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Unrealistic Career Optimism among Korean Adolescents: A Discrepancy between Career Aspirations and Career Preparation Behaviors

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Title: Unrealistic Career Optimism among Korean Adolescents: A Discrepancy between Career Aspirations and Career Preparation Behaviors
Language: English
Authors: Bo Hyun Lee (ORCID 0000-0002-2633-9948), Sang Min Lee (ORCID 0000-0001-6148-772X), J. Hannah Lee (ORCID 0000-0002-5487-3478)
Source: Journal of Career Development. 2025 52(3):354-368.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 15
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: High Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Adolescents, High School Students, Career Choice, Career Education, Vocational Interests, Occupational Aspiration, Career Development, Student Attitudes, Positive Attitudes, Psychological Patterns, Career and Technical Education
Geographic Terms: South Korea
DOI: 10.1177/08948453251322444
ISSN: 0894-8453
1556-0856
Abstract: The present study aims to identify unrealistic career optimism among Korean high school students and to examine its characteristics. Cluster analysis was conducted to identify the number of groups classified by the reported levels of career aspirations and career preparation behaviors among 420 Korean high school students, and each group's characteristic was investigated using a series of one-way covariance (ANCOVA). Three clusters were identified: (a) Doer (30.3%), (b) Bystander (35%), and (c) Unrealistic Career Optimist (UCO; 34.7%). Clusters Doer and Bystander were characterized by high/low scores on both career aspirations and career preparation behaviors, respectively, while the cluster UCO endorsed high levels of career aspirations despite low levels of career preparation behaviors. Significant differences in optimism, subjective well-being, and career maturity between groups were documented, suggesting implications for both research and practice.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1468151
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0184489389;[2yf6]01jun.25;2025Apr17.01:46;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0184489389-1">Unrealistic Career Optimism Among Korean Adolescents: A Discrepancy Between Career Aspirations and Career Preparation Behaviors </title> <p>The present study aims to identify unrealistic career optimism among Korean high school students and to examine its characteristics. Cluster analysis was conducted to identify the number of groups classified by the reported levels of career aspirations and career preparation behaviors among 420 Korean high school students, and each group's characteristic was investigated using a series of one-way covariance (ANCOVA). Three clusters were identified: (a) Doer (30.3%), (b) Bystander (35%), and (c) Unrealistic Career Optimist (UCO; 34.7%). Clusters Doer and Bystander were characterized by high/low scores on both career aspirations and career preparation behaviors, respectively, while the cluster UCO endorsed high levels of career aspirations despite low levels of career preparation behaviors. Significant differences in optimism, subjective well-being, and career maturity between groups were documented, suggesting implications for both research and practice.</p> <p>Keywords: unrealistic career optimism; adolescents; career aspirations; career preparation behaviors; South Korea</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Career optimism refers to the tendency for individuals to "expect the best possible outcome or to emphasize the most positive aspects of one's future career development" ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref1">45</reflink>], p. 11). As an indicator of career maturity and adaptability, accumulated research has shown the link to various positive career outcomes from career optimism, such as career aspirations, career choices, career exploration, and academic satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref2">39</reflink>]). As such, its important roles in one's career development have attracted growing attention from vocational behavior researchers, resulting in exponential growth in research on career optimism in the past decade ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref3">16</reflink>]). Despite of its benefits, an ongoing debate in philosophy and psychology on optimism has been placed as people tend to display high optimism for future outcomes despite contradicting realities ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref4">49</reflink>]), labeling it unrealistic optimism (UO). A diverse array of events, both desirable (e.g., graduating from college, getting married) and undesirable (e.g., diseases, natural disaster), have been documented associated with this UO (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref5">48</reflink>]), suggesting significant consequences for affect, decision-making, and behaviors.</p> <p>In vocational behavior literature, UO in adolescents' career development has been seen as a natural consequence of the way they process information while processing vague information without actual experiences ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref6">49</reflink>]). However, there is a lack of empirical studies that investigate the presence of UO in adolescents' career development as well as potential outcomes, differentiated from realistic career optimism. Furthermore, adolescents' future work is likely to be confronted by varied, unique challenges, such as artificial intelligence (AI) that transforms the nature of work and skill demands ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref7">3</reflink>]). While AI tools offer predictive analytics, providing job seekers with insights into future career paths and industry trends (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref8">38</reflink>]), overreliance on AI's projections without consideration of personal limitations or broader job market volatility would create an illusion of guaranteed progression in career, highlighting the necessity of examination on UO. A recent systematic review by [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref9">16</reflink>] also highlighted the need for research on both the positive and negative effects of career optimism, identifying it as an area ripe for empirical exploration. To date, only one study has examined unrealistic career optimism among employees in the hospitality industry ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref10">40</reflink>]), and no studies have specifically addressed UO in adolescents' career development. To address this gap, in the present study, we set out to examine the career-related UO and explore its characteristics. As we detail subsequently, we explored whether UO exists among Korean high school students and how other career-related variables are associated with UO, which is likely to provide a depth of understanding in career optimism among adolescents.