognitive biases.</p> <p>Keywords: cognitive bias; life education; suicide prevention</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-2">Introduction</hd> <p>A World Health Organization scientific briefing released on March 2, 2022 stated that the mental health of young people had been severely affected since the outbreak of the COVID‐19 pandemic, and they were at high risk of adopting suicide and self‐harm behaviors (World Health Organization [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref1">33</reflink>]). According to the "2022 China Health Statistics Yearbook," among people under 50 years old, the suicide mortality rate of young people aged 20–25 is higher than that of other age groups (National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref2">22</reflink>]). Furthermore, according to the survey of the "Blue Book of Mental Health: Report on National Mental Health Development (2021–2022)" conducted by the Institute of Psychology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 16.54% of Chinese college students are at risk of mild depression, and 4.94% are at high risk (Fang, Wang, and Chen [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref3">9</reflink>]). Depression is among the high‐risk factors for suicide. Among Chinese college students at high risk of depression, the proportion of suicidal ideation is 12.8%, which is 14.2 times higher than that of nondepressed groups (Wang et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref4">31</reflink>]). Additionally, recent public incidents of unnatural deaths of Chinese college students have once again raised societal concern for psychological crisis intervention and life education.</p> <p>As an essential method to promote the development of physical and mental coordination and explore the value and meaning of life, the concept of life education was first proposed by American scholar J. D. Waiters in 1968. Subsequently, it has developed distinctive concepts and operational models in different countries and regions with unique characteristics. For example, the US Suicide Prevention Public Policy Office recommends that the gatekeeper training program be incorporated into all universities to reduce psychological problems and suicide risk among college students, and has been relatively successful (Ross, Dehay, and Deiling [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref5">27</reflink>]; American Foundation for Suicide Prevention Public Policy Office [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref6">1</reflink>]). In January 2021, the Chinese Ministry of Education responded to a proposal on enhancing life education for the wider society following the COVID‐19 pandemic. It encouraged colleges to integrate life education into ideological and political theory courses, and mental health education programs (Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref7">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>The rise of life education in China could date back to the mid‐to‐late 1990s, stemming from academic studies by some researchers (Ge [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref8">11</reflink>]). Compared with the background of the emergence of life education in the West, where social problems such as drugs, violence, and AIDS were prevalent, the issues faced by life education in China after its birth were mainly loss of life and injuries, including suicide, homicide, accidental injuries, and mental health problems (Feng [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref9">10</reflink>]). The policy‐level boost began in 2004 when provinces such as Shanghai, Yunnan, Heilongjiang, and Sichuan issued documents to integrate life and safety education into the compulsory education stage (He [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref10">12</reflink>]). Life education in colleges has also been extensively explored, with different orientations in content such as safety, psychology, life, and ethics. It is also carried out in a variety of forms, including specialized courses, subject infiltration, thematic education, and practical activities. In Taiwan, China, the development of life education in colleges is widespread, with 128 out of 160 colleges offering 1563 related courses, and 711 teachers participating (Huang [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref11">14</reflink>]). In contrast, the implementation of life education in mainland China still faces some dilemmas and challenges, including the disregard and rejection of life in Confucian culture and exam‐oriented education, the lack of specific policy support and more reliance on conscious practice, fragmented content, and the lack of teacher support (Feng [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref12">10</reflink>]; Le and Wang [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref13">16</reflink>]). On the other hand, current research on life education in China also has certain shortcomings regarding perspectives and content. Most existing research adopts a macro approach of speculation and interpretation, lacking adaptation and a flexible response to students' personalized realities under new changes. Simultaneously, owing to the limitations in official data and a lack of comprehensive media retrospective materials, detailed textual analysis and support data are limited, which restricts the validity of research results for improving strategies for life education.