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Mother-Adolescent Relationship and Psychological Distress during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Study

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Title: Mother-Adolescent Relationship and Psychological Distress during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Study
Language: English
Authors: Atsushi Sakai (ORCID 0009-0002-9767-0387), Hiroto Murohashi, Seiji Watanabe
Source: Journal of Adolescence. 2025 97(3):700-712.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 13
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Junior High Schools
Middle Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Junior High School Students, Mothers, COVID-19, Pandemics, Parent Student Relationship, Stress Variables, Positive Attitudes, Positive Reinforcement, Positive Behavior Supports, Coping, Emotional Adjustment, Mental Health, Student Development, Behavior Development, Affective Behavior
Geographic Terms: Japan
DOI: 10.1002/jad.12447
ISSN: 0140-1971
1095-9254
Abstract: Introduction: This study aims to investigate how mother-adolescent relationships evolved before and during the COVID-19 pandemic and their correlation with pandemic-related stress and adolescents' psychological distress. Methods: A longitudinal study involving 579 mother-adolescent dyads (junior high school students at Time 1; 50% male students) was conducted, with data collected before (October 2019) and during (October 2020) the pandemic in Japan. Both mothers and adolescents reported the perceived quality of their positive and conflictual relationships at each time point. At Time 2, assessments were made regarding perceived pandemic-related stress and adolescent psychological distress. Results: Structural equation modeling, cross-lagged regression, and mediation analysis revealed that perceptions of relationships by both mothers and adolescents before the pandemic predicted and sustained their own and their partners' perceptions during the pandemic. Furthermore, adolescents' perceptions of positive relationships with mothers protected against adolescents' distress. Otherwise, their perceptions of conflictual relationships with mothers posed a risk for adolescents' psychological distress. Additionally, the maintenance of adolescents' higher perception of positive relationships with their mothers was mediated by their perceived higher pandemic-related stress. Conclusions: These findings underscore the reciprocal and additive nature of mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of relationship quality, which in turn predict adolescents' mental health during stressful situations like a pandemic. Moreover, adolescents are encouraged not to suppress negative feelings about stress, to enhance perceptions of a positive relationship perceptions with their mother.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1466408
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0184298287;jaa01apr.25;2025Apr09.05:04;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0184298287-1">Mother–Adolescent Relationship and Psychological Distress During the COVID‐19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Study </title> <p>Introduction: This study aims to investigate how mother–adolescent relationships evolved before and during the COVID‐19 pandemic and their correlation with pandemic‐related stress and adolescents' psychological distress. Methods: A longitudinal study involving 579 mother–adolescent dyads (junior high school students at Time 1; 50% male students) was conducted, with data collected before (October 2019) and during (October 2020) the pandemic in Japan. Both mothers and adolescents reported the perceived quality of their positive and conflictual relationships at each time point. At Time 2, assessments were made regarding perceived pandemic‐related stress and adolescent psychological distress. Results: Structural equation modeling, cross‐lagged regression, and mediation analysis revealed that perceptions of relationships by both mothers and adolescents before the pandemic predicted and sustained their own and their partners' perceptions during the pandemic. Furthermore, adolescents' perceptions of positive relationships with mothers protected against adolescents' distress. Otherwise, their perceptions of conflictual relationships with mothers posed a risk for adolescents' psychological distress. Additionally, the maintenance of adolescents' higher perception of positive relationships with their mothers was mediated by their perceived higher pandemic‐related stress. Conclusions: These findings underscore the reciprocal and additive nature of mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of relationship quality, which in turn predict adolescents' mental health during stressful situations like a pandemic. Moreover, adolescents are encouraged not to suppress negative feelings about stress, to enhance perceptions of a positive relationship perceptions with their mother.</p> <p>Keywords: Actor‐Partner Interdependence Model (APIM); COVID‐19; mediation; mother‐adolescent dyads; psychological distress</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-2">Introduction</hd> <p>With the onset of the COVID‐19 pandemic, Japan declared a state of emergency in April 2020, coinciding with the commencement of the new school year. Although the government's measures primarily consisted of a "mild lockdown," characterized by a request for self‐restraint rather than strict enforcement (Yamamoto et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref1">54</reflink>]), citizens were urged to practice social distancing and remain at home. These significant shifts in daily routines inevitably impacted interpersonal relationships.</p> <p>Among these relationships, the impact may have been particularly pronounced in mother–adolescent dynamics. During early to mid‐adolescence, youths typically experience heightened behavioral autonomy and a desire for privacy (Grotevant and Cooper [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref2">19</reflink>]; Soenens, Vansteenkiste, and Van Petegem [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref3">47</reflink>]). Mothers often perceive adolescence as the most challenging phase of child‐rearing (Smetana, Campione‐Barr, and Metzger [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref4">46</reflink>]). Although adolescents' increasing demand for independence can induce stress for both parties, most families can navigate these challenges and resolve conflicts under normal circumstances. However, emerging research suggests that the COVID‐19 pandemic and associated preventive measures have directly and indirectly contributed to the psychological distress of both mothers and adolescents through their relational difficulties (Prime, Wade, and Browne [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref5">41</reflink>]; Skinner et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref6">44</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-3">Mother–Adolescent Relationship Quality Before and During the Pandemic and Adolescents' Psycho...</hd> <p>Existing studies have demonstrated varied changes in the quality of mother–adolescent relationships before and during the pandemic (Bülow et al. [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref7">6</reflink>]; Bacikova‐Sleskova et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref8">1</reflink>]). For example, Cassinat et al. ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref9">7</reflink>]) noted a negative change, indicating an increase in mothers' feelings of family chaos following the implementation of pandemic‐related measures, leading to declines in parental autonomy granted to adolescents and an escalation in adolescents' perception of conflict with their mothers. Conversely, Donker, Mastrotheodoros, and Branje ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref10">14</reflink>]) observed a decrease in adolescents' reports of negative interactions with mothers from fall 2019 to spring 2020, alongside an average decline in adolescents' perceived parental support and mothers' reports of positive parenting.