Big Administration Reforms against Catholic Reformist Traditions: Fusion of State and Church Mid-Level School Administrations in Early Nineteenth-Century Prussian Silesia
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| Title: | Big Administration Reforms against Catholic Reformist Traditions: Fusion of State and Church Mid-Level School Administrations in Early Nineteenth-Century Prussian Silesia |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Jan Uredat (ORCID |
| Source: | Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education. 2025 61(1):153-175. |
| Availability: | Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 23 |
| Publication Date: | 2025 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Evaluative |
| Education Level: | Elementary Education |
| Descriptors: | Educational Change, Educational History, Catholics, Protestants, Elementary Schools, School Administration, Government School Relationship, Clergy, School Supervision, Inspection, Middle Management, Nationalism, Church Role, Foreign Countries |
| Geographic Terms: | Poland, Germany, Czechoslovakia |
| DOI: | 10.1080/00309230.2024.2399354 |
| ISSN: | 0030-9230 1477-674X |
| Abstract: | In what are often described as modern Western school systems, the supervision of elementary schools generally shifted from the hands of clerical administrators to genuine state officials during the nineteenth century. The Prussian state, like other predominantly Protestant states, relied on clerical personnel and church supervision structures to establish its school supervision administration. Yet, this was also true for the more Catholic parts of the Prussian monarchy, where integration of church structures into state administration caused friction between state and church authorities. Hence, this contribution focuses on appointments of school inspectors in early nineteenth-century Prussian Silesia, when friction arose between the state and the prince-bishop concerning appointment rights. These frictions are reflected in the process of newly introduced mid-level state school administrations taking over episcopal appointment rights, which has been described as a nationalisation or secularisation of Silesian school administration. The article proposes a more nuanced approach to the restructuring of Silesian school administration, driven by consecutive administration reforms resulting in a fusion of church and state administration, rather than a traditional secularisation narrative. It traces the subtle ties between the Prussian state, episcopal administration, and clerical inspection personnel that led to the gradual assertion of state over ecclesiastical structures. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Entry Date: | 2025 |
| Accession Number: | EJ1466258 |
| Database: | ERIC |
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| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwHHH_m2pUldUwukO3XK7UTnAAAA4jCB3wYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHRMIHOAgEAMIHIBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDI7nujAFKsuUetJGqwIBEICBmtjECMspVpFLND1x3JaFDikOdKMDqAKvn3174G25oA1mBX8wLm4y8DD2-sN06hRTicLS7xXOlgMsnV38dU1Fg9pYeg58vt1zWBaHN2APpkLtXF1-PRSkqYAsXHfqYtlPRYaC8HZiYZpiKv2ollA8uBTruAKswEPg0ALhFoxqWYAAPaJNgopyrx--SQePaoZqIlECA9iSpMFccwY= Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0182848443;j5401feb.25;2025Feb10.03:58;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0182848443-1">Big administration reforms against Catholic reformist traditions: fusion of state and church mid-level school administrations in early nineteenth-century Prussian Silesia </title> <p>In what are often described as modern Western school systems, the supervision of elementary schools generally shifted from the hands of clerical administrators to genuine state officials during the nineteenth century. The Prussian state, like other predominantly Protestant states, relied on clerical personnel and church supervision structures to establish its school supervision administration. Yet, this was also true for the more Catholic parts of the Prussian monarchy, where integration of church structures into state administration caused friction between state and church authorities. Hence, this contribution focuses on appointments of school inspectors in early nineteenth-century Prussian Silesia, when friction arose between the state and the prince-bishop concerning appointment rights. These frictions are reflected in the process of newly introduced mid-level state school administrations taking over episcopal appointment rights, which has been described as a nationalisation or secularisation of Silesian school administration. The article proposes a more nuanced approach to the restructuring of Silesian school administration, driven by consecutive administration reforms resulting in a fusion of church and state administration, rather than a traditional secularisation narrative. It traces the subtle ties between the Prussian state, episcopal administration, and clerical inspection personnel that led to the gradual assertion of state over ecclesiastical structures.</p> <p>Keywords: Elementary school inspection; administrative reforms; secularisation; state-church system; Prussia</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-2">1. Introduction</hd> <p>The subject of elementary school inspectors and school inspection has recently gained momentum in its own right as an enabling force of modern school systems.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] This focus on school inspection also draws attention towards school administration personnel policies, as a prerequisite for the types of personnel and qualifications that have been recruited into elementary school administration, and subsequently the functioning of school supervision. Specially appointed school inspectors not only played a key role in linking school administration to regional school practices,[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>] but their appointment also became a matter of increasing state interest. In the Prussian and other German cases, the state mostly relied on clerical personnel for elementary school inspection during the time of consecutive school reforms in the late eighteenth and during the nineteenth century.[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>] However, the relationships between state and church authorities, especially Catholic ones, had not been harmonious during this period. By the end of the nineteenth century, the "Fight over School"[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>] had become a popular terminology referring to the assumed struggle for power between the institutions. These struggles relate to secularisation as a larger process of (partial) "modernisation".[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>] However, there was also room for cooperation between state and Catholic authorities. The case study presented in this article depicts an early nineteenth-century case of a specific Catholic school administration apparatus composed of clerical personnel. This perspective straddles supposedly clear-cut categories of the "modern" and the "secular" and escapes binary depictions of conflicts between the Prussian state and the Catholic church.</p> <p>Traditional German history of educational administration research has so far mostly assumed[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>] the absence of clerical school supervision as constitutive for a national school system and focused on a narrative of opposition between the state and the church.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>] However, perpetuating the focus on the major disputes surrounding the abolition of clerical school supervision obscures the view of the role of the state in the organisation of clerical school supervision itself. Long before the <emph>Kulturkampf</emph>, the administrative Prussian Reforms (1807–1815) had already established a more direct and hierarchical relationship between the state and the church's administration, as the mid-level school administration became especially important for modern school systems, constituting the interface between central authorities and individual schools.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]</p> <p>In this case study, I will show how the Catholic reformist traditions, which shaped the Catholic Silesian elementary school supervision of the late eighteenth century, were overshadowed by the larger Prussian Reforms at the beginning of the nineteenth century, allowing the fusion of Catholic school supervision with the Prussian administrative apparatus. These reforms, along with provincial reforms at the outset of the century, led to an extensive restructuring of Catholic elementary school supervision within the vast Prince-Bishopric of Wrocław,[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>] resulting in an expansion of the Catholic supervisory administration and a decline of episcopal influence over that administration. The years following the Silesian Secularisation (1811–1820), when the prince-bishop lost most of his authority over appointments of inspectors and frictions between the newly formed Prussian governments and the episcopal administration intensified,[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>] are especially of interest. Clashes of state and episcopal bureaucratic administration are well documented for this period.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>]</p> <p>Concerning larger processes of secularisation which are traditionally related to modernisation,[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref12">12</reflink>] this article asks how the shift from episcopal appointment authority to the state in the field of school supervision took place in the Prince-Bishopric of Wrocław at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The process of selecting personnel and the legal and administrative contexts in which they were chosen were crucial in determining who was recruited to the school supervisory boards. The article therefore focuses on appointments of county school inspectors (<emph>Kreisschulinspektoren</emph>) as well as school commissioners (<emph>Schulräte</emph>) as representatives of the mid-level school administration. Hence, it does not take local inspectorships into account, which were much more connected to local communities and would entail a more nuanced perspective on local actors and parents.</p> <p>In doing so, it discusses the influence of the reorganisation of the Catholic school administration following the Prussian Reforms, particularly at the mid-level, which led to further integration of the former episcopally administered school supervision into the state administration. This paper will also challenge the traditional perspective of focusing on the secularisation of school administration in the nineteenth century, presenting the high degree of cooperation between state and Catholic administration and personnel in Silesia in a restructuring phase in the field of supervision personnel, laying out the fusion of state and church Catholic elementary school administration. Drawing on insights advanced by Simon Gordt,[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref13">13</reflink>] the article employs the secularisation pattern of "fusion of state and church in education" described for the German states, especially Protestant Prussia, as a frame of reference for the case study. The article will expand this analysis of the Prussian secularisation pattern by including a relevant Catholic Prussian context.</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-3">2. Historiography and conceptual framework</hd> <p>Situated right in the midst of the major conceptual and institutional shifts subsumed under the concept of <emph>Sattlezeit</emph> by Koselleck, the beginning of the nineteenth century was a transformative phase for the Silesian elementary school administration and supervision. Following state reforms specifically of Catholic schooling in Silesia and during the so-called Prussian Reforms, episcopal as well as new state boards were established and dissolved again and competences shifted between the authorities. These shifts took place in a time of a general restructuring process of the Prussian administration when administrative and power relations between the state, its regions, higher and mid-level administration bodies were rearranged.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>] State interference with church matters in this regard was not only characteristic of the nineteenth century but can be traced back to the eighteenth century as well.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>] The Prussian state in the eighteenth century mostly interfered with "external" matters only and granted the Catholic Church full and unrestricted authority over "inner" church matters, including Catholic school supervision.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref16">16</reflink>] However, in his influential and comprehensive work, Alois Kosler emphasises a shift in the dynamics between state and episcopal administration in the early nineteenth century.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>] According to Kosler, the Silesian secularisation and disputes over spheres of influence within Catholic school supervision eroded the supportive attitude of the Prussian state board towards the episcopal school administration within the first two decades of the nineteenth century.