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Examining the Mediating Role of Reading Amount between Reading Motivation and Reading Comprehension among American College Students: Ethnic Similarities and Differences

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Title: Examining the Mediating Role of Reading Amount between Reading Motivation and Reading Comprehension among American College Students: Ethnic Similarities and Differences
Language: English
Authors: Hitomi Kambara (ORCID 0000-0001-5302-1305), Yu-Cheng Lin, Hung-Chu Lin, Po-Yi Chen
Source: Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal. 2025 28(1).
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: College Students, Reading Motivation, Reading Comprehension, Ethnic Groups, Racial Differences, White Students, African American Students, Hispanic American Students, Reading Habits
DOI: 10.1007/s11218-025-10034-8
ISSN: 1381-2890
1573-1928
Abstract: Reading motivation significantly influences the academic success of American college students. Existing literature often treats American students as a homogeneous group and overlooks the impact of diverse ethnic backgrounds on reading motivation. To address this gap, the present study investigated the relationships among reading motivation, reading amount, and reading comprehension in a sample of 1360 American college students representing three ethnic groups: White American, African American, and Hispanic American. Additionally, we explored the role of reading amount as a mediator in the relationship between reading motivation and reading comprehension, and assessed the magnitude of these effects across the three ethnic groups. Path analysis for each ethnic group revealed a direct effect of expectancy on reading comprehension for all groups. Furthermore, indirect effects of value and cost on reading comprehension were observed among White American and Hispanic American college students, whereas African American college students exhibited a direct effect of cost on reading comprehension. Multigroup path analyses showed similar magnitudes of direct and indirect effects across the three ethnic groups. Our findings provide new evidence of both commonalities and differences in reading motivation among American college students from different ethnic backgrounds.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1470401
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0184992384;luo07may.25;2025May09.01:28;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0184992384-1">Examining the mediating role of reading amount between reading motivation and reading comprehension among American college students: ethnic similarities and differences </title> <p>Reading motivation significantly influences the academic success of American college students. Existing literature often treats American students as a homogeneous group and overlooks the impact of diverse ethnic backgrounds on reading motivation. To address this gap, the present study investigated the relationships among reading motivation, reading amount, and reading comprehension in a sample of 1360 American college students representing three ethnic groups: White American, African American, and Hispanic American. Additionally, we explored the role of reading amount as a mediator in the relationship between reading motivation and reading comprehension, and assessed the magnitude of these effects across the three ethnic groups. Path analysis for each ethnic group revealed a direct effect of expectancy on reading comprehension for all groups. Furthermore, indirect effects of value and cost on reading comprehension were observed among White American and Hispanic American college students, whereas African American college students exhibited a direct effect of cost on reading comprehension. Multigroup path analyses showed similar magnitudes of direct and indirect effects across the three ethnic groups. Our findings provide new evidence of both commonalities and differences in reading motivation among American college students from different ethnic backgrounds.</p> <p>Keywords: Reading motivation; Reading comprehension; Reading amount; Expectancy-value-cost model; American college students</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Reading plays a pivotal role in achieving academic success in higher education (Brost & Bradley, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref1">10</reflink>]; Kerr & Frese, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref2">48</reflink>]; Mokhtari et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref3">54</reflink>]). Specifically, the completion of required reading assignments in each course is critical to students' learning outcomes and overall development (Brost & Bradley, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref4">10</reflink>]). Insufficient engagement with course reading has been linked to a decline in academic performance (Sappinton et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref5">64</reflink>]), which often leading to student attrition (Reschly, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref6">60</reflink>]; Urdan & Schoenfelder, [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref7">80</reflink>]). Numerous studies have highlighted that college students dedicate significantly fewer hours to course reading than are deemed necessary for optimal academic progress (Berry et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]; Clump et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref9">15</reflink>]; Connor-Greene, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref10">17</reflink>]; St. Clair-Thompson et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref11">14</reflink>]). A primary factor contributing to this discrepancy is the lack of motivation among college students (Hatteberg & Steffy, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref12">39</reflink>]; Lei et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref13">50</reflink>]; St. Clair-Thompson et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>While