</p> <p>Many scholars attribute these changes to how mothers and adolescents perceive pandemic‐related stressors. These stressors encompass concerns stemming directly from COVID‐19 (e.g., anxiety about infection of oneself and family members) and those arising from alterations in daily life due to the pandemic and associated quarantine measures (e.g., disruption of contact with or isolation from close friends; Brown et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref11">4</reflink>]; Pereira et al. [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref12">39</reflink>]; Spinelli et al. [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref13">48</reflink>]). Several studies suggest that mothers tend to view these stressors as threats, which can exacerbate their parenting behaviors (Chung, Lanier, and Wong [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref14">8</reflink>]) and lead to feelings of decreased intimacy in their relationships with adolescents (Russell et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref15">42</reflink>]). Adolescents who experienced disruptions in their daily routines during the pandemic reported increased conflict with their mothers (Liu et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref16">29</reflink>]). However, studies have shown that some adolescents perceive stay‐at‐home measures positively, appreciating the time spent with family (Ellis, Dumas, and Forbes [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref17">16</reflink>]; Tang et al. [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref18">50</reflink>]). Moreover, adolescents who engaged in discussions about the pandemic with their mothers were less likely to experience psychological distress (Tang et al. [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref19">50</reflink>]; Yang et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref20">55</reflink>]). In both scenarios, positive perceptions of relationships, particularly by adolescents, acted as protective factors, while negative relationships posed risks for adolescents' mental health (Du et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref21">15</reflink>]; Janssens et al. [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref22">24</reflink>]), consistent with findings from the pre‐pandemic era (Branje et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref23">3</reflink>]; Vieno et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref24">51</reflink>]). Janssens et al. ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref25">24</reflink>]) demonstrated that adolescents' perceptions of stronger positive relationships with mothers before the pandemic acted as a protective factor against increased loneliness during the pandemic. Consequently, pre‐existing positive mother–adolescent relationships could mitigate the adverse effects of pandemic‐related stressors on adolescents' mental health.</p> <p>Although these prior studies have provided valuable insights into the relationships among mother–adolescent relationship quality, perceptions of pandemic‐related stress, and adolescents' psychological distress before and during the pandemic, some questions remain unanswered.</p> <p>First, most studies have focused on the average score changes in mother–adolescent relationship quality from before to during the pandemic, neglecting the examination of the extent to which pre‐pandemic relationship quality predicts equivalent quality during the pandemic—that is, the stability of relationship quality. Additionally, as parent‐child relationships become increasingly horizontal and reciprocal during adolescence (Smetana [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref26">45</reflink>]), discrepancies may exist between mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their relationships, both in normative circumstances (De Los Reyes and Ohannessian [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref27">30</reflink>]) and during the pandemic (Bülow et al. [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref28">6</reflink>]). Therefore, it is crucial to investigate stability from the perspective of mutual transactions between mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of relationship quality with each other before and during the pandemic, to assess current mother–adolescent relationships (Paschall and Mastergeorge [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref29">37</reflink>]) and their relation to adolescents' psychological distress.</p> <p>Second, although several studies (e.g., Cohodes, McCauley, and Gee [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref30">10</reflink>]; Hogye et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref31">21</reflink>]) have examined the moderating role of parent‐adolescent relationships in the link between mothers' and adolescents' pandemic‐related stress and their psychological distress, only a few studies have addressed the process by which mother–adolescent relationship quality before and during the pandemic is mediated by pandemic‐related stress, followed by adolescents' psychological distress. Given the aforementioned findings, it is plausible that mother–adolescent relationship quality before the pandemic can either protect against (Janssens et al. [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref32">24</reflink>]) or pose a risk for mothers' and adolescents' pandemic‐related stress, which, in turn, affects their relationship quality (Liu et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref33">29</reflink>]) and adolescents' psychological distress (Suffren et al. [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref34">49</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-4">Actor–Partner Interdependence Model and Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model</hd> <p>Regarding the stability of mother–adolescent relationship quality, Cook and Kenny ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref35">13</reflink>]) introduced the Actor–Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) as a comprehensive longitudinal framework for assessing bidirectional effects within dyadic relationships. At the core of this model lie two pivotal components: actor and partner effects. The actor effect measures the extent to which an individual's current behavior is predicted by their own past behavior, while the partner effect gauges the degree to which one person is influenced by their partner. Through cross‐lagged regression analysis, they demonstrated partner effects on attachment security in mother–adolescent relationships, highlighting the longitudinally bidirectional nature of interpersonal influence on attachment security. Drawing on these studies, employing the APIM can offer valuable insights into how mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of relationship quality interact and evolve reciprocally and longitudinally, highlighting their association with adolescents' psychological distress.</p> <p>When considering the mediation process between mother–adolescent relationship quality, pandemic‐related stress, and adolescents' psychological distress, two possibilities emerge. One perspective stems from a stress‐buffering framework (Cohen and Wills [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref36">9</reflink>]), suggesting that pre‐existing perceptions of higher positive relationships among mothers and adolescents may act as buffers against perceived pandemic‐related stress. Consequently, lower stress levels may enhance their perception of positive relationships, ultimately leading to reduced psychological distress in adolescents.</p> <p>The alternative perspective is rooted in the Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response (FAAR) model (Patterson [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref37">38</reflink>]). According to this model, the equilibrium of family functioning is maintained through a balance between family demands and capabilities. Family demands to encompass both normative and nonnormative stressors, whereas family capabilities involve tangible and psychosocial resources along with coping behaviors. When faced with nonnormative stressors, family members are expected to adapt by reassessing their familial identity and adjusting attitudes, beliefs, and values.</p> <p>In the context of the COVID‐19 pandemic (Bülow et al. [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref38">6</reflink>]), mothers and adolescents who experienced less positive relationships or more conflicts before the pandemic may perceive stressors solely as threats, leading to ineffective coping mechanisms and the perpetuation of negative relationships. Conversely, those with more positive relationships may view stressors as challenges that can be managed by enhancing cohesion as a family unit. This model is supported by research on emotion regulation, mindfulness, and stress‐coping strategies. Positive mother–child relationships, in which children feel close to their mothers, facilitate the effective expression of emotions (Morris et al. [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref39">32</reflink>]). Additionally, an awareness of one's own feelings in the present moment predicted more approach coping, which involves an acceptance of stressful realities (Weinstein, Brown, and Ryan [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref40">53</reflink>]). Consequently, it is hypothesized that pre‐existing perceptions of higher positive relationships among mothers and adolescents may encourage them to perceive pandemic‐related stress. Moreover, Kerr, Stattin, and Trost ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref41">25</reflink>]) showed that adolescents' disclosure of their feelings