[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref18">18</reflink>] Later historiographical works on Silesian school politics and school duties of clergymen still largely followed Kosler's insights.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref19">19</reflink>]</p> <p>The article will explore these shifts as a case of "fusion of state and church in education". First, it will establish the framework for the analysis of the Catholic Silesian case (Section 2.1) in the context of the secularisation of elementary schooling in Prussia. Subsequently, the peculiarities of the case vis-à-vis the Prussian (Lutheran) state-church system will be discussed (Section 2.2), and the relevant offices of the secondary school system in the Prince-Bishopric of Wrocław will be presented (Section 2.3). The administration of Catholic elementary schooling within the prince-bishopric differed significantly from the Protestant school administration in both organisational and legal forms, particularly concerning the greater legal rights of the prince-bishop. For this reason, shifts concerning legal episcopal authority and clerical administration will be the focus of the analyses of patterns of cooperation and disputes between state and church regarding the structure of school inspection and the appointment of inspection personnel (Section 3). In this section, after a brief introduction to the Catholic reformist tradition of elementary school administration in Silesia (Section 3.1) both the expansion of episcopal school administration until 1810 (Section 3.2) and the frictions in the subsequent decade involving the dwindling episcopal influence on appointments of school inspectors are focal points (Section 3.3).</p> <p>It should also be noted that administrative decision-making in Prussia was often very pragmatic and, as Seibel puts it, the result of a "culture of cooperation and compromise".[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref20">20</reflink>] It is therefore to be expected that traces of this pragmatism will also be evident in the use of inherited church administrative structures and the concrete appointment of individual civil servants. The article will therefore consider not only the structural shifts in the appointment of the large group of county school inspectors (Section 3.3.1) but also individual cases in the appointment of early school commissioners (Section 3.3.2). In section 4, the results will be summarised and the peculiarities of the case will be discussed.</p> <p>As this article focuses on changing administrative structures as perquisites of school administration and supervision, it is mostly based on documents on appointments, primarily by the Episcopal School Commission, as well as the royal district governments. Additional overviews of the school inspection personnel in the prince-bishopric and the province of Silesia can be found in address books, calendars, or handbooks of the province (<emph>Schlesische Instanzien-Notitz, Handbuch über den Königlich-Preußischen Hof und Staat</emph>) or the clergy specifically (<emph>Schematismen</emph>).</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-4">2.1 The case study within the wider process of secularisation of school administration in Pru...</hd> <p>As Caruso points out,[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref21">21</reflink>] the extent to which the traditional oversight of elementary schooling by the churches was employed during the nineteenth century varied in different European cases. As state-church relationships are most important for the changing administrative structures and the appointment of inspection personnel, a closer look at these relationships for the Prussian case is necessary. To this end, Gordt's description of a "fusion" pattern of educational secularisation will be employed. The larger and, in the case of Prussia, centuries-long development of secularisation in education described by the pattern of fusion will be considered more closely for the case of Catholic school supervision in an intense time of reforms. For this reason, only a significant part of the development of the fusion of church and state in school supervision will be described here.</p> <p>According to Gordt's multi-level analyses, school supervision was a part of the administrative dimension of spheres of religious influence on the school system. While the state utilised church administrative structures initially, the churches lost their influence on school administration in the wake of the nationalisation of school systems, shifting the religious influence of the churches away from the administrative sphere towards the operation of private schools as well as religious education.[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref22">22</reflink>] The patterns of "fusion" (<emph>Fusion</emph>), integrated division (<emph>Integrierte Teilung</emph>), and separation (<emph>Spaltung</emph>) provide a meaningful distinction, when including most of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The identified pattern for the Prussian context, fusion, allows one to interpret the reorganisation of Catholic school administration in Silesia as a case of fusion of the episcopal school supervision personnel and the state administrative apparatus, which was only taking shape at that time. A comprehensive transformation of the social order, as described by the concept of secularisation as the emancipation of social institutions from religious control,[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref23">23</reflink>] had not yet progressed in Prussia at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The application of the secularisation pattern of fusion is therefore limited to the state integration and appropriation of church administrative structures, described for the case of the Catholic Silesian elementary school administration discussed here. It is thus made compatible with the larger Protestant-influenced Prussian case.</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-5">2.2 The Prussian Staatskirchentum</hd> <p>The relationship between the Prussian state and the church in the nineteenth century was characterised by cooperation and the employment of church structures for school administration,[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>] within the Lutheran state-church system (<emph>Staatskirchentum</emph>). The evolving school supervision of the largely Lutheran Prussian state was clerically staffed and carried out cooperatively in a joint effort of state and church.[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref25">25</reflink>] The subordination of the church allowed the state to employ clerics as state officials. Clergymen overseeing schools performed their duties on behalf of the state and conducted themselves as civil servants.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref26">26</reflink>] This system allowed the Prussian state to establish a national system of education relatively early, using existing church supervision structures and personnel.[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref27">27</reflink>]</p> <p>Another example of this pattern including a state-church system would be the "undecidedly Protestant"[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref28">28</reflink>] Sweden, where national school supervision had been formally established since the Protestant Reformation, but was delegated to the church.[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref29">29</reflink>] However, the pattern can also be identified in Catholic contexts, like Austria. Even though Austrian school supervision underwent significant changes, towards "nationalisation and laicisation"[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref30">30</reflink>] – especially concerning the introduction of non-clerical county commissioners for school supervision (<emph>Kreiskommissare in Schulsachen</emph>) – the local inspection was still carried out by clerics, and school inspection was formally put into the hands of the Catholic church again in 1806.[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref31">31</reflink>]</p> <p>The Prussian state also administrated denominationally mixed regions with large proportions of the Catholic population, like Silesia, Posen, or the Rhineland in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and the hierarchically structured cooperative relationship between the state and the church was not limited to the Protestant school systems, but extended to these Catholic regions as well.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref32">32</reflink>] Applying the secularisation pattern of <emph>fusion</emph> allows one to highlight the degree of cooperation between the state and not just the Lutheran, but the Catholic Church as well. However, by using this term, I do not want to suggest that secular elementary school supervision was realised in early nineteenth-century Prussia. As Gordt puts it, the more pronounced secularisation of schooling only started later during the nineteenth century in Sweden (1842) and Austria (1867), while the German school system was heavily denominationally organised until the early twentieth century.[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref33">33</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-6">2.3 Mid-level elementary school administration of the Prince-Bishopric of Wrocław</hd> <p>The main objective of mid-level school inspection was to ensure maintenance and improvement as well as state control over regional schooling. According to the Prussian model of school inspection Catholic deans – in Silesia called archpriests – or Protestant superintendents inspected schools and churches in their district or county (<emph>Kreis</emph>). This article uses the term "county" to refer to state districts. The term "district" will not be used, to avoid confusion with the much larger Prussian government districts (<emph>Regierungsbezirke</emph>), as well as the <emph>Schul-Distrikt</emph> that was common, for example, in the Habsburg Lands.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref34">34</reflink>] The archpriests or county school inspectors reported to the state authorities allowing for a certain control of school conditions and eventual improvements in their districts.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref35">35</reflink>] The state also relied on the function of county school inspectors as administrators of regional elementary schooling to enact central school regulations. When new regulations for Catholic elementary schools were issued in 1801, the inspectors were directly tasked to enact and oversee their implementation in the counties.[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref36">36</reflink>]</p> <p>County school inspectors at the beginning of the nineteenth century acted as mass school inspectors[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref37">37</reflink>] inspecting and administrating elementary schools. According to Detlef K. Müller's model of system formation of the Prussian school system in three successive phases (system finding, system constitution, system completion), the beginning of the nineteenth century can be classified as a part of the period of system finding.[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref38">38</reflink>] Elementary schooling in early nineteenth-century Prussia cannot be considered a homogeneous type of schooling but consisted of a range of different types of public and private schools – for example, schools for the poor or private <emph>Winkelschulen</emph> in urban or itinerant schools (<emph>Wanderschulen</emph>) in rural areas. In the period from 1816 to 1828, more than 90% of Prussian pupils visited an elementary school, even though the total school attendance for the whole of Prussia was approximately 65%.[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref39">39</reflink>] This was also the case in Silesia. A look at an early school statistical survey illustrates the proportion of elementary schooling within the Silesian school system: in 1816, 94.1% of Silesian pupils visited an elementary school, 4.5% a "middle school" (<emph>Bürger- oder Mittelschule</emph>) and only 1.4% visited a higher <emph>Gelehrtenschule</emph>.[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref40">40</reflink>]</p> <p>Another important mid-level school administration office was introduced following the Prussian Reforms: the school commissioners (<emph>Schulräte</emph>). These commissioners administered the technical aspects of elementary schooling within the newly formed government districts and acted as facilitators between the state and the (larger) regions.[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref41">41</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-7">3. Catholic reformist tradition and the administrative reforms of Silesian school supervision...</hd> <p>When Prussia seized the Duchy of Silesia as well as the County of Glatz in 1741/1742, the almost exclusively Protestant Prussian state was confronted not only with a significant number of new Catholic citizens, especially in Upper Silesia, but also with an established hierarchically organised prince-bishopric.