</p> <p>The present study seeks to identify the potential presence of career-related UO among adolescents and understand its characteristics. Thus, we first provide an operational definition of UO in the current study. [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref11">48</reflink>] documented two broad categories of UO from their review paper: unrealistic <emph>absolute</emph> optimism and unrealistic <emph>comparative</emph> optimism. The former refers to a belief that a personal outcome will be more favorable than it should be according to some quantitative standard. A variety of approaches to assess absolute UO were used, such as comparing people's predictions or risk estimate about an event to the validated outcome (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref12">14</reflink>]). On the other hand, unrealistic <emph>comparative</emph> optimism refers to the belief that one's personal outcomes will be more favorable than the outcomes of others who exhibit an identical or lower risk profile. Given that career development process is unique and personal for each individual, unrealistic <emph>absolute</emph> optimism is chosen to consider adolescents' career-related UO rather than comparing their success to others. Specifically, we adopted career aspiration as well as career preparation behavior as two major axes to differentiate unrealistic career optimism in adolescence. In sum, we operationalize unrealistic career optimism (UCO) when detecting the high level of career aspirations despite of low level of career preparation behavior.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-3">Unrealistic Career Optimism: Aspiration without Action</hd> <p>[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref13">17</reflink>] suggests that adolescents develop occupational aspirations through the processes of circumscription and compromise. Circumscription involves narrowing career aspirations to a range of acceptable choices, while compromise refers to the adjustments adolescents make to these aspirations based on realistic assessments of their abilities, interests, and values. This process suggests an important practicality that one gains career maturity, they are expected to transition from idealistic aspirations to realistic, tentative career goals.</p> <p>The existing research on career decisions largely have focused on personal perceptions and emotions, overlooking behavioral aspects ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref14">7</reflink>]), even though active engagement along with deliberate actions is a necessary step to crystalize adolescents' career goals. To address this gap, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref15">25</reflink>] investigated career preparation behavior, defining it as specific actions taken for rational career decision-making and the implementation of individuals' career goals—such as gathering career information, engaging in internships, and developing decision-making skills. As practical and specific career-related behaviors, these behaviors have been positively associated with career aspirations, optimism, career maturity, achievement motivation, and self-efficacy, while negatively correlated with anxiety and career barriers. Understanding career preparation behavior among Korean adolescents can be particularly valuable in the context of Korean society, in which doing well on college entrance exam has become a sole goal for high schoolers at the expense of their career development along with the high parental expectation on child's success ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref16">9</reflink>]). Mere aspirations, without concrete preparatory efforts, may never yield fruitful career outcomes. Adolescents with high career aspirations but fail to engage in sufficient preparatory activities may struggle to navigate the complexities of career exploration, ultimately missing key opportunities for personal and career development. Considering the critical role of adolescence in shaping one's career success, investigating potential UCO among adolescents is essential.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-4">The Current Study</hd> <p>The present study aims to address the gap in the vocational behavioral literature by investigating unrealistic career optimism among Korean high school students. The study's primary objectives are twofold: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref17">1</reflink>) to explore whether career-related UO exists among adolescents and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref18">2</reflink>) to examine how career-related UO is associated with other psychological and career variables, such as dispositional optimism, subjective well-being, and career maturity.</p> <p>We define UCO as a high level of career aspirations unaccompanied by adequate career preparation behaviors, a phenomenon that contradicts established theories linking career aspirations to future actions such as career exploration. In exploring UCO, we anticipate that individuals who report high aspirations but lack the corresponding preparatory efforts will differ significantly from their peers. It is expected that adolescents who fall into the UCO category will demonstrate lower levels of career maturity, a construct that encompasses the attitudes and competencies necessary for effective career self-management ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref19">33</reflink>]). Additionally, we hypothesize that while adolescents with UO may exhibit high levels of dispositional optimism, their lack of preparation will be associated with lower subjective well-being, reflecting the emotional and psychological challenges of aspiring without the means to pursue them. Moreover, we expect that career preparation behavior will serve as a critical differentiator between realistic and unrealistic career optimism, with higher levels of preparation correlating with greater well-being and career maturity. By investigating these hypotheses, this study aims to provide a deeper understanding of UCO in adolescence, exploring its implications for both psychological well-being and career development.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-5">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184489389-6">Procedure and Participants</hd> <p>Participants were 420 high school students from five school in Seoul and Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. All five schools were public schools; two located in suburban, and three located in city. Upper class (i.e., seniors) students were not targeted for this study, as they were taking the College Scholastic Ability Test at that time, which could affect the results of the study. The sample consisted of 49.5% male students (<emph>n</emph> = 208) and 50.5% female students (<emph>n</emph> = 212). The mean age of the participants was 16.69 years <emph>(SD =</emph>.45) between the ages of 15 and 17 years old. In terms of the year in school, 310 (73.8%) were freshmen and 110 (26.2%) were sophomores.</p> <p>A sample of 498 high school students from South Korea was invited to this cross-sectional study. Schools were recruited by contacting principals and instructors of "career and vocational studies" courses respectively in Seoul and Gyeonggi Province, and five schools were willing to participate in the study. Study protocol and survey contents were reviewed by each school's committee as well as principal, and the approval was obtained. In South Korea, parental consents were proactively secured at the beginning of the semester for all planned surveys and assessments, ensuring comprehensive compliance with ethical standards throughout the academic term. Paper-and-Pencil self-administered questionnaire was used to obtain participants' responses, and students were given options to refuse to participate. PI was present on the site to answer any questions participants may have.