</p> <p>Therefore, the need to optimize the practice of life education in China by deeply rooting it in college students is urgent and can be assisted by detailed observation and exploration of specific educational aspects. Life education is an integral part of campus suicide prevention. The appropriate transfer of knowledge and values will form a critical foundation for primary prevention efforts to combat suicide on campus (Aseltine and DeMartino [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref14">3</reflink>]; Mitchell et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref15">21</reflink>]). A prospective quasi‐experimental study found that a psychosocial wellness seminar for first‐year college students improved psychosocial well‐being and stress management (Conley, Travers, and Bryant [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref16">8</reflink>]). A 3‐year prospective cohort study showed that the implementation of the Project Enable in Hong Kong effectively alleviated college students' anxiety, fear, and taboo toward death (Chen, Yuan, and He [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref17">6</reflink>]). Moreover, systematic reviews and meta‐analyses demonstrated that school‐based education intervention indicates significant gains in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes and reduces suicidal ideation and suicide attempts (Pistone et al. [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref18">24</reflink>]; Wolitzky‐Taylor et al. [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref19">32</reflink>]). However, research on the relationship between students' suicide myths and their helping behaviors toward people at risk of suicide is scant. Many people worry that talking about, evaluating, and examining suicide drives suicide contagion or worsen the situation. Debunking such specific suicide myths can positively influence helping intentions and behaviors (Arendt et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref20">2</reflink>]; Nicholas et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref21">23</reflink>]). As a result of appropriate life education, it is more likely that students will no longer turn a blind eye to a friend in crisis because they are concerned about the risk of talking about suicide. There is extensive empirical research showing that this does not trigger adverse outcomes (Law et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref22">15</reflink>]; Polihronis et al. [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref23">25</reflink>]). They will no longer abandon the medical advice based on the preconceived notion that suicidal people are unwilling to seek help. Students receiving the education intervention were over four times more likely to refer suicidal friends to adults versus students in schools that had not received the intervention (Wyman et al. [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref24">34</reflink>]). Moreover, they will no longer try to find factors other than human beings to make suicides "all God's will" and take it for granted that they will not get involved. Accordingly, this study examines the construction characteristics of Chinese college students' perception of suicide and its prevention issues, as well as the cognitive biases reflected in their perception, before they receive life education systematically. Based on the in‐depth textual analysis, this study proposes targeted improvement strategies in life education to manage specific cognitive biases. The progressive approach from factual analysis to ethical care may alleviate the shortcomings of existing local research that is macro‐speculative.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-3">A Survey of General Cognitive Biases About Suicide</hd> <p>Study 1 employed a long‐term tracking experiment targeting first‐year college students, none of whom had previously received systematic life education on suicide‐related topics. It aimed to analyze the cognitive patterns and characteristics of common suicide issues among contemporary college students in China through questionnaire surveys. Every first‐year student on campus must take a life education course to earn the necessary credits; the survey is administered at the beginning of the program through an online data collection platform. The college's Research and Academic Ethical Committee approved this study. After the surveys, the results, the scholarly analysis, factual clarification, and discussion were presented to the students. Students could withdraw from the survey if they feel uncomfortable, and all the respondents gave consent for their data to be used in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-4">Participants</hd> <p>In the 2021 survey, 1837 data sets were collected (1087 males, average age 18.91 ± 1.32 years old, the participation rate was 92.22%). In 2022, 1778 data sets were collected (943 males, average age 18.65 ± 0.85 years old, the participation rate was 87.37%), and in 2023, 2050 data sets were collected (1184 males, average age 18.77 ± 0.78 years old, the participation rate was 91.80%). Simultaneously, 34 teachers with experience as class instructors or counselors (19 males, average age 34.65 ± 6.98 years old) were selected using convenience sampling for the same measurement and reference comparison.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-5">Designs</hd> <p>Participants were asked to determine their agreement or disagreement with 23 common views on suicide using a five‐point Likert scale ("1" means "strongly disagree," and "5" means "strongly agree"). These views were cited from published research on suicide myths commonly believed by laypeople (Li and Gan [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref25">18</reflink>]; Lin [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref26">19</reflink>]; Nicholas et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref27">23</reflink>]) with some expressions localized. To further assess the appropriateness of the items, the researcher consulted with two experts in two suicide prevention workshops. These views are referred to as cognitive biases or myths because they point to some facts; however, all contain inaccuracies such as excessive absolutism, overgeneralization, and erroneous attributions. A wait‐and‐see attitude or a doubtful stance on them is more reasonable. The degree of agreement with these views is more a reflection of the participant's knowledge of suicide‐related issues and the potential psychological defense mechanisms. Cronbach's α of the questionnaire was stable, ranging between 0.803 and 0.805 across academic years.