and concerns was linked to their perceptions of their parents' trust. Therefore, higher perceived stress, in turn, may enhance their perceptions of positive relationships. In sum, reappraisal of emotion is considered adaptive, whereas suppression is viewed as maladaptive for adolescents' psychological distress (Bariola, Gullone, and Hughes [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref42">2</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-5">Current Study</hd> <p>This study investigated the process by which mother–adolescent relationships evolved both before and during the pandemic, and how they related to pandemic‐related stress and adolescents' psychological distress. First, adopting the perspective of the APIM, the study examines how both mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their relationships before the pandemic reciprocally predict their own and their partners' (mothers for adolescents and adolescents for mothers) equivalent perceptions during the pandemic. That is, the study explores whether pre‐pandemic perceptions of positive and conflictual relationships, both one's own and one's partner's, are additive in their relation to mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their relationships during the pandemic. Additionally, the study investigates whether these perceptions of positive or conflictual relationships during and before the pandemic either protect against or pose a risk for adolescents' psychological distress.</p> <p>Second, the study explores how mothers' and adolescents' individual perceptions of their relationships before and during the pandemic are mediated by their perceived pandemic‐related stress. From the stress‐buffering perspective, it is hypothesized that maintaining perceived positive relationships before and during the pandemic may be mediated by reduced perceived pandemic‐related stress, ultimately protecting against adolescents' psychological distress. However, considering the FAAR model and other related aforementioned findings, the maintenance of positive relationships is plausibly mediated by heightened perceived stress. This perspective suggests that mothers and adolescents with positive relationships may effectively manage stress by enhancing family cohesion as a capability.</p> <p>Simultaneously, a cycle of negativity may occur, in which perceptions of higher conflicting relationships, developed and mediated by pandemic‐related stress both before and during the pandemic, pose risks for adolescents' psychological distress.</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-6">Materials and Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184298287-7">Participants</hd> <p>The survey was conducted by the Japanese online research company VLC Corporation. We recruited 1,168 dyads of mothers and adolescents residing in Japan during the first survey, from October 2 to 17, 2019 (Time 1). Inclusion criteria required the target adolescent to reside with their mother as the elder child (not one of the multiple children) and attend a regular class in junior high school. Additionally, quota sampling ensured a nearly equal distribution of questionnaires to dyads based on the adolescent's gender and grade (seventh, eighth, or ninth). The follow‐up survey took place from October 1 to 12, 2020 (Time 2), with 616 dyads receiving invitations. We aimed for 100 dyads per adolescent's gender and grade and accepted participants until reaching this target. Eleven dyads were excluded owing to discrepancies in mothers' ages between Times 1 and 2, and 24 dyads were excluded because either the mothers or children reported no change in their daily lives during school closures at the time of the COVID‐19 outbreak, and two dyads were excluded due to missing data on the father's employment status.</p> <p>Attrition analyses revealed nonsignificant differences between participants and non‐participants at Time 2 regarding adolescents' gender (χ<sups>2</sups> [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref43">1</reflink>] = 0.04, n.s., φ = −0.01) and grade (<emph>t</emph> [1140] = 0.37, n.s., Cohen's <emph>d</emph> = 0.02), as well as mothers' and fathers' education (mother: χ<sups>2</sups> [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref44">3</reflink>] = 1.92, n.s., Cramer's <emph>V</emph> = 0.04; father: χ<sups>2</sups> [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref45">3</reflink>] = 3.94, n.s., Cramer's <emph>V</emph> = 0.06), and fathers' employment status (χ<sups>2</sups> [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref46">3</reflink>] = 4.20, n.s., Cramer's <emph>V</emph> = 0.06). However, the number of siblings in participating families at Time 2 was significantly smaller than that of non‐participants (<emph>t</emph> [1140] = −2.42, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05, Cohen's <emph>d</emph> = 0.14).</p> <p>The final analytical sample comprised 579 dyads, consisting of mothers and adolescents. Table 1 displays the characteristics of the study participants.</p> <p>1 Table Sample characteristics.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th>Variables</th><th /><th>M (SD)/<italic>N</italic>(%)</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Numbers of adolescents (grade at Time 2)</td><td>Eighth graders</td><td>Male</td><td>101 (17.4)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Female</td><td>92 (15.9)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Ninth graders</td><td>Male</td><td>99 (17.1)</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>Female</td><td>102 (17.6)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Tenth graders</td><td>Male</td><td>93 (16.1)</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>Female</td><td>92 (15.9)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Mothers' age</td><td /><td align="center">43.98 (4.45)</td></tr><tr><td>Mothers' education</td><td>Bachelor or higher degree</td><td /><td>202 (34.9)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>College degree</td><td /><td>237 (40.9)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>High school degree</td><td /><td>130 (22.5)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Junior high school degree</td><td /><td>4 (0.7)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Do not report</td><td /><td>6 (1.0)</td></tr><tr><td>Fathers' education</td><td>Bachelor or higher degree</td><td /><td>305 (52.7)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>College degree</td><td /><td>109 (18.8)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>High school degree</td><td /><td>142 (24.5)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Junior high school degree</td><td /><td>16 (2.8)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Do not report</td><td /><td>7 (1.2)</td></tr><tr><td>Fathers' employment status at Time 2</td><td>Full‐time employment</td><td /><td>539 (93.1)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Part‐time employment</td><td /><td>20 (3.5)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Unemployment (including homemakers, students, or retirees)</td><td /><td>20 (3.5)</td></tr><tr><td>Household income at Time 2 (Japanese yen)</td><td>Above 8,000,000 yen</td><td /><td>170 (29.4)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">6,000,000–7,999,999 yen</td><td /><td>110 (19.0)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">4,000,000–5,999,999 yen</td><td /><td>142 (24.5)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">2,000,000–3,999,999 yen</td><td /><td>56 (9.7)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Below 2,000,000 yen</td><td /><td>6 (1.0)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Do not report</td><td /><td>95 (16.4)</td></tr><tr><td>The number of days the fathers worked from home in April 2020</td><td>5 days or more in a week at home</td><td /><td>70 (12.1)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">3 or 4 days in a week at home</td><td /><td>46 (7.9)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">1 or 2 days in a week at home</td><td /><td>47 (8.1)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">1 to 3 days in a month at home</td><td /><td>16 (2.8)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>No day</td><td /><td>367 (63.4)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Do not report</td><td /><td>33 (5.7)</td></tr><tr><td>The duration of adolescents' school closures from April 2020</td><td>More than 1 month</td><td /><td>487 (84.1)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">More than 2 weeks to less than 1 month</td><td /><td>81 (14.0)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Less than 2 weeks</td><td /><td>11 (1.9)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">No school closure</td><td /><td>0 (0.0)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note:</emph> April 2020 represents the period when the Japanese government proclaimed the initial mild lockdown.