[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref42">42</reflink>] Prussian Silesia was a denominationally diverse province, comprising a predominantly Protestant north (Lower Silesia) and a Catholic South (Upper Silesia). In 1816, when new royal government districts were created, approximately 88% of the population in the southern district of Oppeln were Catholics, whereas 84% of those in Lower Silesian Liegnitz adhered to the Lutheran faith.[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref43">43</reflink>] The Prussian state upheld the traditional organisation of Catholic school administration with its administrative clerical apparatus. However, despite Prussian promises of upholding the status quo in Catholic Silesia, the state also imposed a state administration on this system,[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref44">44</reflink>] cut administrative ties to Rome, and restricted Catholic orders.[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref45">45</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-8">3.1 Catholic reformist tradition: the first Catholic school supervision reform (1765)</hd> <p>Although the General Land Law (<emph>Allgemeines Landrecht</emph>) of 1794 had clearly formulated the state's dominion over elementary schooling,[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref46">46</reflink>] its subsidiary character depending on existing provincial legislation allowed for regional deviation. Silesia issued the first school regulation of any Prussian province with a large Catholic population in November 1765. Developed by the Catholic Abbot Johann Ignatz Felbiger, the reform placed Catholic school supervision in the episcopal dominion, employing the episcopal administration for <emph>de jure</emph> state school supervision.[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref47">47</reflink>] Another novelty was the introduction of special school inspectors. The inspectors, who were appointed by the auxiliary bishop from the ranks of the parish clergy, were superior to the archpriests in matters of school administration.[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref48">48</reflink>] These clergymen were directly subordinate to the prince-bishop's higher authority in school matters and they were supposed to function as mid-level agents within a hierarchically organised Catholic school administration. The traditional church inspectors, the archpriests, still acted as both church and school inspectors.[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref49">49</reflink>] Hence, the inspectors were responsible for school improvement in several archipresbyterates assigned to them. The number of inspection districts varied between one and eight, so that on average each inspector had three supervisory districts under his supervision.[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref50">50</reflink>] Local school inspection, on the other hand, was carried out by the parish priests. The Prussian state utilised the episcopal organisation and its personnel to enable state-controlled school supervision in a "mixed" affair of state and church,[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref51">51</reflink>] which corresponds to Gordt's pattern of fusion. The organisation of Catholic elementary school administration at the end of the eighteenth century thus already followed the characteristic Prussian structure of state and church administration.</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-9">3.2 Expansion of the episcopal school administration (1801–1810)</hd> <p>The provincial Catholic General Land Law (<emph>General-Land-Schul-Reglement</emph>) still organised the Silesian school administration and supervision at the beginning of the nineteenth century,[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref52">52</reflink>] including special rights for the prince-bishop regarding Catholic school supervision, thus perpetuating the Catholic school reforms of 1765. The protection of these episcopal rights was moreover repeated in the Silesian School Reglement of 1800 (<emph>Neues Schul-Reglement für die Universität Breslau und die damit verbundenen Gymnasien</emph>), allowing the prince-bishop to appoint two assessors for the new Royal Catholic School Directorate (<emph>Königlich katholische Haupt-Schulen Direktion</emph>).[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref53">53</reflink>] During the elaboration of new school regulations, Silesia witnessed the establishment of both a new state school board and a new episcopal school board at the outset of the nineteenth century. For an overview of the state and episcopal Catholic school administration at the beginning of the century see Figure 1.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Administrative structure of Catholic school supervision in the Province of Silesia in 1801, based on Kosler, Die Preußische Volksschulpolitik in Oberschlesien 1742–1848, 102–106.</p> <p>The Royal School Directorate supervised the higher and elementary Catholic schools as the provincial state school board. Its members were – though mostly members of the Catholic clergy – state officials. However, this board was only given the secondary supervision ("<emph>Mitaufsicht</emph>") over Catholic elementary schools.[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref54">54</reflink>] Its episcopal counterpart board was convened by the prince-bishop shortly thereafter in 1801 (see Figure 1). The Episcopal School Commission (<emph>Fürstbischöfliche Schulenkommission der Breslauer Diözese</emph>) took over the administration of episcopal school affairs from the Episcopal General Vicariate Office (<emph>Bischöfliches General-Vicariat-Amt</emph>) and existed only until shortly after the Silesian secularisation, which will be discussed in Section 3.3. In 1812, the episcopal commission was dissolved and the episcopal school administration was once again assigned to the General-Vicariate Office.[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref55">55</reflink>] The episcopal administrators who were appointed by the prince-bishop were exclusively all clergymen.[<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref56">56</reflink>]</p> <p>The amicable relations between episcopal and state school administration allowed the establishment of the new school boards without friction between the prince-bishop and the state. The prince-bishop, in contrast, adopted the state's objectives in elementary school administration, which Kosler attributes to the influence of the Enlightenment on the Silesian administration.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref57">57</reflink>] However, the prince-bishop and his administration were also granted a privileged role in the supervision of Catholic schools. In the regulations for the higher schools issued on 26 July 1800 (<emph>Neues Schulreglement für die Universität Breslau und die damit verbundenen Gymnasia</emph>),[<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref58">58</reflink>] which laid out the framework for the competences of the Royal School, the state board was explicitly reminded to preserve the prince-bishop's rights as an <emph>ordinarius</emph>. The prince-bishop was granted the right to appoint two assistants to the directorate and to "instruct and authorise" them according to his discretion. This was sufficient reason for the prince-bishop to convene his own school commission in order to continue exercising his jurisdiction over the Catholic elementary school system in his diocese.[<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref59">59</reflink>] Another reason for convening this commission was the increasing workload of the prince-bishop's vicariate office, not least due to the integration of parts of the Kraków diocese into Silesia.[<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref60">60</reflink>] Consequently, a more elaborate parallel state and church administration had been set up, resulting from the reforms of 1800 and 1801. Both administrations claimed a (partial) mandate for school supervision and utilised the same personnel for regional school inspection, creating the potential for conflict for the second decade of the century.</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-10">3.2.1 Appointing clerical personnel for mid-level school administration</hd> <p>At the outset of the nineteenth century, the administrative framework concerning school supervision and territorial responsibilities was modified in the regulations of 1800 and 1801, which were carried out together by the church and state.[<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref61">61</reflink>] The 46 new county school inspectors of 1801 were appointed by the prince-bishop directly from the ranks of the parish clergy.[<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref62">62</reflink>] Considering the pragmatism of Prussian administrative decision-making and the limited number of personnel accessible to both the prince-bishop and the state, this should not be surprising. These priests were already installed in their parishes and qualified candidates for school inspection were not easy to find in rural areas.[<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref63">63</reflink>] Wilhelm Harnisch, the Prussian pedagogue, advocate for the improvement of school supervision training[<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref64">64</reflink>] and director of the Protestant teacher college in Wrocław, even pointed out the model character of the Catholic school inspectorate for Protestant school supervision.[<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref65">65</reflink>] He also stressed the question of selection of personnel for this post and concluded: "Who else [but a cleric] should be suited for this office? [...] The teachers at Universities or grammar schools? – Few will climb down from their heights! – Who else would be there? No one – no one! School supervision is owed to [<emph>gebührt</emph>] a clergyman or such a man whose real business is elementary schooling".[<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref66">66</reflink>]</p> <p>Although many county school inspectors were archpriests themselves,[<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref67">67</reflink>] archpriests were only recommended to inspect schools alongside church inspection and were formally relieved of their school supervision duties.[<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref68">68</reflink>] From 1801 onwards, school inspection was organised in the hands of a greater number of county school inspectors. This separation also suggests the assumption of separate inspection skills for school and church inspectors. However, both overlapping groups of inspectors were parish clergymen. The instructions given for archpriests in 1812 focused on ceremonial aspects of church life, liturgical equipment, church inventory, the state of the church building itself, the celebration of religious ceremonies, conducts of clergymen, the church finances, etc., and school life was not a particular focus of these inspections. Solely the involvement of the local priests in school matters was to be reported as part of a general report on their conduct.[<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref69">69</reflink>] County school inspectors on the other hand had to follow an instruction with 43 paragraphs, exceeding the visitation process itself, specifically oriented towards school administration.[<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref70">70</reflink>] The prince-bishop reminded the new inspectors that their office was tied to their pedagogical qualification and was not a church office that they could expect to keep forever.[<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref71">71</reflink>]</p> <p>These instructions bear remarkably few references to religious duties and address the county school inspectors as school supervisors and administrators. After stating the core qualities of the ideal inspector as a state official (§ 1–3) – such as integrity, patriotism, and loyalty to their duty ("<emph>Rechtschaffenheit, Amtstreue und Patriotismus</emph>") – the instructions provide strategies for the operational level of regional school administration (§ 4–11). The process of the annual visitation of the local schools, extending to the observation of classes, the condition of the school building, as well as the gathering of information on the conduct of the teacher, school attendance and the role of parents, and the local priest concerning his duties in the school, is most emphasised in these instructions (§ 12–26).</p> <p>The inspectors were also reminded of their duty to regularly report their findings to the superior provincial as well as episcopal authorities (§ 24–26, 30). Complaints about the local clergy should, however, only be reported to clerical authorities. Particular reference was also given to specific local school improvements, such as the introduction of work schools, the resolution of conflicts over new school buildings, and the documentation of existing non-state schools (§ 27–29, 31). Certain accomplishments by the inspectors, such as the establishment of work schools or a fund for widows and orphans of teachers in the county, were later published in the <emph>Diöcesanblatt</emph> (1803–1811), a periodical addressing the diocesan clergy.