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-6">Results</hd> <p>As shown in Figure 1, the specific results were sorted by the participants' agreement degree, from high to low, according to the academic year.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01may25/pits23396-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMMvl7ESepq84yOvsOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits23396-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 Comparison of the agreement degree with common suicide views." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184274953-8">Discussion</hd> <p>Overall, most college students tend to disagree with most suicide myths, including pathological explanations, impulsive behavior without rationality, questionable motives, external attribution beyond human factors, and a taken‐for‐granted "inability to help attitude." There was stability across academic years, with no significant differences in scores and ranking. Teachers would be more inclined to agree with views of "suicidal people rarely seek medical assistance," "suicide is an impulsive behavior without rationality," and "people who commit suicide all have mental problems." This will cause teachers to be unable to comprehend the student's distress, and promptly make referral decisions. Generally, the students demonstrated relatively mature cognition regarding suicide issues. However, the cognitive biases that require attention mainly focus on the following aspects.</p> <p>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref28">1</reflink>) The paradox of good versus bad external environment. A paired‐sample T‐test was conducted to examine the agreement tendency toward the two beliefs, namely, "a good external environment can prevent suicide" and "suicide generally occurs in the socioeconomically disadvantaged groups." The results showed significant differences in all the groups (2021: <emph>t</emph> (1836) = −29.68, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001; 2022: <emph>t</emph> (1777) = −30.95, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001; 2023: <emph>t</emph> (2049) = −29.25, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001; teachers: <emph>t</emph> (<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref29">33</reflink>) = −7.92, <emph>p </emph>< 0.001). These two beliefs represent two different expressions of one cognitive bias regarding whether there is a specific suicide population. The results show a surprising disparity, with the former overwhelmingly leaning toward agreement, ranking first in terms of agreement tendency. Owing to the spirit‐orientated social environment in China, and relatively, the admiration for "adversity education," people rarely correlate material poverty and mental fragility. However, subconsciously, an excessive inference that "material abundance brings about spiritual prosperity" may exist. Since the Middle Ages, both the church and governments in Europe have implemented severe punishment for suicide victims (Zhao [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref30">36</reflink>]). Both ecclesiastical and secular authorities regard the human body as a carrier of social crisis, and suicide as a blasphemy against faith and a provocation to the government's authority and competence. The belief that a devout or happy person living under good rule would not and should not commit suicide is essentially an illusion of top‐down power control. An analysis of 18 industrialized countries for the period from 1983 through 2007 revealed that the relationship between socioeconomic factors and suicide rates differs by sex. Decreasing economic growth is significantly associated with increasing suicide rates among men, while increasing economic growth is significantly associated with increasing suicides among women (Barth et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref31">5</reflink>]). A survey in China showed that children of highly educated and relatively stable professionals, and college students from families with an annual income of more than 100,000 Yuan are more likely to commit suicide than their counterparts (Qi et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref32">26</reflink>]). Therefore, suicide is evident across various social groups and classes, and a positive social and economic environment is not sufficiently preventative for suicide. This cognitive bias may drive many students in "good environments" to believe that they will not have any interactions with suicide and easily overlook early warning signs of crisis. It can also make people respond with indifference or harsh criticism to those students in "good environments" who are under higher expectations and pressure, thinking they are melodramatic or not living up to expectations.</p> <p>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref33">2</reflink>) The "selfishness" argument of suicide. A proportion of 22% of all respondents relatively agreed with this belief, and 15% strongly agreed. Views on suicide often reflect the different ethical and human rights principles of different people. This cognitive bias is manifested in the conflicting perspectives and perceptions between the suicide victim, their surviving family members, and others. Surviving family members often view the suicide victim as selfish, cowardly, and irresponsible. However, in reality, there is substantial evidence confirming that suicide victims usually mistakenly believe themselves to be the source of the misfortune of their families, and consider their death a blessing for others and an effective solution to all problems. Suicide victims typically arrange the aftermath in advance, or choose to commit suicide far away from home to avoid their family discovering the scene. Many