</p> <p>Before proceeding data analyses, item-level data screening was performed. We excluded 72 cases from the sample that failed and/or missed more than one attention check items in the survey (e.g., "Please rate on the option, 'Strongly Agree'"). Of the remaining cases, two had more than 10% missing data and were excluded. In the 424 case remaining, 32 had very low missing data (1.0%–2.2%), and Little's missing completely at random test at the item level was not significant, χ2 = 1475.29, <emph>df</emph> = 1701, <emph>p</emph> =.495. Thus, Available Item Analysis was chosen to examine missing data ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref20">43</reflink>]). Inspection of Mahalanobis distance indicated that four cases were multivariate outliers (<emph>p</emph> <.001). Removing these four cases left us with a final usable sample of 420 participants.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-7">Measure</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184489389-8">Career Aspiration</hd> <p>Career Aspiration was measured with 10-item Career Aspiration Scale—Korean (CAS-K), which was translated and validated by [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref21">8</reflink>]. The original career aspiration scale was developed by [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref22">42</reflink>] to assess the value attributed by a person to a career, specifically emphasizing the degree to which the person aspires to achieve leadership or advanced positions within a chosen field. Example items include "I want to be a leader in my career field" and "I want to train others if I settle down in my career." Items are rated from one (<emph>not at all true of me</emph>) to five (<emph>very true of me</emph>). A previous study documented that career aspiration was significantly correlated with other career constructions (e.g., career decision-making self-efficacy, career barriers), which suggested a good construct validity. The Cronbach's alpha was.74 in [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref23">8</reflink>] and Kim et al. (.78), while it was.66 in the current study.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-9">Career Preparation Behavior</hd> <p>Career preparation behavior was measured by using a total of 18 items; of these, 16 were developed by [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref24">25</reflink>], and 2 were additional items reflecting the active use of career-related websites and career counseling resources in one's career preparation behaviors ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref25">34</reflink>]). In this measure, career preparation behavior consists of the following activities: (a) collecting information, (b) obtaining tools or materials for attaining career goals, and (c) exerting efforts to actualize career goals. Sample items include "over the past few weeks, I have searched for qualifications of an occupation in which I am interested." Items are rated using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (<emph>not at all true of me</emph>) to 5 (<emph>very true of me</emph>). This scale has been widely used for research related to career development, and exhibited significant, positive correlations with career maturity and commitment to career choice ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref26">19</reflink>]). The Cronbach's alpha was.89 ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref27">29</reflink>]), while it was.92 in the present study.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-10">Dispositional Optimism</hd> <p>Dispositional optimism was assessed with the 10-item Revised Life Orientation Test—Korean that was translated and validated by [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref28">50</reflink>]. Original version of the Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) was developed by [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref29">47</reflink>] for assessing optimism through generalized outcome expectancies of individual differences in dispositional optimism-pessimism. The scale consists of 10 items; three items are about positive statements and three regarding negative statements, with four fillers. Example items include "In uncertain times, I usually expect the best." Items are rated using a 5-Likert point scale, ranging from 0 (<emph>strongly disagree</emph>) to 4 (<emph>strongly agree</emph>). The significant, expected correlations with other relevant structures (e.g., social support, distress) were reported by [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref30">52</reflink>]. The reported internal consistency was between.73 and.81 ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref31">50</reflink>] & Sohn et al., 2014), while it was.71 in the current study.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-11">Subjective Well-Being</hd> <p>Subjective well-being was measured with 10-item (a) 5-item from the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) developed by [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref32">13</reflink>] and validated by [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref33">26</reflink>] and (b) 5-item by [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref34">26</reflink>], which supplemented to assess life expectation. Sample item includes "The conditions of my life are excellent." Participants were asked to report their state in a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (<emph>strongly disagree</emph>) to 7 (<emph>strongly agree</emph>). This scale was significantly correlated with the internal health locus of control and mental health problem in expected directions, positive and negative, respectively along with.95 of internal consistency ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref35">51</reflink>]). Cronbach's alpha in the current study was.91.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-12">Career Maturity</hd> <p>Career maturity was measured with a 47-item career attitude maturity inventory (CAMI; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref36">32</reflink>]). The scale includes five subscales, as follows: decisiveness (10 items), goal orientation (8 items), confidence (10 items), preparation (10 items), and independence (9 items). These items were asked, using in a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (<emph>I am far from it</emph>) to 5 (<emph>I am close to it</emph>). Sample items include "I have imagined my future career life even though I am still students." CAMI is significantly related to the Tennessee Self Concept Scale, exhibiting internal consistency between.64 and.90 for all subscales ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref37">32</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref38">31</reflink>] reported Cronbach's alpha of the total score as.98. while it was.91 in the current study.