numerous studies have examined the decline in reading engagement among college students (e.g., Berry et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref15">8</reflink>]; Clump et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref16">15</reflink>]; Connor-Greene, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>]), a significant research gap remains regarding reading motivation within this demographic (Kambara et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref18">43</reflink>]). Existing research on reading motivation has predominantly focused on elementary and middle school students (Conradi et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref19">18</reflink>]), often neglecting the impact of participants' ethnic backgrounds. Treating participants from diverse ethnic groups as homogeneous entities has been a common limitation in the literature. However, investigating reading motivation across different ethnic groups is crucial, as students from various ethnic backgrounds inhabit distinct cultural, social, and academic environments (Guthrie et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref20">35</reflink>]), which significantly influence their reading motivation (Kambara, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref21">42</reflink>]; Kambara & Lin, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref22">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref23">45</reflink>]; Kambara et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref24">43</reflink>]). For instance, Baker and Wigfield ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref25">3</reflink>]), Guthrie et al. ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref26">37</reflink>]), and Rosenweig and Wigfield ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref27">62</reflink>]) consistently found that African American students reported higher reading motivation, particularly intrinsic reading motivation, compared to White American students. Furthermore, Sutter and Campbell ([<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref28">72</reflink>]) reported that intrinsic motivation showed a negative correlation with reading achievement solely among American Indian students, whereas a positive correlation was observed for Hispanic students. While several prior studies have directly compared reading motivation between two ethnic groups, such as White American versus African American or Asian versus Hispanic, their participants in these studies predominantly focused on elementary and middle school students (Unrau & Schlackman, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref29">79</reflink>]; Guthrie et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref30">35</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref31">37</reflink>]; Rosenweig & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref32">62</reflink>]). To date, there has been limited research specifically investigating ethnic similarities and differences in reading motivation among American college students (Kambara et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref33">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>In the current study, we employed situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT; Eccles & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref34">23</reflink>]) as a framework to investigate college students' perceived expectancies, values, and costs associated with reading. SEVT offers a theoretical foundation for understanding the development of motivation in academic achievement (Eccles & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref35">24</reflink>]). Originally proposed to elucidate how students' expectancies and values influence their achievement and academic choices (Gladstone et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref36">30</reflink>]), SEVT has been extended to various academic domains, including reading (Geng et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref37">28</reflink>]; Yeung et al., [<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref38">89</reflink>]). Understanding college students' expectancy, task value, and cost in related to reading is crucial, as these motivational constructs can predict their academic outcomes. However, no studies on reading motivation have specifically examined how expectancy, task value, and cost relate to reading-related factors and outcomes, such as reading amount and reading comprehension. Previous research has indicated either full or partial mediation of reading amount in the relationship between reading motivation and reading comprehension (Becker et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref39">7</reflink>]; Miyamoto et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref40">53</reflink>]; Schaffer et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref41">66</reflink>]; Stutz et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref42">71</reflink>]). Nevertheless, it remains unclear whether such indirect and direct effects of reading motivation on reading comprehension exist and if these effects vary among different ethnic groups. To address these gaps in the literature, the present exploratory study first examined the relationships among expectancy, task value, cost, reading amount, and reading comprehension. Subsequently, we explored the direct and indirect effects (via reading amount) of expectancy, task value, and cost on the reading comprehension of college students across three ethnic groups (White American, African American, and Hispanic American) in the United States. Finally, this study investigated whether the magnitude of the indirect and direct effects of expectancy, task value, and cost on reading comprehension differed among these ethnic groups.