rural older adults tend to commit altruistic suicide when they lose their ability to work, and feel like a burden or encumbrance on their offspring (Yang [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref34">35</reflink>]). Under the influence of strong negative emotions, people are prone to cognitive dissonance, which may influence the prevailing thought that suicide is a way to end it all, rather than being "abnormal," "lacking self‐control," and "psychologically fragile" (Troister et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref35">29</reflink>]; Troister and Holden [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref36">30</reflink>]). Therefore, it is biased to condemn suicide morally and unilaterally. Pre‐established moral standards can easily trap people into a dilemma of justifying their choices. They are essentially a form of power control that increases pressure, shame, and guilt. College life education needs to guide students to empathize with individuals' suffering and possible suicidal tendencies, and recognize these underlying "self‐regulation mechanisms" correctly and reasonably. Furthermore, students should learn and practice necessary thinking exercises to change value expectations, correct erroneous attributions, and acquire better means of upholding personal values, achieving justice, and solving problems.</p> <p>(<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref37">3</reflink>) The Elephant in the Room. The third viewpoint ranked by agreement is that "asking about suicide instils the idea in the other person's mind, and increases the risk of suicide." The hesitation and uncertainty exhibited by the respondents have a positive aspect, as college students are aware of the risks posed by irresponsible media coverage of suicide details, sensational headlines, or provocative language, which detract from the seriousness of death and mislead notions of suicide as a constructive solution. They have also recognized the potential inducement of discussions and dissemination of suicide cases on young people's social learning, that is, suicide imitation. However, this cognitive bias also implies that most college students lack understanding of how to communicate effectively, evaluate individuals with suicidal thoughts, and intervene appropriately during crises. Attempts to create a false sense of security for individuals during crises, and oneself through silence are misguided. If a student at risk of suicide feels that others may be aware of their suicidal tendencies but avoid talking about them, it can exacerbate feelings of despair and helplessness. Therefore, life education should focus on these topics.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-9">A Survey of Cognitive Biases About Suicide Prevention</hd> <p>Study 2 aims to examine the framework construction of crisis intervention among college students in a created practical context, and enhance and supplement Study 1 based on grounded theory.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-10">Methods</hd> <p>The survey randomly selected 16 instructional classes involved in life education (a total of 1469 students) and was conducted from December 2021 to June 2022. Before delivering the Crisis Intervention module in life education, the instructor assigned this postcourse survey through an online teaching platform. The survey required the first‐year students to imagine themselves facing a classmate in a high‐risk crisis. They were told to consider a case where they had to reduce the classmate's suicidal intention with only one sentence, and what it would be. None of the survey respondents had previously received systematic life education on crisis intervention topics. Following institutional ethics approval, students could withdraw from the survey if they feel uncomfortable.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-11">Results</hd> <p>Ultimately, 1284 feedback items were collected (the participation rate was 87.40%), which reflected various answers based on their own life experiences and reflections. These responses would be refined through coding, sorting, and sifting. Data analysis was independently conducted by two researchers with psychological research backgrounds (C. J. X., W. J. T.). They conducted open coding on the overall 1284 original concept labels, with an initial consensus rate of 91.59%. A third expert (L. H.) was invited to discuss any disagreed concept labels; ultimately, 16 categories that represented the meaning of these segments in terms of their properties and dimensions were developed. According to their latent logic, the categories created in open coding were further refined to form more precise explanations in axial coding. They were eventually merged into five categories (see Table 1 for specific categories and the definitions).</p> <p>1 Table Coding table of crisis intervention methods of college students.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Axial coding</th><th>Open coding</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Panic handlingEnsure safety by controlling the scene, reducing the emotional tension of the person in crisis, actively listening, and reducing suicidal tendencies with positive or negative techniques</td><td>De‐escalation (3.43%): Use relaxation techniques or a sense of humor to ease tension and avoid acting impulsively</td></tr><tr><td>Reducing Despair (9.50%): Remind the person in crisis of the supportive resources they have and the good they have experienced to hedge against the reality of despair</td></tr><tr><td>Allow Catharsis (3.27%): Guide emotional catharsis and inner sharing based on the empathy and normalization of the person's experiences and reactions in crisis</td></tr><tr><td>Reverse Imagery (2.49%): By describing the negative consequences resulting from suicide, elicit the person in crisis a fear of death and uncertainty about whether they will be able to escape the suffering</td></tr><tr><td>Psychological