[<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref72">72</reflink>]</p> <p>Additionally, the inspectors were tasked with educating, training, and testing new teachers in their respective districts (§ 38–41). Thus, school inspectors were supposed to be dedicated state officials, aligned to state and episcopal authorities alike, effective regional school managers, and advocates of the new school regulation and pedagogical reform projects. These requirements were oriented towards first and foremost pedagogically qualified school inspection personnel, making little notice of clerical duties. County school inspectors were moreover reminded to make observations and strive towards acquiring new pedagogical knowledge, which they should pass on to their subordinated teachers (§ 3). While only providing a highly idealised perception of a county school inspector, the instructions support the emphasis on pedagogical and educational over clerical expertise. Similar instructions were later given to inspectors in parts of Prussian Silesia under the authority of the bishops of Prague and Olomouc.[<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref73">73</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-11">3.2.2 Alignment of church and school inspection districts</hd> <p>Transitions from a purely church-related administrative apparatus towards a state-centred one become evident regarding the territorial aspect of administrative competences. Although many inspectors were archpriests themselves, their districts were selected not according to church districts (<emph>Archipresbyterate</emph>), but to state counties, to allow for better communication with state authorities, especially the county commissioners (<emph>Landräte</emph>).[<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref74">74</reflink>] The former direct territorial congruence of church and school inspectorates in the form of archipresbyterates had thus been dissolved. Likewise, the Episcopal School Commission had been structured according to state counties. The five commission members had each been assigned certain counties,[<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref75">75</reflink>] ensuring that the episcopal and state territorial administrative structures were compatible.</p> <p>With the formation of the Episcopal School Commission and the appointment of county school inspectors, a new multi-level episcopal school inspection administration was created. In this system, the Episcopal School Commission and the Royal Catholic School Directorate were working collectively to supervise the implementation of sovereign instructions. The inspectors were expected to contribute to this joint effort in their regional work, to educate "good and useful citizens for the fatherland – true and active worshipers for the religion".[<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref76">76</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-12">3.2.3 Episcopal rights and collaborative appointment of county school inspectors</hd> <p>Beyond structural issues, episcopal influence on school administration was still particularly exerted through the selection and appointment of inspectors. The Episcopal School Commission presented prospective county school inspectors to the prince-bishop before he appointed them. The commission had to consider the pedagogical and other qualifications, like spoken language, of candidates beforehand, according to the school regulations of 1801. An explanation for the increase in qualification requirements could be the establishment of preparatory courses related to school supervision at the main teachers' college in Wrocław.[<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref77">77</reflink>] According to records of appointment,[<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref78">78</reflink>] the episcopal board consulted regional church authorities for testimonies of eligibility before the prince-bishop appointed the candidates and instructed his commission to inform state authorities of the appointment. During this initial phase of appointments, the state was only notified about the episcopal decision. Hence, church authorities were vital for information about suitable candidates. This phase of the Silesian school reforms demonstrates that school reform was not only carried out by direct state authorities, but also included mobilisation of the mid-level episcopal authorities, which at that time still had the resources for an extended administration. The involvement of the prince-bishop himself in school administration was also promoted by his constitutional rights.</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-13">3.3 The Silesian secularisation and the reduction of episcopal school supervision powers foll...</hd> <p>Higher and mid-level state administrations underwent significant restructuring following the reforms after the Prussian defeat against Napoleon in 1806, which had a decisive impact on the relationship between genuine state and episcopal authorities. The Prussian provinces were further divided into government districts administered by royal governments (<emph>Königliche Regierungen</emph>), establishing new mid-level regional administrations. These governments acted as the new state offices for the administration of elementary education between the higher ministerial administration and local school supervision.[<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref79">79</reflink>] School and church supervision was reorganised as well and administered by special Deputations for Ecclesial and School Matters (<emph>Deputationen für Geistliches und Schulwesen</emph>) for each new district in 1810.[<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref80">80</reflink>] These boards were instructed to administer elementary schooling in the districts of all denominations as superiors of teachers and the clergy, but to uphold the rights of the Catholic bishops.[<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref81">81</reflink>] However, the former episcopal authority soon shifted towards the governments. Figure 2 provides an overview of the main state and episcopal administration boards and officials involved in Catholic school administration at the end of the second decade of the nineteenth century.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Administrative structure of Catholic school supervision in the Province of Silesia in 1818, based on the Handbook of the Prussian state, Handbuch über den Königlich Preußischen Hof und Staat für das Jahr 1818 (Berlin: Decker, 1818).</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-14">3.3.1 Declining episcopal competences</hd> <p>The episcopal appointment practice lasted until shortly after the secularisation. The secularisation took place in Silesia relatively late compared to other parts of Prussia in 1810, seven years after the secularisation of church possessions in Germany following the <emph>Reichsdeputationsausschuss</emph> in 1803.[<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref82">82</reflink>] This refers to secularisation or secularisations as the profound constitutional changes which led to massive transfer of church properties and finances, dominion rights and property rights, dissolving sovereign powers of the clerical estates.[<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref83">83</reflink>]</p> <p>Following the loss of most of the prince-bishoprics income, the Episcopal School Commission was dissolved in 1812.[<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref84">84</reflink>] From this point onwards, the Episcopal Vicariate Office was in charge of the episcopal school administration and communication with the royal governments again. Appointment rights were also successively transferred to state authorities. As Kosler points out, episcopal appointment rights had become almost non-existent until 1817.[<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref85">85</reflink>]</p> <p>The reconfiguration of the relations between the state and episcopal authority following the Silesian secularisation further challenged the bishop's competences. The school administration issue and the traditional coupling of ecclesiastical and school supervisory offices at the regional level served as a gateway to further curtail the influence of episcopal authorities on the selection of personnel for these clerical offices. Among other matters, the appointment of archpriests, highly relevant for school supervision as mentioned before, was especially disputed. Even though the State Chancellor Karl August von Hardenberg advised the Ministry of the Interior to cooperate with the prince-bishop when restructuring the Episcopal administration to "avoid anything that, regarding disputed or uncertain competences could lead to unpleasant differences with the prince-bishop [...] because I can do nothing but praise the behavior of the same [bishop] and wish for these relations to continue",[<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref86">86</reflink>] the relationship between episcopal and state authorities became more tense.[<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref87">87</reflink>] The royal district governments were instructed to ensure that the state's sovereignty over the church was maintained and respected. The governments' Ecclesial and School Deputations (<emph>Geistliche und Schulendeputationen</emph>) even asked to punish non-compliant report forms handed in by clerical administrators and to pay special attention to the Episcopal Vicariate Office, which recently "had shown a tendency to overstep its sphere [<emph>Wirkungskreis</emph>]".[<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref88">88</reflink>]</p> <p>Disputes over competences between the episcopal administration and the royal district governments had to be settled by the higher state administration for education. When the royal district government disputed the episcopal appointment of the new School Inspector for the County of Steinau-Raudten, the ministry decided to preserve episcopal rights of appointment formally, but simultaneously granted the district governments the right to object to them when doubts about the qualification of the appointees remained.[<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref89">89</reflink>] The ministry thus challenged the previous practice of episcopal appointment of school inspectors, stating that prospective school inspectors, as well as archpriests, were to be confirmed by the Ecclesial and School Deputations of Liegnitz or Breslau. The ministry even urged these departments to report cases where state authorities had not been informed of appointments of school inspectors.[<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref90">90</reflink>] The ministry certainly upheld episcopal rights in general, but individual ministerial decisions often strengthened the district governments.</p> <p>In 1813 the General Vicariate Office suggested reuniting the offices of school inspector and archpriests. Yet, the government informed the office that such a reunification of the church and school inspection was only possible if the bishop granted the government a say in the appointments of the archpriests anointed by the prince-bishop as well. State agencies generally strove towards (re-)unification of church and school supervision on county levels. Like the Episcopal Vicariate Office, the Ministry of Ecclesial, Educational and Medical Matters (<emph>Ministerium der Geistlichen, Unterrichts und Medizinal-Angelegenheiten</emph>) postulated in the aforesaid rescript in 1823 that those clergymen would be appointed superintendents, who would be fit for school inspection as well.[<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref91">91</reflink>] Attempts by the royal district governments to integrate administrative offices into the state's administrative structure thus extended well beyond school supervision.</p> <p>Whereas school inspectors had already been declared state actors, now the state advanced to the core of the mid-level Catholic administration: the archpriests themselves. The Royal Cabinet Order (<emph>allerhöchste Kabinettsordre</emph>) of 30 September 1812 established the state right to appoint archpriests in the odd months of each year, while the prince-bishop was granted the right of appointment during the rest of the year. The state authorities were also inclined to tie archpriesthoods to specific parishes, applying the structural model of Protestant Prussian Church administration to Catholic Church administration.[<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref92">92</reflink>] The ministerial decision was implemented by the royal governments, which led to a dispute with the prince-bishop, for example in the case of the appointment of an archpriest in the archipresbyterate of Groß Glogau.[<reflink idref="bib93" id="ref93">93</reflink>] Consequently, the office of archpriest lost its character of an ecclesiastical <emph>officium</emph> and was increasingly integrated into the new state administration. Thus, the fusion of state and church school inspection, meaning effective appropriation of church administration personnel by state authorities, also met episcopal resistance but was nevertheless implemented gradually.