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-13">Data Analysis</hd> <p>Cluster analysis is an exploratory statistical method that sorts individuals into groups by the relative similarities to one another on a given set of measures ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref39">20</reflink>]). As recommended by [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref40">23</reflink>], a two-step exploratory cluster analysis approach that combines two different, but complementary clustering methods was used to determine the optimal cluster structure. To produce clusters of relatively equal size with comparatively insensitive outliers, Ward's minimum variance procedure was used, which maximized inter-cluster differences by computing the sum of squared distances within clusters and aggregating clusters with the minimum ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref41">24</reflink>]). Finally, the appropriate number of clusters for data was decided by following a line chart from the coefficients of the agglomeration schedule table. Second, K-means clustering was used to confirm the cluster. K-means cluster analysis, a non-hierarchical method, uses an iterative algorithm, so that objects can be shifted from one cluster to another until a minimizing within-cluster and maximizing between-cluster distances convergence criteria are reached.</p> <p>Next, the one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to investigate differences in the dispositional optimism, subjective well-being, and career maturity of each group. Post-hoc analysis was also adopted to investigate the difference among clusters with Scheffe's method. SPSS 29.0 was used to classify clusters and predict contributors for each cluster, and all scores were standardized (T score; <emph>M</emph> = 50, <emph>SD</emph> = 10).</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-14">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184489389-15">Preliminary Analyses</hd> <p>We first examined the potential influence of demographic and environmental variables (i.e., gender, grade, and school) on the study variables. Analyses of variance showed that participants did not significantly differ according to grade and school. However, there was a significant effect for gender on career preparation behaviors, <emph>F</emph><subs>419</subs> = 5.73, <emph>p</emph> =.02, with female students (<emph>M</emph> = 2.35, <emph>SD</emph> =.51) reporting higher scores than male students (<emph>M</emph> = 2.22, <emph>SD</emph> =.58). Thus, gender was added as a covariate in main analyses. Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among variables are displayed in Table 1.</p> <p>Table 1. Intercorrelations Among Variables.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="center"><italic>M</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>SD</italic></th><th align="center">1</th><th align="center">2</th><th align="center">3</th><th align="center">4</th><th align="center">5</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">1. Career aspiration</td><td align="char" char=".">3.36</td><td align="char" char=".">.49</td><td align="char" char=".">-</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">2. Career preparation behavior</td><td align="char" char=".">2.28</td><td align="char" char=".">.55</td><td align="char" char=".">.31***</td><td align="char" char=".">-</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">3. Optimism</td><td align="char" char=".">3.38</td><td align="char" char=".">.60</td><td align="char" char=".">.30***</td><td align="char" char=".">.15**</td><td align="char" char=".">-</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">4. Subjective well-being</td><td align="char" char=".">4.68</td><td align="char" char=".">1.12</td><td align="char" char=".">.27***</td><td align="char" char=".">.19***</td><td align="char" char=".">.54***</td><td align="char" char=".">-</td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">5. Career attitude maturity</td><td align="char" char=".">3.38</td><td align="char" char=".">.45</td><td align="char" char=".">.32***</td><td align="char" char=".">.41***</td><td align="char" char=".">.44***</td><td align="char" char=".">.35***</td><td align="char" char=".">-</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>N</emph> = 422, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001, **<emph>p</emph> <.01.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-16">Main Analyses</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184489389-17">Cluster Analysis</hd> <p>A hierarchical agglomerative method with Ward's minimum variance approach was used to identify participants' cluster, using two structures—career aspirations and career preparation behaviors. Three clusters were identified as the optimal number, using a line chart from the coefficients of the agglomeration schedule table. Results showed that a three-cluster solution was the most representative of this sample, indicating a meaningful interpretation of the clusters. K-mean clustering analysis also confirmed three clusters as illustrated in Table 2 and Figure 1.</p> <p>Table 2. Final Cluster Centers.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="center">Doer</th><th align="center">Bystander</th><th align="center">UCO</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Career aspiration</td><td align="char" char=".">53.72</td><td align="char" char=".">41.03</td><td align="char" char=".">56.95</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Career preparation behavior</td><td align="char" char=".">61.38</td><td align="char" char=".">43.61</td><td align="char" char=".">46.85</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 UCO = Unrealistic Career Optimist.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1.Empirically derived unrealistic career optimist clusters.</p> <p>The first cluster (<emph>n</emph> = 128, 30.5%) was characterized by high scores on both career aspiration and career preparation behavior. This cluster was labeled as "Doer," given that these individuals reported engaging in a variety of career preparation behaviors corresponding to their high level of career aspirations. Conversely, the second cluster showed low scores of both criteria, occupying 37.1% (<emph>n</emph> = 156). Given the members of low engagement and aspiring in their career development, this cluster was labeled as "Bystander." The final cluster consisted of high scores on career aspiration and low score on career preparation behavior. Approximately 32.4% (<emph>n</emph> = 136) cases belonged to this cluster pattern. This cluster was labeled as "Unrealistic Career Optimist (UCO)" as members reported the similar levels of career aspirations with Doer, despite their low level of career preparation behaviors. Each cluster's characteristics were further explored using T-score.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-18">Comparison of Cluster Patterns</hd> <p>Further analyses were conducted to investigate differences amongst three clusters (i.e., Doer, Bystander, and UCO). First, the chi-square test was used in demographic variables, gender, grade, and school. A significant difference was detected in the cluster groups by gender, χ2 (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref42">2</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 416) = 6.22, <emph>p</emph> =.044, while grade, χ2 (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref43">4</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 417) = 3.29, <emph>p</emph> =.51, and school, χ2 (<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref44">8</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 419) = 9.43, <emph>p</emph> =.31, were not statistically significant. Specifically, while all clusters contained a relatively balanced representation of male and female, a greater representation of male students was present in the cluster Bystander, comprising approximately 59% men. The cluster UCO included slightly higher proportion of women (54%), similar to the cluster Doer.