supportBuild a nonjudgmental, caring, agreeable, and compassionate relationship with the person in crisis and provide psychological support to make them feel safe, empowered, and no fear of being devalued, threatened, or abandoned</td><td>Companionship (9.27%): Prevent the person in crisis from being left alone or in a state of psychological isolation</td></tr><tr><td>Giving Hope (15.26%): Stimulate positive beliefs and provocatively promote a sense of courage and hope, usually with no substantive behavioral suggestions</td></tr><tr><td>Positive Regard (5.30%): View the person in crisis with a positive attitude and help them to have a more positive and objective self‐image</td></tr><tr><td>Information Support (0.47%): Provide information for referral or additional assistance from other support systems</td></tr><tr><td>AlternativesFind immediate/long‐term alternatives to mitigate crises and weaken conflicts, provide problem‐coping strategies, stimulate motivation, and restore life order and self‐control</td><td>Behavioral Activation (7.32%): Encourage the person in crisis to perform activities that have given them a sense of accomplishment and pleasure, and distract them from the crisis scenario immediately</td></tr><tr><td>Problem Solving (4.98%): Emphasize that death is not the best way to solve problems and encourage the person in crisis to try alternatives or other coping strategies</td></tr><tr><td>Future Plans (5.53%): Plan what the person in a crisis can do in the future, and vividly depict a bright future in which the suffering will have been relieved</td></tr><tr><td>EducationHelp people in crisis broaden their horizons, re‐examine the problem, challenge old beliefs, and gain new perspectives through education</td><td>Value Education (5.06%): Guide the person in crisis to cherish life by emphasizing the value of life</td></tr><tr><td>Psychological Education (6.54%): Make people in crisis have more reasonable perceptions and expectations of their situation through psychotherapy</td></tr><tr><td>Trade‐off (5.06%): Guide people in crisis to reason about the consequences of suicide through pros and cons analysis, and help them better sort out their thoughts</td></tr><tr><td>EthicsReinforce public awareness of people in crisis and restrain their suicidal behavior through ethical requirements and moral codes in cultural traditions</td><td>Responsibility Reminder (13.16%): Remind people in crisis about their responsibilities in various social relationships to avoid causing pain, trouble, and loss to others</td></tr><tr><td>Ethical Criticism (3.35%): Blame people in crisis for taking their lives lightly and judge them as morally selfish, vulnerable, and evasive, or use suicide bans directly</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note:</emph> The frequency distribution of the 16 subcategories is supplemented in the brackets.</p> <p>In the selective coding phase, core categories were integrated and arranged to form a larger theoretical framework that helped explain the relationships between the categories. Based on the above analysis, Study 2 built an emerging three‐level theoretical model of emergency‐individual‐society for crisis intervention among college students, as shown in Figure 2. At the emergency level, it primarily involves addressing the panic emotions of the suicide. At the individual level, it refers to providing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral support to crisis individuals, where different methods can be integrated to form an operational module. At the social level, it involves placing individuals within social relationships and triggering concerns about social condemnation based on ethical and moral standards. The group construction of college students suggests that crisis intervention for suicide prevention can be approached from these three levels and based on five dimensions, which can be further refined into 16 specific methods, including giving hope, problem‐solving, psychological education, reminding of responsibilities, and so on.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01may25/pits23396-fig-0002.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMMvl7ESepq84yOvsOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits23396-fig-0002.jpg" title="2 The three‐level construction model of crisis intervention of college students." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184274953-13">Discussion</hd> <p>The model seems cover the methods and techniques involved in professional crisis intervention theory. However, does the theoretical model of "3 levels‐5 dimensions‐16 methods" have any problems, and what are the merits and demerits of peer assistance among college students in the campus crisis intervention system? Further interpretation of the model is needed. Integrated with the frequency distribution of the 16 categories merged in open coding, some interesting questions can be identified.</p> <p>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref38">1</reflink>) Too much hope and too little problem‐solving. "Giving hope" is the most prevalent intervention method among all the participants' narrative experiences. It portrays a positive future and emphasizes that difficulties will eventually pass, motivating individuals to continue living. Examples of phrases used include, "The world is still full of beauty and joy, and as long as you put in the effort, you will find your brilliant starry sky," "The future is beautiful, and I hope you can persevere," "There is no night without dawn, and the world remains beautiful," and "Hold on a little longer, you can do it." However, such encouragement without substantive advice often disregards individuals' existing pain, unquestioningly believing that "Everything can start over," "Things will turn around tomorrow," and "There is no pain that cannot be overcome," which may deepen the crisis individual's sense of loneliness, and feeling of not being valued or understood. The lack of the ability to make oneself better and be hopeful is a typical feature of despair, making it difficult for the other person to dispel suicidal thoughts owing to a belief in this "false" hope. In the scenario where there was only one sentence to choose, the fact that "giving hope" was the preferred method reflects that college students still lack an appropriate understanding of the complexity and severity of suicide issues. In contrast, the technique of "problem‐solving" accounts for only 4.98%.