</p> <p>In sum, the Prussian Reforms led to a significant reorganisation of the Silesian provincial school administration and, in doing so, superseded the Catholic reformist initiatives. While the Episcopal School Commission was dissolved as a result of secularisation, the newly formed Silesian district governments increasingly competed with episcopal authorities, consistently enforcing state rights regarding the appointment of county school inspectors. Both administrations claimed authority over the appointment of regional Catholic clerical personnel, which frequently led to frictions. While the episcopal authorities successfully resisted some attempts to restructure Catholic administration following the organisational pattern of the Protestant (state-) church administration,[<reflink idref="bib94" id="ref94">94</reflink>] the departments at the royal district governments nonetheless accumulated substantial rights regarding the appointments of clerical and school supervision personnel. However, this did not mean that the episcopal administration was no longer useful to the state. Since the candidates for inspectorates were clergymen inspected by clergymen, the state had to rely on clerical accounts of both pedagogical and practical experiences. Under the newly established state district governments, responsibility for elementary school supervision was transferred to the school commissioners of the district, state officers, but these posts also continued to be filled by holders of clerical offices.[<reflink idref="bib95" id="ref95">95</reflink>] Clergymen and even the prince-bishop were still important parts of the appointment process, but personnel decisions had to be coordinated with state authorities, as collaboration between the authorities was required.</p> <p>The failed proposal for a liberal education law by the Ministry of Ecclesial, Educational and Medical Matters in 1819 reflected the state's perspective on the division of governmental involvement in the selection of inspection personnel. According to the proposal, Catholic bishops would have the right to appoint inspectors and present them to state authorities, who, in turn, could reject the episcopal appointment and demand a reappointment.[<reflink idref="bib96" id="ref96">96</reflink>] Just like in the rest of Prussia, the state claimed authority and demanded pre-notification, not leaving school matters under the sole authority of the church.[<reflink idref="bib97" id="ref97">97</reflink>] The expansion of regional state administrations, which worked parallel to the episcopal authorities, needs to be considered as an additional source of conflict. Both state and episcopal authorities considered the inspectors to be integral parts of their respective administrative structures.[<reflink idref="bib98" id="ref98">98</reflink>] The modus of cooperation between them was, therefore, necessary to enable a working administration on both sides. It should also be noted that uncertainty of competences and competition between mid-level state agencies was not uncommon during the Prussian Reforms in the early nineteenth century.[<reflink idref="bib99" id="ref99">99</reflink>]</p> <p>During this administrative shift, the relationship between the clerical supervisors and elementary school teachers remained largely unchanged. Kosler even sketches a picture of a harmonious relationship between teachers and clergymen who were committed to education. He also highlights the enthusiasm of young clergymen in elementary schooling developing in the 1820s.[<reflink idref="bib100" id="ref100">100</reflink>] For elementary school teachers, however, the fusion of church and state administration also meant the long-term consolidation of the status quo of school supervision by clergymen until 1872.</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-15">3.3.2 New state school boards and the appointment of Catholic school commissioners (1810–1820...</hd> <p>The Prussian Reforms, however, introduced new state school officials for each royal district government. The responsibility to attend to all matters of elementary schooling was now transferred to the board's ecclesiastical and school commissioners (<emph>Geistliche und Schulräte</emph>), who, according to the Instructions for the royal governments of 1817, should serve as good examples for clergy and teachers alike.[<reflink idref="bib101" id="ref101">101</reflink>] These commissioners acted as specialists (<emph>Technische Räte</emph>) within the district governments.[<reflink idref="bib102" id="ref102">102</reflink>] Their activities included school governance as well as providing information about regional school conditions and enforcement of state directives. The administration of grammar schools and teacher training institutions was assigned to the newly formed consistories for each Prussian province in 1817.[<reflink idref="bib103" id="ref103">103</reflink>] Qualified personnel had to be found to staff and enable the new deputations. The appointments of the first commissioners in the predominantly Protestant north of Silesia, as well as in the overwhelmingly Catholic south, illustrate the subtle links between the clerical and state spheres that framed the selection of new state personnel, which point towards the fusion of clerical and state administration for school inspection.</p> <p>Looking for prospective school commissioners, the state also turned towards the clergy. Commissioners in the Silesian districts were appointed by denomination and even the government of the largely Protestant district of Liegnitz chose a Catholic commissioner. The pastor and County School Inspector Kiesling in Schönau was selected for the position of Catholic commissioner,[<reflink idref="bib104" id="ref104">104</reflink>] but the government also appointed a special commissioner for elementary education from outside the province, the former teachers' college director and experienced elementary education administrator Joseph Jeziorowski.[<reflink idref="bib105" id="ref105">105</reflink>] It is important to note that, while Kiesling was first and foremost a cleric, Jeziorowski, even though he had studied theology, had previously resigned from the clergy, which led to disputes with clerical authorities at his former position in the Duchy of Warsaw. This seems to have been the cause for doubts about his moral conduct by the authorities. However, he still was a professed Catholic and his expertise and knowledge in elementary school administration[<reflink idref="bib106" id="ref106">106</reflink>] seemed to have persuaded the government to appoint him for this position, arguing that a commissioner would not have direct contact with Catholic teachers or students.[<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref107">107</reflink>]</p> <p>Jeziorowski acted as a Catholic commissioner for elementary education in Liegnitz, with a brief interruption working as a school commissioner in the Government District of Reichenbach (from approx. 1817 to 1820), until retiring in 1845.[<reflink idref="bib108" id="ref108">108</reflink>] Kiesling, whose clerical duties made regular personal attendance at the state department difficult, stayed in office as a Catholic commissioner until his death in 1824, but his position was not reoccupied for financial reasons.[<reflink idref="bib109" id="ref109">109</reflink>] Instead, the Supreme President (<emph>Oberpräsident</emph>) of the Province of Silesia Merckel considered Jeziorowski suitable to continue the official duties of the deceased Kiesling.[<reflink idref="bib110" id="ref110">110</reflink>] The Catholic School Commissioner Jeziorowski thus held a key office in the school administration in the Protestant-dominated north of Silesia, which had been assigned to him due to his expertise in school administration. Educational, theological, and administrative knowledge was necessary to fill the school board position and, as in Kiesling's case, personnel were available from the ranks of the regional clergy. However, the state also made use of other qualified personnel who were not involved in the administration of the prince-bishopric, when available. Frequent absence from the seat of the government due to commitment to a distant parish was also a disadvantage when appointing a cleric.</p> <p>When a new royal government for the predominantly Catholic district of Oppeln was formed in 1816, the new president of the royal government Reichenbach insisted on a post for a Catholic school commissioner, specifically to avoid differences with the Catholics in the region.[<reflink idref="bib111" id="ref111">111</reflink>] The Archpriest, Canon, and County School Inspector Paul, who, unlike Kiesling, held a parish at the seat of the district government in Opole, was chosen for this position. Reichenbach also insisted on Paul resigning as an archpriest and county school inspector to be able to act as Catholic school commissioner for the district.[<reflink idref="bib112" id="ref112">112</reflink>] Paul had been an inspector since 1801 and had administered the largest county school inspectorate in Silesia.[<reflink idref="bib113" id="ref113">113</reflink>] Hence, he already was an experienced school administrator.[<reflink idref="bib114" id="ref114">114</reflink>]</p> <p>However, the district government soon had to find a new commissioner, when Paul died in 1818. The need for a Catholic school commissioner in Oppeln was greater than in Liegnitz and the government was assessing potential replacements, but an immediate successor was not found.[<reflink idref="bib115" id="ref115">115</reflink>] Eventually, the parish cleric and later Bishop of Culm, Anton Seidel, was appointed in December 1818. He was appointed not only Catholic school commissioner but also parish priest in Opole.[<reflink idref="bib116" id="ref116">116</reflink>] This personal union between the parish and the position of Catholic school commissioner was vital for the sustainable financing of the latter. Subsequently, the dependence on the parish became a problem for the district government when Seidel died in a month of episcopal appointment authority and a new officeholder had to be found in cooperation with the episcopal administration.[<reflink idref="bib117" id="ref117">117</reflink>] This sheds light on the pragmatic decision-making of Prussian state agencies regarding the appointment of its mid-level school administration personnel. In Catholic Oppeln, the state was still very dependent on episcopal cooperation as well as qualified churchmen in the right parish, using the parish at the seat of the district government to allow the founding of state commissioners. While relying on theologically trained clerical personnel to staff the governmental school administrations, they were genuine state bodies, further detached from episcopal influence.</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-16">4. From parallel to state-incorporated inspectorates: fusion of state and church elementary s...</hd> <p>Accounts of a time of friction between church and state regarding the supervision of elementary schools in Silesia at the beginning of the nineteenth century can often be found in the works of church historians.[<reflink idref="bib118" id="ref118">118</reflink>] In the first decade (1801–1811), the episcopal administration expanded its own school supervision apparatus, establishing the Episcopal School Commission and appointing county school inspectors in an almost sovereign manner. A decade of tensions between episcopal and newly formed, parallel state administrations followed, during which the decline of episcopal authority regarding school supervision gave the state more direct control over the appointment of school inspectors as well as helping to consolidate regional state supervision in accordance with the Prussian administrative reforms and the <emph>Allgemeines Landrecht</emph>. The state claimed its own authority through new administrative structures, which formerly had been almost exclusively administered by the church. Taken together, these shifts support a secularisation narrative for early nineteenth-century Catholic school supervision.</p> <p>However, this perspective tends to put exclusive attention on episcopal rights and the subsequent restriction of the powers of the episcopal authorities. A more nuanced view can be obtained by examining the appointments of the mid-level school inspection personnel which shaped Catholic school supervision. Church officials – and in some cases bureaus – continued to be employed and the state administration that took shape during this period certainly appropriated them, fusing state and church mid-level elementary school administration. The frictions between the prince-bishop and the state administration should not hide the structural fusion of church and state administration and subsequently the high degree of cooperation between state and church authorities. The coupling of clerical and non-clerical supervisory offices on behalf of the state can be interpreted as a continuation of the Prussian state-church system consolidated in the eighteenth century, which demanded subordination of school supervision as part of the subordination of the entire church.[<reflink idref="bib119" id="ref119">119</reflink>] State authorities were inclined to uphold the connection between church and school supervision and even encouraged the reunification of both supervision offices.