</p> <p>Next, the one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted to determine a statistically significant difference between clusters on dispositional optimism, subjective well-being, and career maturity, controlling for gender (See Table 3). All variables showed significant differences among three clusters: dispositional optimism, F (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref45">2</reflink>, 410) = 9.73, <emph>p <</emph>.001, η<sups>2</sups> =.05, subjective well-being, F (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref46">2</reflink>, 410) = 8.13, <emph>p <</emph>.001, η<sups>2</sups> =.04, and career maturity, F (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref47">2</reflink>, 410) = 27.54, <emph>p <</emph>.001, η<sups>2</sups> =.12, indicating small effects for dispositional optimism as well as subjective well-being and a large effect for career maturity ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref48">10</reflink>]). Importantly, the covariate, gender, did not show a significant impact on any tested variables: dispositional optimism, F (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref49">1</reflink>, 410) =.19, <emph>p</emph> =.66, subjective well-being, F (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref50">1</reflink>, 410) = 3.78, <emph>p =</emph>.052, and career maturity, F (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref51">1</reflink>, 410) = 2.46, <emph>p =</emph>.12, indicating that the observed variations in gender did not confound the differences in psychological variables amongst clusters.</p> <p>Table 3. Cluster Group Means and Standard Deviations on Psychological Variables.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2" /><th align="center" colspan="2">Doer (<italic>n</italic> = 128)</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Bystander (<italic>n</italic> = 160)</th><th align="center" colspan="2">UCO (<italic>n</italic> = 138)</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">F</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">η2</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">Scheffé's post-hoc tests</th></tr><tr><th align="center">M</th><th align="center">SD</th><th align="center">M</th><th align="center">SD</th><th align="center">M</th><th align="center">SD</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Optimism</td><td align="char" char=".">52.00</td><td align="char" char=".">10.15</td><td align="char" char=".">47.29</td><td align="char" char=".">9.75</td><td align="char" char=".">51.29</td><td align="char" char=".">9.51</td><td align="char" char=".">9.73***</td><td align="char" char=".">.04</td><td align="left">Bystander < Doer, UCO</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Subjective well-being</td><td align="char" char=".">52.09</td><td align="char" char=".">10.74</td><td align="char" char=".">47.70</td><td align="char" char=".">9.82</td><td align="char" char=".">50.73</td><td align="char" char=".">8.97</td><td align="char" char=".">8.13**</td><td align="char" char=".">.04</td><td align="left">Bystander, UCO < Doer</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Career attitude maturity</td><td align="char" char=".">54.91</td><td align="char" char=".">10.79</td><td align="char" char=".">46.42</td><td align="char" char=".">8.74</td><td align="char" char=".">49.60</td><td align="char" char=".">8.71</td><td align="char" char=".">27.54***</td><td align="char" char=".">.12</td><td align="left">Bystander < UCO < Doer</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 <emph>UCO = Unrealistic Career Optimist; SD = Standard Deviation. Note.</emph><sups>***</sups><emph>p <</emph>.001, <sups>**</sups><emph>p <</emph>.01.</p> <p>Given the exploratory feature of the current study as well as unbalanced group number, scheffé's method ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref52">46</reflink>]) was applied for post-hoc analyses to determine the differences of mean among each cluster given the statistically significant ANCOVA <emph>F</emph> test. The cluster UCO differed significantly from the cluster Bystander regarding dispositional optimism and subjective well-being, denoting significantly higher mean scores of the cluster UCO cluster than the cluster Bystander, while there was no significant difference detected between clusters UCO and Doer. For career maturity, all three clusters differed significantly from each other, with the cluster Doer demonstrating the highest score and cluster Bystander the lowest score.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-19">Discussion</hd> <p>The present study examined career optimism among Korean high schoolers to gain a deeper understanding of unrealistic career optimism (UCO) in adolescents' career development. While UCO has been considered a natural consequence for adolescents due to their limited experience ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref53">49</reflink>]), no study has differentiated UCO from realistic career optimism in this population. Our study addressed this gap by using cluster analysis based on two criteria—career aspirations and career preparation behavior. The analysis yielded three clusters: (a) Doer, characterized by high career aspirations and career preparation behaviors, (b) Bystander, marked by low career aspirations and career preparation behaviors, and (c) UCO, where students exhibited high career aspirations but low career preparation behavior. In line with our hypothesis, our examination documented the presence of the cluster UCO. Although this negatively skewed career aspirations could be seen as <emph>developmental</emph> ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref54">41</reflink>]), the presence of the cluster UCO is noteworthy, as the sample were mainly comprised of high school students, the final stage that is theorized to begin focusing on internal characteristics and eliminating desirable but unrealistic choices. That is, students in this cluster may have not reached the final stage by separating themselves from actual engaging in career preparation behaviors, pointing out the potential gap in the existing literature.