</p> <p>Participants received 80 points for completing the Time 1 survey and 110 points for the Time 2 survey; each point was equivalent to 1 yen. Ethical approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Board of the institution where the third author retired from.</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-8">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184298287-9">Father's Teleworking and the Period of School Closure</hd> <p>Mothers provided information on the number of days fathers worked from home in April, coinciding with the Japanese government's implementation of the first mild lockdown. Six response options were available. The variable concerning the father's teleworking status was dichotomized: fathers who engaged in telework (30.9%) and those who did not, including homemakers, students, or retirees who did not report teleworking (66.8%). This distribution closely resembled statistics obtained from a Japanese private research institute (27.9%; PERSOL Research Institute [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref47">40</reflink>]; Pereira et al. [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref48">39</reflink>]; Spinelli et al. [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref49">48</reflink>]). Additionally, mothers reported the duration of adolescents' school closures from April on a 4‐point scale, ranging from 1 (no school closure) to 4 (more than 1 month), with intervals of 2 weeks (see Table 1 for details).</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-10">COVID‐19‐related Stressors and the Feelings Evoked</hd> <p>Mothers and adolescents were asked to indicate whether they experienced any changes in their daily lives due to home confinement and school closure following COVID‐19 during the initial mild lockdown. If changes were reported, participants were then asked to rate the feelings evoked by these changes, positively or negatively, using questionnaires developed by the authors for this study (see Table 2). The questionnaires consisted of 10 items for mothers and 16 items for adolescents, each encompassing the following domains, informed by prior researches (Brown et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref50">4</reflink>]; Pereira et al. [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref51">39</reflink>]; Spinelli et al. [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref52">48</reflink>]): (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref53">1</reflink>) concerns or fears related to COVID‐19 infection prevention, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref54">2</reflink>) family relationships, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref55">3</reflink>) relationships with individuals outside the family, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref56">4</reflink>) solitude (adolescents only), (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref57">5</reflink>) activities outside the home (adolescents only), (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref58">6</reflink>) household chores and child‐rearing responsibilities (mothers only), and (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref59">7</reflink>) employment status or family finances (mothers only). Participants rated these items on a scale ranging from 1 (<emph>feel so good</emph>) to 5 (<emph>feel so bad</emph>) or 6 (<emph>did not experience</emph>).</p> <p>2 Table Descriptive statistics of participants' experiences of and perceived feelings evoked from the COVID‐19‐related stressors during the initial mild lockdown.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Variables</th><th>M (SD)</th><th><italic>N</italic> (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">For mothers</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in preparing meals for the family</td><td>3.62 (1.07)</td><td>566 (97.8)</td></tr><tr><td>Struggles to purchase necessary goods (mask, alcohol for disinfection)</td><td>3.43 (0.99)</td><td>559 (96.5)</td></tr><tr><td>Fears of family members being affected by coronavirus</td><td>3.90 (0.99)</td><td>553 (95.5)</td></tr><tr><td>Inabilities to meet with parents or relatives</td><td>3.32 (1.03)</td><td>514 (88.8)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in quarrels with adolescents</td><td>3.24 (0.91)</td><td>421 (72.7)</td></tr><tr><td>Less work experiences or exposures to family financial hardship</td><td>3.49 (0.97)</td><td>406 (70.1)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in quarrels with partners</td><td>3.35 (0.89)</td><td>371 (64.1)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in time spent with all family members at home</td><td>2.67 (1.13)</td><td>566 (97.8)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in communication with adolescents</td><td>2.15 (0.94)</td><td>558 (96.4)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in time for teaching adolescents</td><td>2.89 (0.77)</td><td>444 (76.7)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">For adolescents</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in doing things to prevent infections such as wearing masks and washing hands</td><td>3.56 (1.00)</td><td>573 (99.0)</td></tr><tr><td>Disturbances in keeping classes or events (enrollment ceremony, athletic festival, class trip) in school</td><td>3.74 (1.12)</td><td>571 (98.6)</td></tr><tr><td>Inabilities to go out freely</td><td>3.88 (1.08)</td><td>571 (98.6)</td></tr><tr><td>Inabilities to meet teachers</td><td>3.05 (0.85)</td><td>563 (97.2)</td></tr><tr><td>Inabilities to get exercise</td><td>3.54 (1.03)</td><td>554 (95.7)</td></tr><tr><td>Inabilities to meet and play with friends</td><td>3.88 (1.03)</td><td>551 (95.2)</td></tr><tr><td>Fears of family members being affected by coronavirus</td><td>3.77 (0.98)</td><td>545 (94.1)</td></tr><tr><td>Disturbances in activities (hobbies, extracurricular activities)</td><td>3.76 (1.09)</td><td>544 (94.0)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in quarrels with fathers or mothers</td><td>3.19 (0.86)</td><td>396 (68.4)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in time spent with all family members at home</td><td>2.52 (0.98)</td><td>564 (97.4)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in using electronic media (TV, PC, smartphone, tablet device, video game)</td><td>2.07 (0.96)</td><td>564 (97.4)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in communication with fathers or mothers</td><td>2.40 (0.83)</td><td>561 (96.7)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in studying at home</td><td>2.97 (0.97)</td><td>542 (93.6)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in time staying at home alone</td><td>2.71 (1.18)</td><td>481 (83.1)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in communication with friends on internet</td><td>2.41 (0.85)</td><td>476 (82.2)</td></tr><tr><td>Increases in reading time</td><td>2.42 (0.95)</td><td>450 (77.7)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 2 presents the scores for the feelings evoked in both mothers and adolescents from their experiences during the pandemic. The data revealed that seven items for mothers and nine items for adolescents scored above the midpoint (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref60">3</reflink>), suggesting that these experiences represented stressors eliciting negative feelings. Exploratory factor analyses, conducted using maximum likelihood estimation for both mothers and adolescents, yielded one‐factor solutions for each. For the mothers' scale, the solution explained 46.55% of the total variance, with factor loadings ranging from 0.44 to 0.70. Similarly, for the adolescents' scale, the solution explained 49.38% of the total variance, with factor loadings ranging from 0.35 to 0.84. These scales demonstrated good reliability in terms of their internal consistency (α = .81‐.87). Scores for each scale were obtained by summing all items, with higher scores indicating greater perceived pandemic‐related stress in either mothers or adolescents.</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-11">Mother–Adolescent Relationship</hd> <p>The Japanese version of the Network of Relationships Inventory (Furman and Buhrmester [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref61">17</reflink>]; Yoshitake, Utsumi, and Sugawara [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref62">56</reflink>]) was employed to assess mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their relationship quality. To gauge their perceptions of positive relationships, we utilized nine items, including the subscales of providing a secure base (e.g., how much do you encourage the child to try new things that s/he would like to do but is nervous about?), establishing a reliable alliance (e.g., how sure are you that this relationship will last no matter what?), and offering reassurance of worth (e.g., how much does your child treat you like you're admired and respected?) for mothers, and corresponding items, labeled as seeking a secure base (how much does your mother encourage you try new things that you'd like to do but are nervous about?), forming a reliable alliance (same as mothers' items), and seeking reassurance of worth (same as mothers' items), for adolescents. Additionally, to evaluate perceptions of conflictual relationships, three items representing antagonism (e.g., how much do you and your child/mother get on each other's nerves?) were used for both mothers and adolescents. Participants rated each item on a 5‐point Likert‐type scale ranging from 1 (<emph>little or none</emph>) to 5 (<emph>most</emph>).