</p> <p>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref39">2</reflink>) Too much moral opposition and too little individual attention. "Reminding of responsibility" is the second most common intervention method for the study participants. Students encourage the person with suicidal intentions to abandon their suicide attempts by reminding them of the responsibility they have to their family, friends, and society. Phrases such as "You are not living for yourself, but for those who love you," "Do you really want to disappoint those who silently care about and love you?" and "If you commit suicide, do you think your parents will still have hope to keep living?" demonstrate this intervention method. Based on the findings of Study 1, it can be observed that college students tend to relatively believe that individuals choose to commit suicide owing to selfishness, lack of responsibility, or self‐interest considerations. Despite this, a small percentage, 3.35% of students, still decide to intervene in crises through moral criticism, believing that "Suicide is a cowardly act," "It is simply being too selfish, too focused on oneself, and lacking the ability to cope with external pressures," or "It is the most irresponsible way of escaping." However, some suicide cases may be caused by excessive responsibility. An unhealthy family or poor relationships can also be the most significant source of their concerns. The results of Study 2 reflect that the life perspectives of college students, typically tend to lean toward Kantian philosophical thinking. Kant emphasizes that maintaining and developing one's life is an individual duty. However, he lacks reverence and compassion for life and tends to view life as a means of achieving an end, which leads to his coercion and devaluation of life (Bai and Li [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref40">4</reflink>]). From the survey results, it can also be observed that there is a small percentage of "positive attention" (e.g., "You are doing great, you are just tired" or "You are not weak, you are brave"), accounting for only 5.30%. Similarly, the permission of individuals to express their life difficulties and pain is also limited, accounting for only 3.27%. Life is sacred and worthy of reverence; however, the potential judgment that "morality is more important than life" can make individuals forget to show due sympathy and respect for life. College life education should not limit its moral discussion on suicide issues to a duty ethics approach based on rationality, but should engage in deeper discussions and corresponding reflections.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-14">General Discussion</hd> <p>As revealed by the two studies, the issue of college suicide and prevention is not simply a moral phenomenon. It involves complex contradictions and conflicts between goals and means, individual and social responsibilities, students and teachers, suicide victims and their families, moral education and psychological support, public opinion and ethical communication, and individual efficacy and social structures. It cannot simply be attributed to the lack of awareness or the shortcomings of life education in contemporary colleges.</p> <p>As stated by Rawls, "We can no longer regard people's diverse value pursuits, different understandings of human life goals, and ultimate concerns as abnormal or temporary phenomena that need to be integrated and unified, but rather we should regard the separation of certain value concepts as a lasting and normal state" (He [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref41">13</reflink>], p. 4). Although life education considers ultimate meaning, its practice is inevitably subjected to the constraints and norms of social life. Once faced with specific situations, the ethical tensions of diverse values will constantly trigger debates. To prevent students from falling into moral relativism or nihilism, it is indeed necessary for life education to seek new consensus through appropriate choices and enhancing understanding.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-15">Optimizing Strategies for Improving Life Education</hd> <p>Life education aims to guide students to respect life, treat life well, cherish life, explore the meaning and value of life, and promote the maturity of self‐personality and higher‐level development. It reflects the longing and admiration for classical self‐actualization‐based values in life philosophy. However, the current design and content of college life education may face challenges aligning with the student's new knowledge needs. The research results show that the obligation assumptions inherent in modern moral education, which emphasize social norms and the influence of multiculturalism, market economy, and humanistic thought, affect how college students understand the abandonment of life and reasons for survival. People are deeply trapped in the moral dilemmas of modernity, the confusion of means and ends, and conflicts between obligations. To address these issues, suicide prevention in life education should be optimized in the following areas, to meet changes in students and modern education's higher moral requirements.