</p> <p>One possible explanation would be the era adolescents are in where technology is readily available as "digital native" (p. 149, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref55">4</reflink>]). Carefully curated images in the media may have led adolescents to develop unrealistic expectations for their own lives that often result in aspiring for <emph>well-known</emph> and <emph>glamorous</emph> jobs, regardless of their capacity to realize such goals ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref56">5</reflink>]). Even though the media could be a window for adolescents to different occupations, scholars have warned misleading occupational aspirations by over/underrepresented professions in media that is not likely aligned with the projected labor market demand ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref57">37</reflink>]). In addition, other contextual factors, specific to South Korea, must be highlighted. South Korea is a collectivist society that highly focused on education. It is not unusual that a personal agency is not only located within the individual but also in relationships with significant others, which seem to connect how child-related developmental outcomes are associated with parental expectation, including career aspirations ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref58">18</reflink>]). Korean parents set extremely high expectations for their children, and children attempt to meet those expectations not only for personal achievement, but also for the family ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref59">27</reflink>]). Given the career aspirations also reflect societal expectations, this exceeding pressure to succeed may have led UCO members to delay their career exploration, despite their idealized aspirations to insulate themselves from the realities of limited ability or future expectations ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref60">30</reflink>]).</p> <p>Our hypotheses on characteristics of each cluster were partially supported. As hypothesized, the UCO members endorsed high levels of optimism and low levels of career maturity, respectively. On the other hand, unexpectedly, the UCO members reported high levels of subjective well-being. This result provided further evidence on our operational definition of the UCO, delineating optimistic views of the UCO. Furthermore, a positive association between career aspirations and optimism, even for the UCO members, supported an influential role of career aspirations in adolescents' optimistic view on life in general. However, a considerably lower mean score was reported by the UCO in career maturity, compared to the Doer. As [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref61">54</reflink>] showed, it is possible that students developed their career maturity with an uneven fashion, even facing stagnant or declining periods. Yet, given that high levels of optimism often demonstrated higher levels of career planning, exploration, and career maturity (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref62">32</reflink>]), it is noteworthy to attend a dominating influence of career preparation behaviors on career maturity for this sample. Indeed, career exploration and related activities have been found to be correlated with a variety of career development indicators: career decision-making, career self-efficacy, and occupational attainment thereafter ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref63">44</reflink>]). In other words, the UCO members may have adopted less realistic approaches to their career aspiration due to their limited experiences and exposures to actual career than the counterpart in the cluster Doer.</p> <p>Contrary to our hypothesis, the UCO members reported a significantly higher level of subjective well-being than counterpart of the cluster Bystander, but no significant difference was detected between the UCO and Doer. Differently stated, the UCO members seemed to be satisfied with their life as the cluster Doer may feel. Given that adolescents' well-being has been reported to be associated with their level of career preparation and career maturity ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref64">21</reflink>]), this finding demands some explanation. One potential explanation is that this heightened subjective well-being as temporal. Although subjective well-being has been considered as one of stable index over time unrelated to individuals' performance-based cognition, scholars have shown that different life events could affect subjective well-being along with its persisting impact (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref65">35</reflink>]). That is, the UCO members may evaluate their life positively as they simply aspire to high levels of career goals, while the level of stress may be only due when they encounter reality check (e.g., job qualifications). Other negative outcomes, such as low job satisfaction, depressive symptoms, have also been reported by failing to achieve one's goals ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref66">6</reflink>]). It is possible that the UCO members may incorporate a strategy to increase their subjective well-being by mental control, putting distance for negative events and situations ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref67">15</reflink>]), career preparation behaviors in the current study.</p> <p>It is also notable that no cluster emerged with high levels of career preparation behaviors and low levels of career aspirations. This could reflect a prevailing belief in Korean society: that hard work leads to success. In the context of this study, low career aspirations were not associated with high levels of preparation. This finding further underscores the complexity of career development among Korean adolescents and the significant role that societal expectations play in shaping career optimism.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-20">Theoretical Implications</hd> <p>The current study makes several contributions to the vocational behavior literature. First, previous research on career optimism has largely assumed that higher levels of optimism lead to better career outcomes, despite the long-standing and controversial issues in career counseling regarding unrealistic career aspirations (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref68">36</reflink>]). In this empirical research, we have demonstrated the existence of UCO that characterizes with high levels of career aspiration despite low levels of career preparation behaviors. Indeed, students in the cluster UCO reported high levels of optimism, subjective well-being but low levels of career maturity, supporting [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref69">17</reflink>] argument that realistic self-assessment is essential for aligning aspirations with personal abilities. Next, we observe a potentially delayed career developmental stage among our sample of adolescents. This may imply that career development stages among adolescents require further attention, filling the gap of the traditionally established stages. With the advancement of technology, adolescents are likely to have a broadening horizon, which exposes them to diverse cultures, ideas, and career. Furthermore, the reshaped traditional career paths along with the rise of digital platforms are likely to allow a greater flexibility and self-directed career exploration, resulting in a reasonably further exploration time for adolescents. This could extend the concept of emerging adulthood ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref70">2</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-21">Practical Implications</hd> <p>The current study sheds light on the complexities of unrealistic career optimism among Korean high school students, a topic that has long been debated in career counseling. Unrealistic career aspirations are a sensitive issue, requiring counselors to balance confronting reality with maintaining a client's motivation ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref71">36</reflink>]). In today's uncertain world, it may not always be best for counselors to push for strictly "realistic" goals. Instead, the study highlights the need for tactful guidance, encouraging clients to engage in career preparation behaviors while keeping their aspirations alive. The study's findings on differentiated career optimism and preparation behaviors can be instrumental for counselors helping clients who feel stuck in their decision-making process. Given the significant roles of career goals for adolescents (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref72">28</reflink>]), counselors must carefully explore the reasons clients hesitate to reconsider vocational goals while assisting them in exploring opportunities like career value assessments, job shadowing, or internships, which can help clients better understand themselves and their goals.