</p> <p>Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the three positive relationship subscales of mothers' perception of their relationship with adolescents ranged from 0.84 to 0.93 at Time 1 and from 0.81 to 0.93 at Time 2. For adolescents' perception of positive relationships with their mothers, the alpha coefficients ranged from 0.85 to 0.93 at Time 1 and from 0.89 to 0.94 at Time 2. The alpha coefficients for mothers' perception of conflict with adolescents and adolescents' perception of conflict with mothers were 0.85 at both Time 1 and 2, and 0.86 at Time 1 and 0.85 at Time 2, respectively. Scores for all items on each subscale were summed to determine mothers' and adolescents' relationship perception scores (see Table 3).</p> <p>3 Table Means and standard deviations for mothers' and adolescents' ratings of their relationships and adolescents' psychological distress and personality.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th>Variables</th><th>Time 1</th><th>Time 2</th></tr><tr valign="bottom"><th align="center">M (SD)</th><th>M (SD)</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Mothers' perception of positive relationships with adolescents</td><td>Provide secure base</td><td>10.01 (2.99)</td><td>9.90 (2.93)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Reliable alliance</td><td>10.35 (3.34)</td><td>10.01 (3.21)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Reassurance of worth</td><td>8.16 (2.65)</td><td>8.10 (2.51)</td></tr><tr><td>Adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers</td><td>Seek secure base</td><td>10.49 (3.04)</td><td>10.53 (3.00)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Reliable alliance</td><td>10.71 (3.24)</td><td>10.76 (3.14)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Reassurance of worth</td><td>9.34 (2.79)</td><td>9.52 (2.84)</td></tr><tr><td>Mothers' perception of conflict with adolescents</td><td>Antagonism</td><td>8.67 (2.80)</td><td>8.32 (2.64)</td></tr><tr><td>Adolescents' perception of conflict with mothers</td><td>Antagonism</td><td>8.98 (2.80)</td><td>8.79 (2.78)</td></tr><tr><td>Adolescents' psychological distress</td><td>Depressive‐anxious feelings</td><td /><td>2.36 (2.66)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Irritability or anger</td><td /><td>3.26 (3.09)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Apathy</td><td /><td>3.95 (3.17)</td></tr><tr><td align="center">Somatic complaints</td><td /><td>3.32 (2.74)</td></tr><tr><td>Adolescents' personality</td><td>Extraversion</td><td>22.45 (5.92)</td><td /></tr><tr><td align="center">Conscientiousness</td><td>27.84 (7.23)</td><td /></tr><tr><td align="center">Openness</td><td>25.44 (6.17)</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0184298287-12">Adolescents' Psychological Distress</hd> <p>At Time 2, psychological distress was assessed using the Stress Response Scale for Children (Shimada, Togasaki, and Sakano [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref63">43</reflink>]), a suitable measure for Japanese adolescents. This self‐report scale comprises four items in each subscale, assessing constructs such as depressive‐anxious feelings (e.g., feeling depressed), irritability or anger (e.g., feeling irritable), apathy (e.g., lack of motivation), and somatic complaints (e.g., feeling sluggish). Participants rated each item on a Likert‐type scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (very true). The Cronbach's alpha coefficients for these subscales ranged from 0.79 to 0.93. Scores for all items within each subscale were summed to derive scores for each symptom (see Table 3).</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-13">Adolescents' Personality</hd> <p>The Big Five Scale of Personality Trait Adjectives, developed by Wada ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref64">52</reflink>]) and commonly utilized in Japan, assesses an individual's personality based on a five‐factor model. For this study, we employed a short form of the scale developed by Namikawa et al. ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref65">34</reflink>]), which has been validated against the original scale. This short form includes adjective items measuring Extraversion (e.g., sociable), Conscientiousness (e.g., lazy, reversed item), and Openness to experience (e.g., versatile), with five, seven, and six items, respectively. Adolescents were asked to rate the extent to which each item applied to them on a Likert‐type scale ranging from 1 (<emph>not at all</emph>) to 7 (<emph>very true</emph>) at Time 1. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients for these subscales ranged from 0.86 to 0.88. Scores for all items within each subscale were summed to derive scores for each personality trait.</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-14">Analytical Plan</hd> <p>We employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to address three objectives of this study. The central component of the estimated model is illustrated in Figure 1. The three subscales representing mothers' and adolescents' perceived positive relationships at both Time 1 and Time 2 were derived from latent factors capturing their perceived positive relationships toward each other. Furthermore, four subscales assessing adolescent psychological distress were treated as latent factors representing their psychological distress.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/JAA/01apr25/jad12447-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMMvl7ESepq84yOvsOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="jad12447-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 The finalized structural model (N = 579). Note: Standardized coefficients (β) are reported. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01. Some minor details are omitted from the path diagram for simplicity. Correlations among all of the mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their relationships within each time period were significant at the 5% significance level (β = 0.098−0.668) except for between the mothers' perception of conflict with adolescents and adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers (β = 0.067−0.085, ns)." /> </p> <p></p> <p>In this model, we utilized the Actor–Partner Interdependence Model (APIM; Cook and Kenny [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref66">13</reflink>]) and Actor–Partner Interdependence Mediation Model (APIMeM; Ledermann, Macho, and Kenny [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref67">28</reflink>]) framework, which examines both actor (e.g., mothers' past perceived relationships later influencing their own perceptions) and partner (e.g., mothers' past perceived relationships later influencing adolescents' perceptions) effects. We hypothesized that both mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their own and partners' intimate and conflictual relationships at Time 1 would predict their subsequent perceptions of these relationships, while also considering mediation through COVID‐19‐related stress. Finally, we anticipated that mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their relationships and their stress levels would predict adolescents' psychological distress.</p> <p>However, it should be noted that some minor details of the estimated model were omitted from Figure 1 for simplicity. These details include the following:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> 1 Adolescents' age, gender, and personality were included as control variables, as previous studies have suggested their potential relevance to the variables in the path model (Connor‐Smith and Flachsbart [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref68">11</reflink>]; Kotov et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref69">27</reflink>]; Noftle and Shaver [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref70">36</reflink>]). Additionally, the presence of fathers' teleworking and the duration of children's school closure during the initial mild lockdown were considered as control variables to capture differences in actual family situations during the COVID‐19 pandemic. All control variables were assumed to influence every observed variable in the path diagram.