</p> <p>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref42">1</reflink>) Breaking taboos and silence. A branch of "meta‐suicidology" can be derived from college life education, which aims to be relatively neutral in moral admonition and focuses on the pursuit of truth. This branch involves the scholarly analysis and reflection on the concepts and principles related to suicide and its prevention. It is possible to include an explanation of the historical evolution of the secularization of suicide and its multidisciplinary background. This educational program should not only be aimed at students, but also involves teachers and counselors. It will help the learner gain a deeper understanding of suicide, avoiding simplistic categorization as purely "evil" and encouraging critical reflection on the dualities of "de‐stigmatization" and "pathological explanations." Freud rescued suicide from the accusation of being a morally inferior person controlled by demons; however, for the general public, the mental illness labels attached to suicide victims and their families also brought pressure. The other side of secularization of suicide includes the negative impacts on public interest and risks of landslide effect. By engaging in a dialectical and critical examination of the issue of suicide, it is possible to break certain taboos and eliminate corresponding misconceptions. A calm and objective attitude can help others, or even oneself in crisis, to no longer regard suicidal thoughts as something that needs to be concealed as a shameful act, but rather as a problem that needs to be addressed. By engaging in open discussions and actively listening to thoughts of suicide, one can feel a sense of relaxation rather than distress. Further training in effective communication and assessment skills can complement this approach.</p> <p>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref43">2</reflink>) Enhancing critical thinking and humanistic care. In the information age, universities cannot passively rely on all media outlets to adhere to basic ethical standards when reporting on suicide, or count on students' autonomous filtering and self‐correction. Life education should assume the corresponding responsibility. Suicide and its prevention, as complex moral phenomena, often provoke practical anxiety. Advocates of individual autonomy, social Darwinists, dogmatic moral guardians, and Confucian scholars may offer different moral concerns based on their distinct understandings of human nature and moral values. However, this practical anxiety can also stimulate reflection. Therefore, life education can incorporate more ethical discussions, ethically deconstruct the comprehensive moral conditions involved in case analyses, and engage in multidisciplinary examinations. It welcomes diverse and divergent moral evaluations, effectively guiding students to understand the complex causes of suicide, and the pragmatic motivations behind viewing suicide as a means to an end. Obstructed or unfulfilled psychological needs result in feelings of insult, guilt, anger, or despair; moreover, when mental suffering greatly exceeds an individual's capacity to bear it, individuals in multiple predicaments may consider suicide as the best solution, not necessarily as cowardice, selfishness, escapism, irresponsibility, impulsiveness, or pathology (Shneidman [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref44">28</reflink>]). Life education should not endorse or condemn suicide based on pre‐established moral theories, while empathy and understanding could prevent potential guilt, shame, and power disparity during crises. Such discussions and empathy possess a particular morality, helping students naturally rebuild their respect for the value and dignity of life. We can fundamentally address college students' psychological issues by grounding them in philosophical perspectives on life, values, and contemplation.</p> <p>(<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref45">3</reflink>) Focusing on problem‐solving skill training. The discussions in the previous two aspects do not imply that the issue of suicide is devoid of values. However, instead, they aim to prevent the issue's complexity from obscuring, leading to the collective imagination of a group being uncontroversially controlled in one direction. Life education must be value‐oriented but not reliant on sloganistic appeals or moral opposition. Instead, it should focus on cultivating individuals' problem‐solving skills. Problem‐solving is among the higher‐order skills required in the talent model of the 21st century. It is also the ultimate goal of university education, as stated by psychologist Gagné. While it may have a technical orientation, it undeniably plays a vital role in suicide prevention. The effectiveness of skill‐training interventions with supervised practice in preventing distress among college students is impressive compared to other universal prevention programs and treatments (Conley, Durlak, and Kirsch [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref46">7</reflink>]). Daily education should reflect this concept through flexible and diverse problem‐solving skills training. Only then can students engage in appropriate self‐help when experiencing distress and cognitive rigidity. On the other hand, the importance of problem‐solving in crisis intervention should be emphasized. By seeking feasible alternatives to suicide and providing practical suggestions, it acknowledges the individual's existing challenges without neglecting them, and avoids the deception caused by fostering false hopes.