</p> <p>To evaluate and facilitate clients' career preparation behaviors that match career aspirations, counselors could use four subscales of career preparation behaviors measure ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref73">25</reflink>]). This activity will increase the level of understanding about clients not only for counselors but also for clients themselves by enabling them to reevaluate their engagement and discover future directions. For example, if a client reported a significantly lower score in <emph>exerting efforts to actualize career goals</emph> while reporting moderate to high levels of other subscales, <emph>collecting information</emph> and <emph>obtaining tools or materials for attaining career goals</emph>, counselors could actively explore potential causes, which are likely to lead appropriate action plans to increase career preparation behaviors. Anxiety has been suggested as one of possible explanations to defer individuals' engagement in career preparation behaviors (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref74">53</reflink>]). In fact, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref75">12</reflink>] confirmed that anxiety served as a sequential mediator in the relationship between self-efficacy and job search behavior intentions through their experimental study. With growing numbers of adolescents who experience high rates of clinical-level anxiety ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref76">11</reflink>]), counselors also may pay further attention to clients' anxiety and their association with career preparation behaviors.</p> <p>Simultaneously, counselors should consider clients' cultural and societal identities. As discussed, clients may harbor unrealistic vocational goals because they could not identify appealing occupational alternatives that also meet family's high expectations. Importantly, fostering a strong counselor-client relationship is crucial for navigating this delicate process. Career counseling is not a one-time meeting of a client and counselor, but rather a time-dependent process. Patience, empathy, and respect provide psychological conditions conductive to enhancing the client's confidence and perseverance ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref77">1</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-22">Limitations and Future Directions</hd> <p>This study has several limitations. First, we defined unrealistic career optimism based on career aspirations and preparation behaviors, which, while helpful, limited to fully capture the complexity of this construct. For instance, career aspirations are such a manifold and dynamic psychological structure that motivate individuals to pursue certain outcomes consciously and unconsciously ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref78">22</reflink>]), which may fluctuate in a great deal while challenging to quantify. Similarly, developmental nature of career preparation behaviors among adolescents may require further attention to both in-breadth and in-depth exploration, as one may be in a beginning stage where they broadly explore without commitment, which may not be captured with our operationalization of UO. As such, while these criteria allowed us to examine important aspects of UO, the future research could benefit from more comprehensive definitions.</p> <p>Second, the use of self-reported data, particularly regarding career preparation behaviors, raises concerns about how well the findings reflect actual behaviors. Self-reports can be prone to biases, especially when measuring actions, and the level of engagement in career preparation might be over- or under-reported. Future studies should consider alternative methods, such as third-person observations, to provide a more accurate assessment of participants' behaviors. Additionally, given that this is one of the few studies exploring UO among adolescents, replication with other groups is necessary. Comparing findings across different developmental stages, cultural backgrounds, or intersectional identity would offer valuable insights for both researchers and practitioners. The sample in this study consisted only of freshmen and sophomores in Korean high school, which limits the generalizability of the results. Further studies should investigate whether these findings hold true across a wider age range. Finally, future research should also explore contextual or cultural factors that might shape unrealistic career optimism, as the current study was unable to address these influences. Hart (2016) argued, for example, the potential role of socio-economic circumstances on one's ability to form aspirations. Such factors would provide a more nuanced understanding of how adolescents form their career aspirations.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-23">Conclusion</hd> <p>In this study, we aimed to identify and explore career-related UO among Korean adolescents by defining UCO as having high career aspirations but low levels of career preparation behaviors. Our analysis revealed three distinct clusters: Doer, characterized by high career aspirations and preparation behaviors; Bystander, with low levels of both; and UCO, which exhibited high aspirations despite low preparation efforts. Significant differences emerged between these clusters. The UCO group reported significantly higher optimism and subjective well-being compared to the Bystander group, though there were no notable differences in these areas between the UCO and Doer clusters. However, regarding career maturity, there was a marked difference between the UCO and Doer clusters, despite optimism often being linked to career maturity. These findings underscore the importance of a nuanced understanding of career optimism and provide empirical evidence for the existence of unrealistic career optimism in adolescents. While the study has certain limitations, it offers valuable insights for school counselors and educators working with adolescents to help them navigate their career paths.