</p> <p>A characterisation of the evident fusion of church and state administration in the appointment of clerics to state school inspectorates would include different institutional traits. First, fusion implied the pragmatic use of clerical personnel and the existing structures of the Catholic Church in the appointment of middle-level state school inspectors. The appointment of the early school commissioners and the use of parishes to provide a financial basis for the commissioner are an example of this, but this also applies to the use of established parish clergymen for school inspection in general. It also needs to be considered that as long as the state authorities did not have access to non-clerical professional staff across the board, a full nationalisation of the regional school inspection authorities was not feasible. At the level of county school inspectors, a real separation was not achieved until the <emph>Schulaufsichtsgesetz</emph> in 1872, and at the level of local school supervision in the <emph>Weimarer Reichsverfassung</emph> as late as 1919. Secondly, the fusion led to a continuation of the previously more episcopally operated reforms of school administration under the newly formed district governments. The county school inspectorates established by the prince-bishop in 1801 remained in place, except for the alteration of county borders. Thirdly, the fusion affected the parallel episcopal and state school administration boards, including the dissolution of the Episcopal School Commission. However, this only extended to the higher mid-level administration, as the school inspectorates were incorporated into the forming of the Prussian school administration. Lastly, the process of fusion subordinated the episcopal authorities to the state supervisory authorities. In the early nineteenth century, the relationship between the state and the Catholic Church regarding school supervision was overall characterised by cooperation under the primacy of the state authority. This also applies to episcopal rights, without these rights being formally withdrawn. After the initial expansion of episcopal administration in the tradition of Catholic institutional reform, the prince-bishop played an increasingly minor role in the appointment of mid-level school administrators from 1811 onwards. Territorially, this meant the alignment of the inspection districts according to the borders of state counties, harmonising the positions of clerically staffed school inspectorates and state administrative offices at the county level.</p> <p>It is precisely this last point that allows the characterisation of the Silesian case as a fusion between state and clerical personnel at the expense of episcopal administration and episcopal rights of the Prince-Bishop of Wrocław. The provincial Catholic school reforms of 1800 and 1801 initially led to the creation of a parallel administration with some educational, not only clerical, emphasis in a joint effort between the prince-bishop and the provincial state authorities. Yet, this was soon overthrown by the state-wide administrative Prussian Reforms. When the parallel administration of episcopal and state administration caused friction in the second decade of the century, the then weakened prince-bishop had to concede authority. The Prussian state reforms eventually led to an appropriation of episcopal powers and positions by the state, while leaving the clerical mid-level administrative body of county school inspectors intact, following the pattern of "fusion" of state and church.</p> <p>The example of Catholic Silesia helps to shed light on the scope of administrative supervision reforms at the beginning of the nineteenth century. It also foreshadows future dynamics of fusion, differentiation, and conflict for major Catholic territories within the Prussian state. Only at the higher level and upper mid-level did the state directly intervene in elementary school supervision, creating the new central position of school commissioner, and, in turn, staffing the administration with state personnel. At the lower mid-level administration, the state settled for the subtle fusion of administrative structures.</p> <p>The case can thus be linked to Gordt's larger description of a Prussian secularisation pattern and other relevant national contexts. However, the mode of cooperation in mid-level school supervision only lasted until the so-called <emph>Kulturkampf</emph>. With the passing of the School Supervision Law (<emph>Schulaufsichtsgesetz</emph>) in 1872, the state opened up the office of county school inspector to non-clerical officials across the board, and the friction between the state and particularly the Catholic Church intensified.[<reflink idref="bib120" id="ref120">120</reflink>] Following the passing of that law, clerical school inspectors in the Rhineland and the Catholic eastern Provinces, like Silesia, were dismissed and replaced by secular inspectors.[<reflink idref="bib121" id="ref121">121</reflink>] A renewed examination of Catholic school supervision in the period from 1872 onwards, focusing on the process of appointments, seems a very promising path for analysing the intricacies of "fusion" and its nuances in a time of conflict.</p> <p>It would also be promising to compare the case of the Prince-Bishopric of Wrocław and the Catholic Silesian territories with other Catholic cases, like the Archdiocese of Poznań/ Gnieznow, where the aforementioned instructions for county school inspectors had also been used in 1802, as well as Archdioceses like Munster or Cologne in the western provinces, acquired by Prussia following the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The idea of conflicting reform projects displayed in this article may help to reveal the varying intensity of Catholic reform projects and different regional settings in which "fusion" was negotiated between the state and the Catholic Church.</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-17">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-18">Archival sources</hd> <p> <bold> <emph>AAWr, Archiwum Archidiecezjalne we Wrocławiu oraz Biblioteka Kapitulna</emph> </bold>:</p> <p>AAWr VII B 1 f 1.</p> <p>AAWr VII B 3 a 1.</p> <p>AAWr VII B 3 f.</p> <hd id="AN0182848443-19">GStA PK, Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz</hd> <p>GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, IV Sekt. 7 Abt. II Nr. 5 Bd. 1.</p> <p>GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, IV Sekt. 7 Abt. VI Nr. 1.</p> <p>GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, IV Sekt. 7 Abt. VI Nr. 2 Bd. 1.</p> <p>GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, VII neu Sekt. 9 A Teil I Nr. 1 Bd. 1.</p> <p>GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, VII neu Sekt. 9 A Teil I Nr. 1 Bd. 2.</p> <p>GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, VII neu Sekt. 10 A Teil I Nr. 1 Bd. 1.</p> <ref id="AN0182848443-20"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Tomáš Kasper et al., eds., <emph>From School Inspectors to School Inspection: Supervision of Schools in Europe from the Middle Ages to Modern Times</emph> (Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt, 2022).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Joachim Scholz, "Verwaltung und Reform der Elementarschulen Brandenburgs in der Zeit der Preußischen Reformen", in <emph>Verwaltete Schule: Geschichte und Gegenwart</emph>, ed. Michael Geiss and Andrea De Vincenti, Educational Governance, vol. 20 (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2012), 39–52.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref3" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Marcelo Caruso, "Inspections and Inspectors in Modern School Systems: Genealogies and Historiographical Remarks", in <emph>From School Inspectors to School Inspection: Supervision of Schools in Europe from the Middle Ages to Modern Times</emph>, ed. Tomáš Kasper et al. (Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt, 2022), 24.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref4" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Jürgen B. Meyer, <emph>Der Kampf um die Schule</emph> (Bonn: Strauss, 1882).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref5" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Frank-Michael Kuhlemann, <emph>Modernisierung und Disziplinierung: Sozialgeschichte des preussischen Volksschulwesens 1794–1872</emph>, Kritische Studien zur Geschichtswissenschaft, vol. 96 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1992).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref6" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Scholz, "Verwaltung und Reform der Elementarschulen Brandenburgs in der Zeit der Preußischen Reformen".</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref7" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Michael Geiss, "Opportunismus der Kommunikation: Die Einheit der Bildungsverwaltung als methodisches Problem", in <emph>Verwaltete Schule: Geschichte und Gegenwart</emph>, ed. Michael Geiss and Andrea De Vincenti, Educational Governance, vol. 20 (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2012), 76–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref8" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Scholz, "Verwaltung und Reform der Elementarschulen Brandenburgs in der Zeit der Preußischen Reformen", 42.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref9" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> The article uses English and Polish place names to refer to the Silesian diocese or locations, while German designations are used to refer to the Prussian administrative units or in historical (archival) source references.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ulrich Seng, <emph>Die Schulpolitik des Bistums Breslau im 19. Jahrhundert,</emph> Studien der Forschungsstelle Ostmitteleuropa an der Universität Dortmund, vol. 4 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1989), 79–80.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Alois M. Kosler, <emph>Die Preußische Volksschulpolitik in Oberschlesien 1742–1848</emph>, 2nd ed., Beiträge zur Geschichte und Landeskunde Oberschlesiens, vol. 2 (Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1984); Seng, <emph>Die Schulpolitik des Bistums Breslau im 19. Jahrhundert.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Simon Gordt, <emph>Bildungsschisma</emph>, Bildungsforschung | Educational Research, vol. 5 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2019), 39.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid.; Simon Gordt, "Die Fusionierung von Kirche und Staat im Schulwesen: Eine historisch-vergleichende Analyse der schulischen Säkularisierung in Deutschland, Österreich und Schweden", <emph>Soziale Welt</emph> 72, no. 3 (2021).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Reinhart Koselleck, <emph>Preußen zwischen Reform und Revolution. Allgemeines Landrecht, Verwaltung und soziale Bewegung von 1791 bis 1848</emph>, 3rd ed. (Munich: Dt. Taschenbuch, 1989), 221.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Josef Stanzel, <emph>Die Schulaufsicht im Reformwerk des Johann Ignaz von Felbiger (1724–1788): Schule, Kirche und Staat in Recht und Praxis des aufgeklärten Absolutismus</emph>, Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen der Görres-Gesellschaft, vol. 18 (Paderborn: Schöningh, 1976), 97.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stanzel, <emph>Die Schulaufsicht im Reformwerk des Johann Ignaz von Felbiger (1724–1788)</emph>, 104.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kosler, <emph>Die Preußische Volksschulpolitik in Oberschlesien 1742–1848</emph>, 114–16.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Leopold Sedlnitzky von Choltitz, <emph>Selbstbiographie des Grafen Leopold Sedlnitzky von Choltitz, Fürstbischof von Breslau</emph> (Berlin: Hertz, 1872), 58–60. The "collision between state and church" was also described by the former assessor in the Episcopal Vicariate, then School Commissioner for grammar schools and later prince-bishop.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rainer Bendel, <emph>Der Seelsorger im Dienst der Volkserziehung: Seelsorge im Bistum Breslau im Zeichen der Aufklärung</emph>, Forschungen und Quellen zur Kirchen- und Kulturgeschichte Ostdeutschlands, vol. 27 (Cologne: Böhlau, 1996); Seng, <emph>Die Schulpolitik des Bistums Breslau im 19. Jahrhundert</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wolfgang Seibel, "Beyond Bureaucracy – Public Administration as Political Integrator and Non‐Weberian Thought in Germany", <emph>Public Administration Review</emph> 70, no. 5 (2010), https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15406210.2010.02200.x.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Caruso, "Inspections and Inspectors in Modern School Systems", 23.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gordt, "Die Fusionierung von Kirche und Staat im Schulwesen".</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Martin Riesebrodt, <emph>Cultus und Heilsversprechen. Eine Theorie der Religionen</emph> (Munich: Beck, 2007), 245.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gordt, <emph>Bildungsschisma</emph>, 284.