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-3">Theoretical framework</hd> <p>We adopted Situated Expectancy-Value Theory (SEVT; Eccles & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref43">23</reflink>]) to guide the present study. SEVT offers a framework for understanding how personal factors—such as past accomplishments, self-confidence, and perceptions of current tasks—interact with demographic traits to shape individuals' expectations and values. The theory also incorporates situational factors, cultural contexts, and the influence of significant others in shaping beliefs and behaviors (Eccles & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref44">23</reflink>]; Muenks et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref45">57</reflink>]; Tonks et al., [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref46">76</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref47">75</reflink>]). As illustrated in Fig. 1, the SEVT model is divided into three main components. The left side of the model emphasizes enduring individual factors, including cultural background, personal characteristics, and past achievement-related experiences. The central component focuses on how individuals interact with their immediate environment during tasks or activities, involving cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes that evolve within specific situational contexts. On the right side of the SEVT model, motivational beliefs—particularly expectancy of success and subjective task value—emerge from these complex interactions. These beliefs are fundamental psychological motivators that influence task choices, performance, and engagement levels (Wigfield & Eccles, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref48">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Situated expectancy value model of achievement-related choices (adapted from Eccles & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref49">23</reflink>])</p> <p>As illustrated on the right side of Fig. 1, expectancy for success refers to an individual's belief in their ability to successfully complete a task (Eccles et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref50">20</reflink>]). These expectancies can be characterized by one's domain-specific ability self-concept or self-efficacy (Eccles & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref51">23</reflink>]). Subjective task value pertains to an individual's perception of the significance and worth of engaging in a particular task (Wigfield & Cambria, [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref52">84</reflink>]). Subjective task value comprises four main elements: intrinsic value, utility value, attainment value, and perceived cost (Eccles-Parsons et al., 1983; Eccles et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref53">21</reflink>]; Wigfield et al., [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref54">83</reflink>]). Intrinsic value refers to the anticipated pleasure or satisfaction derived from an activity. Attainment value reflects the importance individuals place on performing well in a specific task. Utility value concerns the practical benefits associated with the activity. In contrast, perceived cost refers to an individual's consideration of the potential negative outcomes or drawbacks associated with participating in a task (Wigfield & Eccles, [<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref55">85</reflink>]). For instance, Dietrich et al. ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref56">19</reflink>]) demonstrated a positive correlation between expectancy and value. Conversely, cost has been found to negatively correlate with both expectancy and value, as well as educational outcomes (Conley, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref57">16</reflink>]; Dietrich et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref58">19</reflink>]; Flake et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref59">26</reflink>]; Trautwein et al., [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref60">78</reflink>]). Therefore, certain adaptations of SEVT highlight the inverse relationship between cost and outcomes, leading to the conceptualization of expectancy-value-cost theory (Barron & Hulleman, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref61">5</reflink>]; Jiang et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref62">41</reflink>]). Muenks et al. ([<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref63">56</reflink>]) provided empirical support for both the integration of cost as a component of value and its examination as a distinct factor among undergraduate students. By distinguishing between value and cost, this study aims to explore the extent to which different ethnic groups experience these motivational attributes either positively or negatively.</p> <p>SEVT posits that variations in motivational beliefs among different groups arise because social identity, including ethnicity, influences these beliefs (Eccles & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref64">23</reflink>]). Thus, individuals' expectations, values, and perceived costs are embedded within their cultural contexts (Eccles & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref65">22</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref66">23</reflink>]; Tonks et al., [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref67">76</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref68">75</reflink>]). Although SEVT provides a valuable framework, there remains a need to explore its application across diverse ethnic groups within the United States. Most existing studies have focused on cross-cultural comparisons between East Asian and Western students (Matthews & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref69">52</reflink>]), with limited research examining ethnic differences within other domains, such as reading. Previous research suggests that White and Asian American youth often exhibit higher expectations regarding their math abilities compared to their Hispanic and Black peers (Andersen & Ward, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref70">1</reflink>]; Bouchey & Harter, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref71">9</reflink>]; Brown & Leaper, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref72">11</reflink>]). This study seeks to address this gap by investigating ethnic differences in motivational beliefs and their implications within the context of reading.