</p> <hd id="AN0184489389-24">ORCID iDs</hd> <p>Bo Hyun Lee https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2633-9948</p> <p>Sang Min Lee https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6148-772X</p> <p>J. Hannah Lee https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5487-3478</p> <ref id="AN0184489389-25"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref17" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> American Counseling Association. (nd). Multicultural and social justice counseling competencies. Retrieved December 6, 2024, from. https://<ulink href="http://www.counseling.org">www.counseling.org</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref18" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Arnett J. 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Journal of Career Development, 40(3), 203–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845312445515</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0184489389-26"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Bo Hyun Lee; Sang Min Lee and J. Hannah Lee</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Bo Hyun Lee is an Assistant Professor in Counseling Psychology at the Ohio State University. She received her doctorate in Counseling Psychology from the University of Missouri-Columbia. Dr. Lee's research interest lies at the nexus of vocational psychology, social justice training and advocacy, and inequity in the world of work. Her research broadly focuses on equity, justice, and access both at work and in pursuit of work. Dr. Lee takes an intersectional approach to understanding the influence of oppression and marginalization on academic achievement and career development among members from oppressed groups. Dr. Lee enjoys outdoor activities with her family and friends, including finding new adventures for her kid. She appreciates nature, art, and music.</p> <p>Sang Min Lee is a professor of School Counseling at Korea University. He received his Ph.D in School Counseling from the University of Florida. His research interests include burnout syndrome, happenstance theory, and AI and metaverse counseling. More recently, he has expanded his research horizons by engaging in studies that address social issues in South Korea, such as counseling services for humidifier disinfectant survivors and the legalization of psychological counseling services. He loves playing golf with his family.</p> <p>J. Hannah Lee is an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology at Indiana University Northwest, United States. She earned a Ph.D. in Counseling Psychology from Washington State University. Her research focuses on the interplay between socio-cultural factors, psychological traits, and their impact on well-being and health outcomes. She has published on topics such as optimism, perfectionism, social anxiety, and happiness, drawing from both single-country data and large-scale cross-cultural studies. Outside of academia, she enjoys pottery and spending time with her dog.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref74"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref78"></nolink>
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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Unrealistic Career Optimism among Korean Adolescents: A Discrepancy between Career Aspirations and Career Preparation Behaviors
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Bo+Hyun+Lee%22">Bo Hyun Lee</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2633-9948">0000-0002-2633-9948</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sang+Min+Lee%22">Sang Min Lee</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6148-772X">0000-0001-6148-772X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22J%2E+Hannah+Lee%22">J. Hannah Lee</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5487-3478">0000-0002-5487-3478</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Career+Development%22"><i>Journal of Career Development</i></searchLink>. 2025 52(3):354-368.
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  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 15
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
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  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+School+Students%22">High School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Career+Choice%22">Career Choice</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Career+Education%22">Career Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Vocational+Interests%22">Vocational Interests</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Occupational+Aspiration%22">Occupational Aspiration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Career+Development%22">Career Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Positive+Attitudes%22">Positive Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychological+Patterns%22">Psychological Patterns</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Career+and+Technical+Education%22">Career and Technical Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22South+Korea%22">South Korea</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1177/08948453251322444
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0894-8453<br />1556-0856
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The present study aims to identify unrealistic career optimism among Korean high school students and to examine its characteristics. Cluster analysis was conducted to identify the number of groups classified by the reported levels of career aspirations and career preparation behaviors among 420 Korean high school students, and each group's characteristic was investigated using a series of one-way covariance (ANCOVA). Three clusters were identified: (a) Doer (30.3%), (b) Bystander (35%), and (c) Unrealistic Career Optimist (UCO; 34.7%). Clusters Doer and Bystander were characterized by high/low scores on both career aspirations and career preparation behaviors, respectively, while the cluster UCO endorsed high levels of career aspirations despite low levels of career preparation behaviors. Significant differences in optimism, subjective well-being, and career maturity between groups were documented, suggesting implications for both research and practice.
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: EJ1468151
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1468151
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    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1177/08948453251322444
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 15
        StartPage: 354
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: High School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Career Choice
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Career Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Vocational Interests
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Occupational Aspiration
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Career Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Positive Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Psychological Patterns
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Career and Technical Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: South Korea
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Unrealistic Career Optimism among Korean Adolescents: A Discrepancy between Career Aspirations and Career Preparation Behaviors
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            – TitleFull: Journal of Career Development
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