</item> <p></p> <item> 2 Following the standard setup of APIM and APIMeM, residual correlations were specified between mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their relationship at each Time 1 and Time 2. Moreover, residual correlations were assumed between the same indicator variables of perceived positive relationships across partners. Additionally, a correlation between residuals of mothers' and adolescents' COVID‐19‐related stress was assumed.</item> <p></p> <item> 3 To ensure equivalence of factors representing perceptions of positive relationships across time points, the unstandardized solutions of the factor loadings on the same observed variables were constrained to be identical across time points. Furthermore, residuals between the same indicator variables were assumed to be correlated across time points.</item> </ulist> <p>In the SEM, we not only estimated the model but also calculated indirect effects and their confidence intervals. These effects were tested using the bootstrap method with a sample size of 10,000, aiming to elucidate the mediating effects on mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of relationships and their COVID‐19‐related stress.</p> <p>Descriptive analyses were conducted using SPSS 22.0, and correlation and SEM were performed using Mplus 8.2 (Muthén and Muthén [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref71">33</reflink>]), which utilizes the full information maximum likelihood method to handle missing data. Given that chi‐square is influenced by sample size, we relied on additional fit indices, including the comparative fit index (CFI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR), to evaluate the model fit. Following the criteria established by Hu and Bentler ([[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref72">22</reflink>]]), a well‐fitting model is indicated by a CFI of 0.95 or higher, RMSEA values below 0.06, and an SRMR of 0.08 or lower.</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-16">Results</hd> <p>We employed a structural equation path model with cross‐lagged regression analysis to examine the interrelationships among mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their relationships, perceived pandemic‐related stress, and adolescents' psychological distress. Correlations among all variables are detailed in Supporting Information S1.</p> <p>The results indicated that the hypothesized model (Figure 1) adequately fit the data: χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib164" id="ref73">164</reflink>) = 587.905, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, CFI = 0.954, RMSEA = 0.068 (CI: 0.062–0.074), SRMR = 0.034. However, the RMSEA value did not meet the criterion set by Hu and Bentler ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref74">22</reflink>]). Standardized factor loadings on each latent factor were all significant at the 1% level: mothers' perception of positive relationships with adolescents at Time 1 (<emph>β</emph> = 0.603–0.865) and Time 2 (<emph>β</emph> = 0.636–0.885), adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers at Time 1 (<emph>β</emph> = 0.781–0.914) and Time 2 (<emph>β</emph> = 0.803–0.932), and adolescents' psychological distress (<emph>β</emph> = 0.756–0.850).</p> <p>Regarding the component of the model concerning mother–adolescent positive relationships (Figure 1), significant and positive within‐time associations were observed between mothers' perception of positive relationships with adolescents and adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers at both Time 1 and Time 2. Additionally, significant autocorrelations were found for mothers' perception of positive relationships with adolescents and adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers, respectively. Furthermore, there were significant cross‐lagged reciprocal relations among these variables; mothers' perception of positive relationships with adolescents at Time 1 positively predicted their perception at Time 2, and vice versa.</p> <p>In terms of conflict, similar significant and positive associations were observed between mothers' perception of conflict with adolescents and adolescents' perception of conflict with mothers at both Time 1 and Time 2, mirroring the pattern seen in mother–adolescent positive relationships. Additionally, adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers at Time 1 significantly and negatively predicted their perception of conflict with mothers at Time 2, and vice versa.</p> <p>Mothers' perception of positive relationships with adolescents at Time 1 significantly and positively predicted their perception of pandemic‐related stress. Similarly, adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers at Time 1 also significantly and positively predicted their perception of pandemic‐related stress. Moreover, this stress was positively associated with adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers at Time 2. Results from mediation analysis (see Table 4) indicated that adolescents' higher perception of positive relationships with mothers not only directly predicted their higher equivalent perception at Time 2 but also indirectly related to it through their higher perception of pandemic‐related stress. However, the path was marginally significant, and the confidence interval did not include zero. Supporting Information S2 lists total, direct, and indirect effects on each mother's perceptions of positive and conflictual relationships with adolescents and adolescents' perception of conflict with mothers.</p> <p>4 Table Total, direct, and indirect effects on adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers at Time 2.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Effect</th><th>Estimate</th><th>95% CI</th><th><italic>SE</italic></th><th><italic>p</italic></th><th>Stand. Estimate</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Mothers' perception of positive relationships with adolescents (Time 1)</td></tr><tr><td>Direct effect</td><td>0.436</td><td>[0.268, 0.619]</td><td>0.088</td><td>0.000</td><td>0.313</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers (Time 1)</td></tr><tr><td>Total effect</td><td>0.406</td><td>[0.280, 0.520]</td><td>0.060</td><td>0.000</td><td>0.400</td></tr><tr><td>Direct effect</td><td>0.377</td><td>[0.251, 0.494]</td><td>0.062</td><td>0.000</td><td>0.371</td></tr><tr><td>Indirect effect</td><td>0.029</td><td>[0.003, 0.062]</td><td>0.015</td><td>0.056</td><td>0.028</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Mothers' perception of conflict with adolescents (Time 1)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Direct effect</td><td>−0.053</td><td>[−0.131, 0.021]</td><td>0.039</td><td>0.170</td><td>−0.067</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Adolescents' perception of conflict with mothers (Time 1)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Total effect</td><td>−0.080</td><td>[−0.148, −0.011]</td><td>0.035</td><td>0.020</td><td>−0.101</td></tr><tr><td>Direct effect</td><td>−0.083</td><td>[−0.150, −0.014]</td><td>0.035</td><td>0.016</td><td>−0.104</td></tr><tr><td>Indirect effect</td><td>0.002</td><td>[−0.006, 0.013]</td><td>0.005</td><td>0.583</td><td>0.003</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 Abbreviation: CI, confidential interval.</p> <p>Additionally, there were no significant associations found between mothers' perception of conflict with adolescents at both Time 1 and Time 2 and their perception of pandemic‐related stress. Similarly, no significant results were observed for adolescents' perception of conflict with mothers.</p> <p>Finally, as depicted in Figure 1, both adolescents' perception of positive and conflictual relationships with mothers at Time 2 significantly correlated with adolescents' psychological distress: the former negatively and the latter positively. To identify the paths from mother–adolescent relationships at Time 1 and their perception of pandemic‐related stress to adolescents' psychological distress, mediation analysis was conducted, focusing on adolescents' perception of positive and conflictual relationships with mothers at Time 2 (Table 5). The analysis revealed that higher perceptions of positive relationships between mothers and adolescents at Time 1 were associated with sustained higher perceptions of positive relationships with mothers at Time 2, predicting lower levels of adolescents' psychological distress. Additionally, adolescents' perception of higher positive relationships with mothers at both Time 1 and Time 2 was mediated by their increased perception of pandemic‐related stress, followed by lower levels of psychological distress, although this path was marginally significant and the confidence interval did not include zero (see Supporting Information S3).</p> <p>5 Table The effect of significant pathways on adolescents' psychological distress.