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-4">Literature review</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184992384-5">Expectancy, value, and cost in reading</hd> <p>Prior research has indicated that expectancy, value, and cost can be domain-specific (Guo et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref73">32</reflink>]; Wigfield & Eccles, [<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref74">86</reflink>]) and that "individual's expectancies and values and their relationship with achievement-related outcomes can vary between different domains (e.g., academic, physical, and social) and even between different academic areas (e.g., reading, mathematics, and science)" (Geng et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref75">28</reflink>], p. 3). Expectancy has emerged as a significant factor influencing students' reading outcomes (e.g., reading amount and reading comprehension). For example, Wigfield and Guthrie ([<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref76">87</reflink>]) conducted a study examining the relationship between reading efficacy and reading amount, but their findings yielded mixed results that included both positive and null correlations across different testing periods. In contrast, Geng et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref77">28</reflink>]) utilized data from 15-year-old students in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and reported a positive correlation between expectancy and reading amount. Moreover, the association between self-efficacy and reading comprehension has been documented in several studies (Lau, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref78">49</reflink>]; Proctor et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref79">58</reflink>]; Solheim, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref80">70</reflink>]; Taboada et al., [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref81">73</reflink>]). For instance, Solheim ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref82">70</reflink>]) found that fifth-grade readers' self-efficacy positively predicted their reading comprehension scores. Similarly, Proctor et al. ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref83">58</reflink>]) observed a positive correlation between reading comprehension and self-efficacy among middle school students with disabilities.</p> <p>The relationship between subjective values and reading outcomes has been investigated in prior studies (Anmarkrud & Braten, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref84">2</reflink>]; El-Khechen et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref85">25</reflink>]; Cartwright et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref86">12</reflink>]; Geng et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref87">28</reflink>]; Kanonire et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref88">47</reflink>]; Wang & Guthrie, [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref89">81</reflink>]; Wigfield & Guthrie, [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref90">87</reflink>]). For example, El-Khechen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref91">25</reflink>]) found a positive correlation between value and reading amount among German students. They also observed that fourth-grade students' utility value and reading amount were positively correlated with their reading comprehension. However, the impact of subjective value on reading comprehension has also been explored in previous studies. For instance, Anmarkrud and Bråten ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref92">2</reflink>]) discovered a positive correlation between reading task value and reading comprehension. Similarly, Cartwright et al. ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref93">12</reflink>]) indicated that first and second graders' subjective values for reading were positively correlated with their reading comprehension. Moreover, Wang and Guthrie ([<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref94">81</reflink>]) revealed that intrinsic value positively influenced text comprehension among both American and Taiwanese fourth-grade students. Notably, very few studies have explored the effects of cost on reading amount and comprehension. Simmons et al. ([<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref95">69</reflink>]) reported that ninth-grade students often perceive the cost of reading as too high and consequently do not allocate sufficient time for reading. Therefore, there is a clear need for further investigation into the influence of cost on reading.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-6">Reading amount as the mediator to the association between reading motivation and reading comp...</hd> <p>Reading motivation predicts reading amount, which, in turn, facilitates reading comprehension (Mol & Bus, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref96">55</reflink>]; Schiefele et al., [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref97">67</reflink>]; Wigfield & Guthrie, [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref98">87</reflink>]). To explain this causal association, several studies have explored the mediating role of reading amount in the relationship between reading motivation and reading comprehension. Schaffer et al. ([<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref99">66</reflink>]), Stutz et al. ([<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref100">71</reflink>]), and Schaffner and Schiefele ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref101">65</reflink>]) reported that reading amount mediated the relationship between intrinsic reading motivation and reading comprehension in German samples. Additionally, Becker et al. ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref102">7</reflink>]) found that American students' intrinsic reading motivation in fourth grade was indirectly associated with reading comprehension in sixth grade through reading amount in fourth grade, albeit with a small effect size. Furthermore, Miyamoto et al. ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref103">53</reflink>]) revealed that reading amount in sixth grade mediated the effect of fifth-grade students' intrinsic reading motivation on reading competence in seventh grade. While many studies have highlighted the mediating role of reading amount, Wang and Guthrie ([<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref104">81</reflink>]) did not find reading amount to be a significant mediator of reading comprehension among Taiwanese and American fourth-grade students.</p> <p>There are several gaps in the literature that need to be addressed. First, existing research primarily focuses on elementary and middle school populations, often using samples from Germany. Consequently, there is a need for studies examining the mediating effect with diverse populations, including college students from various ethnic backgrounds in the United States. Second, previous studies have predominantly concentrated on intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation, overlooking other approaches such as expectancy, value, and cost. Therefore, additional research is needed to explore the mediating role of reading amount between expectancy, value, cost, and reading comprehension.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-7">Investigating ethnic commonalities and dissimilarities in reading motivation</hd> <p>Cultural variations are often considered a plausible explanation for differences in academic performance among various ethnic groups in the United States (Thernstorm & Thernstorm, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref105">74</reflink>]; Unrau & Schlackman, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref106">79</reflink>]), as students from diverse ethnic backgrounds experience unique cultural, social, and academic environments (Guthrie et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref107">35</reflink>]). Previous studies have suggested that students' cultures, beliefs, and values shape their motivation to complete academic tasks (e.g., Kambara, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref108">42</reflink>]; Lin, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref109">44</reflink>]; Kambara et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref110">43</reflink>]; Kambara & Lin, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref111">45</reflink>]; Unrau & Schlackman, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref112">79</reflink>]). Reading motivation has been recognized as a critical element influencing reading comprehension (Gambrell, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref113">27</reflink>]; Guthrie & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref114">33</reflink>]; Guthrie et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref115">36</reflink>]; Schaffner et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref116">66</reflink>]; Unrau & Schlackman, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref117">79</reflink>]). Therefore, understanding the interaction between ethnicity and reading behaviors, such as reading motivation and reading comprehension, is important (Unrau & Schlackman, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref118">79</reflink>]).</p> <p>Some previous research has examined ethnic similarities and differences in reading motivation and reading achievement. Four studies specifically focused on comparing reading motivation between White and African American students (Baker & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref119">3</reflink>]; Guthrie et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref120">35</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref121">37</reflink>]; Rosenzweig & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref122">62</reflink>]). Baker and Wigfield's ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref123">3</reflink>]) pioneering study found that African American elementary students exhibited higher levels of reading motivation across most dimensions compared to their White counterparts. This trend was supported by Guthrie et al. ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref124">37</reflink>]) and Rosenzweig and Wigfield ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref125">62</reflink>]), who reported that African American students demonstrated higher levels of intrinsic motivation and value for reading than White American students. Additionally, Guthrie et al. ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref126">35</reflink>]) uncovered distinctions in intrinsic reading motivation and avoidance between African American and White American fifth-grade students. Notably, African American students displayed a stronger correlation between avoidance and achievement, while White American students showed a stronger link between intrinsic motivation and achievement.</p> <p>Furthermore, Unrau and Schlackman ([<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref127">79</reflink>]) compared reading motivation between Asian and Hispanic students and found that Asian students demonstrated a stronger positive correlation between intrinsic reading motivation and reading achievement compared to Hispanic students. Sutter and Campbell ([<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref128">72</reflink>]) revealed a positive correlation between intrinsic reading motivation and reading achievement for Hispanic students in grades 5–8, while American Indian students showed a negative association between intrinsic motivation and reading achievement. Although the role of ethnicity in the relationship between reading motivation and reading comprehension has been documented in a limited number of studies, there remains insufficient research examining these similarities and differences among students in the United States, particularly among college students.