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-16">Limitation and Future Direction</hd> <p>This study focuses on a specific group of college students and examines their perception of suicide and its prevention issues. Future studies can be expanded to different populations, including students of other academic levels, educators, social workers, government personnel, and so on. This will make the life education's construction and improvement a systematic work involving the whole community. On the other hand, prepost surveys of the campus‐based life education should be conducted, measuring trainees' self‐perceived and objective knowledge, attitudes, help‐seeking behaviors, and intervention skills. In the present study, both surveys only focused on the cognitive status of college students before systematically receiving life education. In fact, the question from Study 2 is very suitable as a criterion to evaluate whether the life education program has effectively reduced specific suicidal myths and increased proper helping behaviors. Effectiveness testing can help campus decision‐makers and practitioners understand and apply the research evidence to their needs in the area of student mental health and suicide prevention. Additionally, more in‐depth interviews are needed to obtain more details.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-17">Conclusion</hd> <p>Based on the survey results of this study, the Chinese college student population already possesses a relatively mature cognitive attitude toward suicide issues and has a systematic structural representation of crisis intervention before they receive any systematic life education on suicide prevention. This generally reflects a benevolent, humanistic care and ethical view toward life. However, there are also some prominent cognitive biases, mainly focused on concerns in the communication and assessment process, difficulties in viewing suicide as a complex moral phenomenon, and insufficient problem‐oriented awareness in crisis intervention. The improvement of college life education in China should focus on debunking these specific cognitive biases.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-18">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>This work was supported by the Zhejiang Provincial Philosophy and Social Sciences Planning Project #1 (Grant 22GXSZ029YB); Zhejiang Provincial Education Science Planning Project #2 (Grant 2022SCG223).</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-19">Ethics Statement</hd> <p>The college's Research and Academic Ethical Committee approved this study. After the surveys, the results, scholarly analysis, factual clarification, and discussion were presented to the students. Students could withdraw from the survey if they feel uncomfortable, and all the respondents gave consent for their data to be used in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-20">Conflict of Interest</hd> <p>The author declares no conflict of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0184274953-21">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in Science Data Bank at https://<ulink href="http://www.scidb.cn/,">www.scidb.cn/,</ulink> reference number https://doi.org/10.57760/sciencedb.17667.</p> <ref id="AN0184274953-22"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref6" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> American Foundation for Suicide Prevention Public Policy Office. 2018. 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  Label: Abstract
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  Data: Life education is an essential element of suicide prevention in colleges. However, the existing practice of life education in China may be insufficient to match the new spectrum of students' knowledge needs. The study exemplified the participants' responses to common suicide myths with a 3-year follow-up investigation (Study 1), and the optimal strategies individuals chose to manage the people in crisis in a hypothetical scenario (Study 2). The results revealed that generally, college students in China have mature cognitive attitudes toward suicide-related issues, and have systematic structural representations of crisis intervention. However, there are some prominent cognitive biases, mainly focusing on concerns in the process of communication and evaluation, difficulty in considering suicide as a complex moral phenomenon, and insufficient awareness of problem orientation in crisis interventions. To match the students' new cognitive changes and modern education's higher moral requirements, the optimization direction should focus on the response to students' personalized cognitive reality by adding meta-suicidology reflection, learning ethical reduction in case analysis, and cultivating problem-solving skills.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: Note
  Label: Notes
  Group: Note
  Data: https://doi.org/10.57760/sciencedb.17667
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1466217
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1466217
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/pits.23396
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 10
        StartPage: 1313
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Bias
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Suicide
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Prevention
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Misconceptions
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Family Life Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Maturity (Individuals)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Crisis Intervention
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reflection
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Ethics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Problem Solving
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: China
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Chinese College Students' Cognitive Biases toward Suicide Prevention and Associated Strategies to Improve Life Education
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Jiaxin Chen
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 05
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0033-3085
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1520-6807
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 62
            – Type: issue
              Value: 5
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Psychology in the Schools
              Type: main
ResultId 1