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Effect</th><th>Estimate</th><th>95% CI</th><th><italic>SE</italic></th><th><italic>p</italic></th><th>Stand. Estimate</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Mothers' perception of positive relationships with adolescents (Time 1) → Adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers (Time 2)</td><td>−0.129</td><td>[−0.228, −0.054]</td><td>0.044</td><td>0.003</td><td>−0.089</td></tr><tr><td>Adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers (Time 1) → Adolescents' perception of positive relationships with mothers (Time 2)</td><td>−0.112</td><td>[−0.188, −0.048]</td><td>0.036</td><td>0.002</td><td>−0.106</td></tr><tr><td>Mothers' perception of conflict with adolescents (Time 1) → Adolescents' perception of conflict with mothers (Time 2)</td><td>0.058</td><td>[0.027, 0.096]</td><td>0.018</td><td>0.001</td><td>0.070</td></tr><tr><td>Adolescents' perception of conflict with mothers (Time 1) → Adolescents' perception of conflict with mothers (Time 2)</td><td>0.063</td><td>[0.028, 0.107]</td><td>0.020</td><td>0.002</td><td>0.076</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 Abbreviation: CI, confidential interval.</p> <p>Conversely, higher perceptions of conflict between mothers and adolescents at Time 1 were associated with sustained higher perceptions of conflict with mothers at Time 2, predicting higher levels of adolescents' psychological distress.</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-17">Discussion</hd> <p>This study illuminates the process by which mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their relationships are interconnected before and during the pandemic, with their interrelations mediated by their perceptions of pandemic‐related stress, ultimately impacting adolescents' psychological distress.</p> <p>Path analysis revealed that both mothers' and adolescents' pre‐pandemic perceptions of their positive and conflictual relationships contributed to their own and their partners' equivalent perceptions during the pandemic. These findings support our hypothesis based on the APIM and underscore the stability and mutual influence of mothers' and adolescents' relationship perceptions across different phases. It is consistent with previous research, which revealed that both parents' and adolescents' perceptions of attachment security or negative emotions toward each other were influenced not only by their own perceptions but also by those of their partners in normative conditions (Cook [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref75">12</reflink>]; Kim et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref76">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>Mediation analysis further showed that mothers' and adolescents' pre‐pandemic perceptions of their relationships were directly associated with adolescents' equivalent perceptions during the pandemic and indirectly impacted adolescents' psychological distress. Specifically, pre‐pandemic positive relationships between mothers and adolescents served as protective factors against psychological distress, while conflictual relationships posed a risk for increased distress. Although the indirect effects of these pathways on adolescents' psychological distress were relatively small (see Supporting Information S3), these findings align with prior research demonstrating that positive relationships with mothers mitigate psychological distress, both in normal circumstances (Branje et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref77">3</reflink>]; Vieno et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref78">51</reflink>]) and during the COVID‐19 pandemic (Janssens et al. [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref79">24</reflink>]). Thus, maintaining a sense of intimacy, trust, and minimal conflict with mothers appears to offer effective protection against psychological distress, even in nonnormative stressful situations.</p> <p>Comparing the results on adolescents' perceptions, mothers' perceptions of relationships with adolescents did not significantly relate to adolescents' psychological distress. It is worth noting that these results may be influenced by self‐reported bias. However, recent research on discrepancies between parents' and adolescents' reports of family functioning suggests that such discrepancies reflect meaningful aspects of family dynamics (De Los Reyes and Ohannessian [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref80">30</reflink>]). Indeed, Guion, Mrug, and Windle ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref81">20</reflink>]) demonstrated that adolescents' more negative perceptions of their parents' attitudes than parents' own perceptions predicted subsequent internalizing problems in adolescents. Therefore, the present findings may underscore the importance of considering the extent to which adolescents evaluate their relationships with mothers for their mental health.</p> <p>Path analysis also indicated that adolescents' perceptions of positive relationships with mothers was maintained through the mediation of their perception of higher pandemic‐related stress. This finding aligns with the hypothesis derived from the FAAR model rather than the stress‐buffering model. However, the mediation analysis revealed that the indirect effect of this pathway was small, warranting caution in interpretation. Nevertheless, our results contribute to the existing knowledge about the interplay among mother–adolescent relationship quality, pandemic‐related stress, and adolescents' psychological distress.</p> <p>Considering the FAAR model and previous findings on emotion regulation, mindfulness, and stress‐coping strategies, our results suggest that mothers perceived as having positive relationships with adolescents may facilitate effective expression of emotions and following an acceptance of stressful realities and contribute to enhancing positive perceptions of the relationship. Especially, this process, including adolescents' reappraisal of emotions and awareness of their feelings in the present moment, could serve as an adaptive strategy against psychological distress compared to suppression strategies (Bariola, Gullone, and Hughes [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref82">2</reflink>], Weinstein, Brown, and Ryan [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref83">53</reflink>]). Tang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref84">50</reflink>]) found that increased communication between children and mothers about the pandemic was associated with lower psychological distress in children. Therefore, fostering open communication patterns and creating an accepting environment may be crucial for adolescents' mental health in nonnormative stressful situations.</p> <p>Relatedly, mothers' pre‐pandemic perceptions of positive relationships with adolescents positively predicted their higher pandemic‐related stress, but this stress did not relate to their perceptions of positive relationships during the pandemic. This result may suggest that mothers who perceive positive relationships with adolescents are more attuned to pandemic‐related stressors and may tend to express negative emotions to adolescents. However, they may not perceive their genuine attitudes as beneficial for their relationships with adolescents, possibly because adolescents may not be receptive to their mothers' attitudes.</p> <p>Finally, mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of conflictual relationships at both Time 1 and Time 2 were not significantly related to their perceptions of pandemic‐related stress. This finding was inconsistent with our hypothesis regarding a cycle of negativity. It suggests that the degree of conflict between mothers and adolescents during the pandemic is influenced more by their long‐term state of conflict than by transient stress during acute catastrophic events.</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-18">Limitations</hd> <p>This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, COVID‐19 stressors were assessed retrospectively, as our research at Time 2 was conducted approximately 6 months after the beginning of the initial mild lockdown. Although the lockdown had been lifted by that time, most Japanese citizens still exercised self‐restraint and refrained from nonessential outings. Second, stress was evaluated using self‐constructed items based on previous studies due to the lack of validated measures available at the time of the study. Third, we only assessed adolescents' psychological distress at a single relatively later phase during the pandemic, which prevented us from examining changes from the pre‐pandemic or early phases. It would be valuable to investigate whether adolescents' distress increased following the first lockdown and decreased upon reopening, as suggested by Buist et al. ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref85">5</reflink>]). Moreover, future research should also consider assessing mothers' psychological distress, as it can have significant implications for adolescents' mental health, as recognized in previous literature (Goodman et al. [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref86">18</reflink>]).