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Enno Fooken, <emph>Die geistliche Schulaufsicht und ihre Kritiker im 18. Jahrhundert</emph> (Wiesbaden-Dotzheim: Deutscher Fachschriften-Verlag, 1967), 80–93.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Enno Fooken, "Die geistliche Schulaufsicht in Deutschland und ihre Kritiker im 18. Jahrhundert", <emph>Paedagogica Historica</emph> 6, no. 1 (1966): 119.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Yasemin N. Soysal and David Strang, "Construction of the First Mass Education Systems in Nineteenth-Century Europe", <emph>Sociology of Education</emph> 62, no. 4 (1989), https://doi.org/10.2307/2112831.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Johannes Westberg, "Basic Schools in Each and Every Parish: The School Act of 1842 and the Rise of Mass Schooling in Sweden", in <emph>School Acts and the Rise of Mass Schooling: Education Policy in the Long Nineteenth Century</emph>, ed. Johannes Westberg, Lukas Boser, and Ingrid Brühwiler (Cham: Springer, 2019), 199.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gordt, "Die Fusionierung von Kirche und Staat im Schulwesen", 350; Gordt, <emph>Bildungsschisma</emph>, 284; Todd Green, "The Partnering of Church and School in Nineteenth-Century Sweden", <emph>Journal of Church and State</emph> 50, no. 2 (2008).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Josef Stanzel, <emph>Die Schulaufsicht im Reformwerk des Johann Ignaz von Felbiger</emph>, 281.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Martin Viehhauser, "'Das Schulwesen aber ist und bleibet allezeit ein politicum': The Felbiger General School Ordinance and School Reform in the Eighteenth-Century Habsburg Monarchy", in <emph>School Acts and the Rise of Mass Schooling: Education Policy in the Long Nineteenth Century</emph>, ed. Johannes Westberg, Lukas Boser, and Ingrid Brühwiler (Cham: Springer, 2019), 34.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fooken, "Die geistliche Schulaufsicht in Deutschland und ihre Kritiker im 18. Jahrhundert", 124.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gordt, <emph>Bildungsschisma</emph>, 285–6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Simonetta Polenghi and Juri Meda, "Backing the Normal Method. The Role of Local and Chief School Inspectors in Elementary Schools in Milan under Austrian and French Rule (1786–1859)", in <emph>From School Inspectors to School Inspection: Supervision of Schools in Europe from the Middle Ages to Modern Times</emph>, ed. Tomáš Kasper et al. (Bad Heilbrunn: Julius Klinkhardt, 2022), 111–24.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Seng, <emph>Die Schulpolitik des Bistums Breslau im 19. Jahrhundert</emph>, 103–5.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AAWr VII B 3 f, "Anweisung für die Kreis-Schulen-Inspectoren der Breslauer Diözes".</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Caruso, "Inspections and Inspectors in Modern School Systems", 25.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Detlef K. Müller, "Der Prozeß der Systembildung im Schulwesen Preußens während der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts", <emph>Zeitschrift für Pädagogik</emph> 27, no. 2 (1981): 251.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Axel Nath, "Zur Geschichte des Schulwesens in Brandenburg/Preußen", in <emph>Differenzierung und Integration der niederen Schulen in Deutschland (1800–1945)</emph>, ed. Axel Nath and Hartmut Titze, Datenhandbuch zur deutschen Bidlungsgeschichte, vol. 3 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck &amp; Ruprecht, 2016), 405, 421.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cäcilia M. Rohde, <emph>Die preussische Statistik als Quelle zur schlesischen Landesgeschichte insbesondere zu einem geschichtlichen Atlas von Schlesien auf der Grundlage der Bevölkerungszählungen von 1816–1910</emph>, Europäische Hochschulschriften, vol. 3 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1990), 176.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Koselleck, <emph>Preußen zwischen Reform und Revolution</emph>, 247–62.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hans-Wolfgang Bergerhausen, <emph>Friedensrecht und Toleranz: Zur Politik des preußischen Staates gegenüber der katholischen Kirche in Schlesien 1740–1806</emph>, Quellen und Forschungen zur Brandenburgischen und Preußischen Geschichte, vol. 18 (Berlin: Duncker &amp; Humblot, 2021), 13–15.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cäcilia M. Rohde, <emph>Die preussische Statistik als Quelle zur schlesischen Landesgeschichte insbesondere zu einem geschichtlichen Atlas von Schlesien auf der Grundlage der Bevölkerungszählungen von 1816–1910</emph>, 143.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stanzel, <emph>Die Schulaufsicht im Reformwerk des Johann Ignaz von Felbiger (1724–1788)</emph>, 151.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rohde, <emph>Die preussische Statistik als Quelle zur schlesischen Landesgeschichte insbesondere zu einem geschichtlichen Atlas von Schlesien auf der Grundlage der Bevölkerungszählungen von 1816–1910</emph>, 116.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Manfred Heinemann, "Staatsminister Heinrich von Müller: Die Verfassungsfrage der Kirchen und die Gesetzliche Umsetzung des staatlichen Anspruchs auf Beaufsichtigung des Unterichts- und Erziehungswesens in Preussen 1872", in <emph>Religiöse Bildung und demokratische Verfassung in historischer Perspektive</emph>, ed. Michael W. Gregor Reimann, Studien zur Religiösen Bildung, vol. 20 (Leipzig, 2019), 229.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stanzel, <emph>Die Schulaufsicht im Reformwerk des Johann Ignaz von Felbiger (1724–1788)</emph>, 181–93.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wolfgang Neugebauer, <emph>Absolutistischer Staat und Schulwirklichkeit in Brandenburg-Preußen</emph>, Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommission zu Berlin, vol. 62 (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1985), 124–5.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ludwig von Rönne, <emph>Das Volksschul-Wesen des Preußischen Staates mit Einschub des Privat-Unterrichts</emph>, vol. 1 of <emph>Das Unterrichts-Wesen des Preussischen Staates, Nachdruck der 1855 in Berlin erschienenen Ausgabe</emph>, ed. Jürgen Apel (Cologne: Böhlau, 1990), 140–2.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Johann I. von Felbiger, <emph>Kleine Schulschriften nebst einer ausführlichen Nachricht von den Umständen und dem Erfolge der Verbesserung der katholischen Land- und Stadt-Trivialschulen in Schlesien und Glatz</emph> (Bamberg: Göbhardt, 1772), 487–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Michael Vondenhoff, <emph>Die Schule zwischen Staatsanstalt und causa ecclesiastica: Das Schulwesen des 19. Jahrhunderts im Spannungsverhältnis von Staat und Kirche in seiner rechtsgeschichtlichen Entwicklung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Preussens</emph>, Berichte aus der Rechtswissenschaft (Aachen: Shaker, 2008), 62–3.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Seng, <emph>Die Schulpolitik des Bistums Breslau im 19. Jahrhundert</emph>, 29.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Anton M. Wilde, <emph>Reform des katholischen Schulwesens im Preußischen Schlesien nach den neusten Gesetzen, welche der Anhang als Beilagen enthält</emph> (Wrocław: Graß und Barth, 1803), 26.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kosler, <emph>Die Preußische Volksschulpolitik in Oberschlesien 1742–1848</emph>, 102.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Seng, <emph>Die Schulpolitik des Bistums Breslau im 19. Jahrhundert</emph>, 19.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Allgemeine Uebersicht des Bisthums Breslau, in seinen Geist- und Weltlichen Behörden: Im Jahr 1802</emph> (Wrocław: Kreuzer, 1802).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kosler, <emph>Die Preußische Volksschulpolitik in Oberschlesien 1742–1848</emph>, 103.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Friedrich W. Hoym, "Neues Schulreglement für die Universität Breslau und die damit verbundenen Gymnasia", in <emph>Neue Sammlung aller in dem souverainen Herzogthum Schlesien und der demselben incorporierten Grafschaft Glatz in Finanz-Polizey-Sachen etc. ergangenen und publicierten Verordnungen, Edicte, Mandate, Rescripte etc. welche während der Zeit der glorwürdigen Regierung Friedrich Wilhelms III. Königs von Preußen als souverainen Obersten Herzog von Schlesien herausgekommen sind</emph>, vol. 7, die Verordnungen vom 1sten Januar 1800 bis Ende 1801 enthaltend (Wrocław: Korn, 1804).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Maximilian Görlich, "Die Fürstbischöfliche Schulen-Commission der Breslauer Diözese 1801–1812", <emph>Archiv für Schlesische Kirchengeschichte</emph> 3 (1938): 225.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Seng, <emph>Die Schulpolitik des Bistums Breslau im 19. Jahrhundert</emph>, 31.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bendel, <emph>Der Seelsorger im Dienst der Volkserziehung</emph>, 305.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AAWr VII B 3 a 1, Fürstbischof von Hohenlohe to the Episcopal Vicariate Office (Breslau, 12/12/1801).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Michael Sauer, <emph>Vom 'Schulehalten' zum Unterricht: Preußische Volksschule im 19. Jahrhundert</emph>, Studien und Dokumentationen zur deutschen Bildungsgeschichte, vol. 69 (Cologne: Böhlau, 1998), 12.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wilhelm Harnisch, <emph>Der jetzige Standpunkt des gesammten Preußischen Volksschulwesens: mit besonderer Beachtung seiner Behörden, wie der Bildung und äußeren Stellung seiner Lehrer: Geschichtlich nachgewiesen, mehr für Beamte und Ständemitglieder als für Lehrer</emph> (Leipzig: Weichardt, 1844), 95–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wilhelm Harnisch, "Notwendigkeit von besonderen Schulaufsehern", <emph>Der Schulrath an der Oder</emph> 3 (1815): 53.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Harnisch, "Notwendigkeit von besonderen Schulaufseher", 55.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> In 1801 roughly a quarter (26.08%) of the inspectors also held the title of archpriest and their number increased. In 1820 more than half of the inspectors (52.17%) held the titles in personal union. AAWr VII B 3 a 1, "Verzeichniss der Kreis-Schulen-Inspectoren in der Breslauer Dioezes"; Ober-Präsidial-Büro, <emph>Schlesische Instanzien-Notitz oder Verzeichniß aller königlichen Militär-, Civil-, Geistlichen-, Schulen- und übrigen Verwaltungsbehörden und öffentlichen Anstalten in der Provinz Schlesien, dem Dazugehörigen Theile der Lausitz und der Grafschaft Glatz für das Jahr 1820</emph> (Wrocław: Graß, Bart und Komp, 1820).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rönne, <emph>Das Unterrichts-Wesen des Preussischen Staates</emph>, 158.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AAWr VII B 1 f 1, "Instructio Archipresbyteralis, pro Domino parocho in Glaesendorff Francisco Gramshorn", pp. 25–30.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See note 36 above.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See note 62 above.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Nachrichten", <emph>Diöcesanblatt für den Clerus der fürstbischöflichen Breslauer Diöces</emph> 1, no. 1 (1803): 89–118; Klings et al., "Schreiben der unter der Inspection des verstorbenen Erzpriesters Franke gestandenen Schullehrer an die Pfarrer des Ziegenhalser Archipresbyterats", <emph>Diöcesanblatt für den Clerus der fürstbischöflichen Breslauer Diöces</emph> 8, no. 3 (1803): 275–6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wilde, <emph>Reform des katholischen Schulwesens im Preußischen Schlesien</emph>, 35.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 34–5.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Görlich, "Die Fürstbischöfliche Schulen-Commission der Breslauer Diözese 1801–1812", 227–9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> AAWr VII B 3 a 1, "Anstellung und Instruction der Kreis-Schul-Inspectoren 1801".</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Laurentius Marks, <emph>Geschichte des katholischen Schullehrer-Seminars zu Breslau. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des katholischen Schulwesens in Schlesien. Zur Feier des hundertjahrigen Bestehens der Anstalt</emph> (Wrocław: G. P. Aderholz, 1865), 20–1.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See note 76 above.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Franzjörg Baumgart, <emph>Reform und Reaktion: Preussische Schulpolitik 1806–1859</emph> (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1990), 59.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Baumgart, <emph>Reform und Reaktion</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rönne, <emph>Das Unterrichts-Wesen des Preussischen Staates</emph>, 271.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Uta-Karin Erler, "Rechts- und verfassungsgeschichtliche Probleme der Säkularisation durch den Preussischen Staat in Schlesien im Jahre 1810" (PhD diss., Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, 1978), 29–30.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Horst Dreier, <emph>Staat ohne Gott</emph> (Munich: Beck, 2018), 23–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Görlich, "Die Fürstbischöfliche Schulen-Commission der Breslauer Diözese 1801–1812", 242.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kosler, <emph>Die Preußische Volksschulpolitik in Oberschlesien 1742–1848</emph>, 116.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, IV Sekt. 7 Abt. II Nr. 5 Bd. 1, p. 1.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kosler, <emph>Die Preußische Volksschulpolitik in Oberschlesien 1742–1848</emph>, 114.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, pp. 57–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, IV Sekt. 7 Abt. VI Nr. 1, Ministry of the Interior to the Ecclesial and School Department of the Royal District Government Breslau (Berlin, 26/10/1812).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, pp. 59–60.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Karl S. F. von Altenstein, "Circular-Rescript des Königl. Ministeriums der geistlichen, Unterrichts- und Medizinal-Angelegenheiten an sämmtliche Königl. Regierungen, die Vereinigung der Schul-Inspektionen mit den Superintendenturen betr," <emph>Annalen der preußischen innern Staats-Verwaltung</emph> 7, no. 2 (1823): 292-4.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, IV Sekt. 7 Abt. VI Nr. 2 Bd. 1, "Kabinettsordre vom 30sten September 1812 in Betreff des Rechts zur Besetzung der Schlesischen katholischen Erzpriestereien, Pfarreien, Curatien und Pfarrschulen" (Potsdam, 30/11/1812).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, IV Sekt. 7 Abt. VI Nr. 1, Hohenlohe to the Ministry of the Interior (Berlin, 06/10/1814).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Seng, <emph>Die Schulpolitik des Bistums Breslau im 19. Jahrhundert</emph>, 106. When the prince-bishopric was asked to change the borders of the archipresbyterates according to the new county borders in the districts of Liegnitz and Oppeln, the Episcopal Vicar was able to intervene and prevent these changes.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 14.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ministerium der Geistlichen-, Unterrichts- und Medicinal-Angelegenheiten, <emph>Die Gesetzgebung auf dem Gebiete des Unterrichtswesens in Preußen vom Jahre 1817 bis 1868: Actenstücke mit Erläuterungen aus dem Ministerium der geistlichen, Unterrichts- und Medicinal-Angelegenheiten</emph> (Berlin: Hertz, 1869), 65.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Heinz-Elmar Tenorth, "Preußen – ein Vorbild für die Beförderung der regionalen und schulartspezifischen Schulentwicklung?", <emph>RdJB Recht der Jugend</emph> 54, no. 4 (2006): 425.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Schematismus des Bisthums Breslau und seines Delegatur-Bezirks für das Jahr 1871</emph> (Wrocław: G. P. Aderholz' Buchhandlung, 1871), 14–16. Episcopal county school inspectors were considered diocesan personnel in these episcopal overviews of the administration until the opening of county school supervision to non-clerical personnel in 1872.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Baumgart, <emph>Reform und Reaktion</emph>, 60.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kosler, <emph>Die Preußische Volksschulpolitik in Oberschlesien 1742–1848</emph>, 237–9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rönne, <emph>Das Unterrichts-Wesen des Preussischen Staates</emph>, 273.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Koselleck, <emph>Preußen zwischen Reform und Revolution</emph>, 247.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rönne, <emph>Das Unterrichts-Wesen des Preussischen Staates</emph>, 262–6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, VII neu Sekt. 9 A Teil I Nr. 1 Bd. 1, "Extract aus dem Berichte des Präsisdiums der Liegnitzer Regierung, betreffend die neue Organisation derselben. D. D. Liegnitz den 16. May 1809".</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, VII neu Sekt. 9 A Teil I Nr. 1 Bd. 1, Hardenberg to Schuckmann (Berlin, 07/10/1812).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fritz Kempff, <emph>Geschichte des Lehrerbildungswesens in der Provinz Posen</emph> (Wrocław: Priebatsch, 1917), 24–90.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, VII neu Sekt. 9 A Teil I Nr. 1 Bd. 1, Zülz to Hardenberg (Berlin, 09/09/1812).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kempff, <emph>Geschichte des Lehrerbildungswesens in der Provinz Posen</emph>, 96.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, VII neu Sekt. 9 A Teil I Nr. 1 Bd. 2, Erdmannsdorf to Altenstein (Liegnitz, 20/10/1824).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, VII neu Sekt. 9 A Teil I Nr. 1 Bd. 2, Merckel to Altenstein (Breslau, 05/05/1826).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kosler, <emph>Die Preußische Volksschulpolitik in Oberschlesien 1742–1848</emph>, 149.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, VII neu Sekt. 10 A Teil I Nr. 1 Bd. 1, pp. 2–6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Allgemeine Uebersicht des Bisthums Breslau, in seinen Geist- und Weltlichen Behörden.</emph> </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kosler, <emph>Die Preußische Volksschulpolitik in Oberschlesien 1742–1848</emph>, 151.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, VII neu Sekt. 10 A Teil I Nr. 1 Bd. 1, pp. 37–9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Emanuel Talar, <emph>Die Pfarrer der ehemaligen Kollegiatkirche zum hl. Kreuz in Oppeln seit Aufhebung des Kollegiatstifts im Jahre 1810</emph> (Opole: Erdmann Raabe, 1924), 12–17.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GStA PK, I. HA Rep. 76 Kultusministerium, VII neu Sekt. 10 A Teil I Nr. 1 Bd. 1, pp. 134–6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Seng, <emph>Die Schulpolitik des Bistums Breslau im 19. Jahrhundert</emph>; Kosler, <emph>Die Preußische Volksschulpolitik in Oberschlesien 1742–1848</emph>; Bendel, <emph>Der Seelsorger im Dienst der Volkserziehung</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fooken, <emph>Die geistliche Schulaufsicht und ihre Kritiker im 18. Jahrhundert</emph>, 70.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Manfred Heinemann and Kaori Ando, "Bildungsrecht und Bildungsverwaltung im Föderalismus und Partikularismus der Provinzen des konstitutionellen Obrigkeitsstaats Preußen", in <emph>Föderalismus in historisch vergleichender Perspektive</emph>, vol. 2, <emph>Föderale Systeme: Kaiserreich – Donaumonarchie – Europäische Union</emph>, ed. Gerold Ambrosius and Christian H.-F. C. Neutsch, Schriftenreihen des Instituts für Europäische Regionalforschungen, vol. 22 (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2015), 67–70.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Marjorie Lamberti, "State, Church, and the Politics of School Reform during the Kulturkampf", <emph>Central European History</emph> 19, no. 1 (1986), https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008938900019142.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Jan Uredat</p> <p>Reported by Author</p> <p></p> <p>Jan Uredat , MA, is a research assistant in the DFG-funded project "Die umkämpfte Fachlichkeit der Fachverwaltung. Wissensaneignung, Wissensproduktion und Wissenspraktiken der mittleren Preußischen Volksschulverwaltung, 1817–1919" at Humboldt University of Berlin. Previously, he was a research assistant in the BMBF joint project "'Bildung für alle'. Eigen -und Fremdbilder bei der Produktion und Zirkulation eines zentralen Mythos im transnationalen Raum", at Humboldt Universität zu Berlin.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref23"></nolink> 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| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: Big Administration Reforms against Catholic Reformist Traditions: Fusion of State and Church Mid-Level School Administrations in Early Nineteenth-Century Prussian Silesia – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jan+Uredat%22">Jan Uredat</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0009-0001-1790-9670">0009-0001-1790-9670</externalLink>) – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Paedagogica+Historica%3A+International+Journal+of+the+History+of+Education%22"><i>Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education</i></searchLink>. 2025 61(1):153-175. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 23 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2025 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Evaluative – Name: Audience Label: Education Level Group: Audnce Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Change%22">Educational Change</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+History%22">Educational History</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Catholics%22">Catholics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Protestants%22">Protestants</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+Schools%22">Elementary Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Administration%22">School Administration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Government+School+Relationship%22">Government School Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Clergy%22">Clergy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Supervision%22">School Supervision</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Inspection%22">Inspection</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Middle+Management%22">Middle Management</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Nationalism%22">Nationalism</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Church+Role%22">Church Role</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Geographic Terms Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Poland%22">Poland</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Germany%22">Germany</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Czechoslovakia%22">Czechoslovakia</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1080/00309230.2024.2399354 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 0030-9230<br />1477-674X – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: In what are often described as modern Western school systems, the supervision of elementary schools generally shifted from the hands of clerical administrators to genuine state officials during the nineteenth century. The Prussian state, like other predominantly Protestant states, relied on clerical personnel and church supervision structures to establish its school supervision administration. Yet, this was also true for the more Catholic parts of the Prussian monarchy, where integration of church structures into state administration caused friction between state and church authorities. Hence, this contribution focuses on appointments of school inspectors in early nineteenth-century Prussian Silesia, when friction arose between the state and the prince-bishop concerning appointment rights. These frictions are reflected in the process of newly introduced mid-level state school administrations taking over episcopal appointment rights, which has been described as a nationalisation or secularisation of Silesian school administration. The article proposes a more nuanced approach to the restructuring of Silesian school administration, driven by consecutive administration reforms resulting in a fusion of church and state administration, rather than a traditional secularisation narrative. It traces the subtle ties between the Prussian state, episcopal administration, and clerical inspection personnel that led to the gradual assertion of state over ecclesiastical structures. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2025 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ1466258 |
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| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1080/00309230.2024.2399354 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 23 StartPage: 153 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Educational Change Type: general – SubjectFull: Educational History Type: general – SubjectFull: Catholics Type: general – SubjectFull: Protestants Type: general – SubjectFull: Elementary Schools Type: general – SubjectFull: School Administration Type: general – SubjectFull: Government School Relationship Type: general – SubjectFull: Clergy Type: general – SubjectFull: School Supervision Type: general – SubjectFull: Inspection Type: general – SubjectFull: Middle Management Type: general – SubjectFull: Nationalism Type: general – SubjectFull: Church Role Type: general – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries Type: general – SubjectFull: Poland Type: general – SubjectFull: Germany Type: general – SubjectFull: Czechoslovakia Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: Big Administration Reforms against Catholic Reformist Traditions: Fusion of State and Church Mid-Level School Administrations in Early Nineteenth-Century Prussian Silesia Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Jan Uredat IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 01 Type: published Y: 2025 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 0030-9230 – Type: issn-electronic Value: 1477-674X Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 61 – Type: issue Value: 1 Titles: – TitleFull: Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education Type: main |
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