</p> <p>Fourth, our sample exhibited a slight skew toward higher economic status, considering the average household income of families living with children in Japan (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref87">7</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib459" id="ref88">459</reflink>,000 yen in 2019; Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan [31]). Additionally, attrition analyses indicated that families with more children were more likely to drop out at Time 2. However, the distribution of the number of children in our sample was similar to that of the national sample in Japan (National Institute of Population and Social Security Research [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref89">35</reflink>]), with two children being the most common, followed by one child and then three children.</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-19">Conclusions</hd> <p>Despite these limitations, this study has implications for understanding how mothers and adolescents perceive their relationships and how these perceptions influence adolescents' psychological distress during the COVID‐19 pandemic, as well as during difficult times in general. Adolescence is characterized by a desire for independence from mothers, and the differences in perception between mothers and adolescents are notable. However, our findings suggest that both mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their relationship quality are interrelated and contribute to adolescents' current perceptions, which in turn predict their mental health outcomes. Furthermore, adolescents should not conceal their negative feelings about stress to maintain positive relationships with their mothers, especially in cases where they share intimate bonds. Additionally, considering the findings related to conflictual relationships, interventions targeting adolescents experiencing high levels of psychological distress should focus on understanding family dynamics before acute stressors occur and improving daily interactions within the family unit.</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-20">Ethics Statement</hd> <p>Ethical approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Board of the NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Center.</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-21">Consent</hd> <p>The author has nothing to report.</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-22">Conflicts of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0184298287-23">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. 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  Data: Mother-Adolescent Relationship and Psychological Distress during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Study
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Atsushi+Sakai%22">Atsushi Sakai</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0009-0002-9767-0387">0009-0002-9767-0387</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hiroto+Murohashi%22">Hiroto Murohashi</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Seiji+Watanabe%22">Seiji Watanabe</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Adolescence%22"><i>Journal of Adolescence</i></searchLink>. 2025 97(3):700-712.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 13
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Junior+High+Schools%22">Junior High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Middle+Schools%22">Middle Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Junior+High+School+Students%22">Junior High School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mothers%22">Mothers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22COVID-19%22">COVID-19</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pandemics%22">Pandemics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Student+Relationship%22">Parent Student Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Variables%22">Stress Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Positive+Attitudes%22">Positive Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Positive+Reinforcement%22">Positive Reinforcement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Positive+Behavior+Supports%22">Positive Behavior Supports</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Coping%22">Coping</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Emotional+Adjustment%22">Emotional Adjustment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mental+Health%22">Mental Health</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Development%22">Student Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Behavior+Development%22">Behavior Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Affective+Behavior%22">Affective Behavior</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Japan%22">Japan</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1002/jad.12447
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0140-1971<br />1095-9254
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Introduction: This study aims to investigate how mother-adolescent relationships evolved before and during the COVID-19 pandemic and their correlation with pandemic-related stress and adolescents' psychological distress. Methods: A longitudinal study involving 579 mother-adolescent dyads (junior high school students at Time 1; 50% male students) was conducted, with data collected before (October 2019) and during (October 2020) the pandemic in Japan. Both mothers and adolescents reported the perceived quality of their positive and conflictual relationships at each time point. At Time 2, assessments were made regarding perceived pandemic-related stress and adolescent psychological distress. Results: Structural equation modeling, cross-lagged regression, and mediation analysis revealed that perceptions of relationships by both mothers and adolescents before the pandemic predicted and sustained their own and their partners' perceptions during the pandemic. Furthermore, adolescents' perceptions of positive relationships with mothers protected against adolescents' distress. Otherwise, their perceptions of conflictual relationships with mothers posed a risk for adolescents' psychological distress. Additionally, the maintenance of adolescents' higher perception of positive relationships with their mothers was mediated by their perceived higher pandemic-related stress. Conclusions: These findings underscore the reciprocal and additive nature of mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of relationship quality, which in turn predict adolescents' mental health during stressful situations like a pandemic. Moreover, adolescents are encouraged not to suppress negative feelings about stress, to enhance perceptions of a positive relationship perceptions with their mother.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1466408
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1466408
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/jad.12447
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 13
        StartPage: 700
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Junior High School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mothers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: COVID-19
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pandemics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Student Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Stress Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Positive Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Positive Reinforcement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Positive Behavior Supports
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Coping
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Emotional Adjustment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mental Health
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Behavior Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Affective Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Japan
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Mother-Adolescent Relationship and Psychological Distress during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Study
        Type: main
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    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Atsushi Sakai
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Hiroto Murohashi
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Seiji Watanabe
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 04
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0140-1971
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1095-9254
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 97
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Adolescence
              Type: main
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