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-8">The present study</hd> <p>The present study aimed to contribute to the existing literature by examining the relationships among expectancy, value, cost, reading amount, and reading comprehension. Additionally, we investigated the direct and indirect effects of expectancy, value, and cost on reading comprehension across three ethnic groups of American college students: White American, African American, and Hispanic American. First, we hypothesized that expectancy, value, and cost would be interrelated based on previous research (see Fig. 2). Specifically, we expected a positive correlation between expectancy and value, as reported by Dietrich et al. ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref129">19</reflink>]). Conversely, we hypothesized that cost would have a negative correlation with both expectancy and value, consistent with findings from Conley ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref130">16</reflink>]), Dietrich et al. ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref131">19</reflink>]), Flake et al. ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref132">26</reflink>]), and Trautwein et al. ([<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref133">78</reflink>]).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2 The associations among expectancy, value and cost. Note. + : positive correlation; − : negative correlation. Double-headed arrows indicate correlation</p> <p>Second, we postulated that expectancy, value, and cost would be significant predictors of reading amount (see Fig. 3). We hypothesized a positive correlation between expectancy and reading amount based on Geng et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref134">28</reflink>]). Similarly, we anticipated a positive association between value and reading amount, as indicated by El-Khechen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref135">25</reflink>]). While there is no specific research on the association between cost and reading amount, studies have suggested a negative correlation between cost and students' academic outcomes, such as final grades (Flake et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref136">26</reflink>]; Trautwein et al., [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref137">78</reflink>]). Therefore, we predicted a negative correlation between cost and reading amount.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 3 The associations among expectancy, value, cost, and reading amount. Note. " + " means positive correlation; " − " means negative correlation. RA = reading amount. Double headed arrows indicate association</p> <p>Third, we hypothesized that expectancy, value, and cost would be associated with reading comprehension (see Fig. 4). Specifically, we expected a positive correlation between expectancy and reading comprehension, consistent with previous findings (Lau, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref138">49</reflink>]; Proctor et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref139">58</reflink>]; Solheim, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref140">70</reflink>]; Taboada et al., [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref141">73</reflink>]). Additionally, we predicted a positive correlation between value and reading comprehension, supported by studies such as Anmarkrud and Braten ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref142">2</reflink>]), Geng et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref143">28</reflink>]), Kanonire et al. ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref144">47</reflink>]), Wang and Guthrie ([<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref145">81</reflink>]), and Wigfield and Guthrie ([<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref146">87</reflink>]). Consistent with our hypothesis regarding the effect of cost on reading amount, we assumed a negative correlation between cost and reading comprehension.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 4 The associations among expectancy, value, cost, and reading comprehension. Note. " + " means positive correlation; " − " means negative correlation. RC = reading comprehension. Double headed arrows indicate association</p> <p>Furthermore, we anticipated that reading amount might fully mediate the relationship between expectancy, value, and cost and reading comprehension (see Fig. 5). This hypothesis is based on existing studies suggesting that reading motivation indirectly influences reading comprehension through reading amount (Becker et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref147">7</reflink>]; Miyamoto et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref148">53</reflink>]; Schaffer et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref149">66</reflink>]; Stutz et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref150">71</reflink>]). Given that expectancy and value predict academic achievement (Trautwein & Lüdtke, [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref151">77</reflink>]; Wigfield & Guthrie, [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref152">87</reflink>]), it is possible that expectancy, value, and cost may also have a direct effect on reading comprehension.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 5 Our hypothesized model. Note. RA = reading amount; RC = reading comprehension</p> <p>Previous studies have indicated that ethnic backgrounds play a significant role in modulating reading motivation and achievement (Guthrie et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref153">35</reflink>]; Kambara, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref154">42</reflink>]; Kambara & Lin, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref155">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref156">45</reflink>]; Kambara et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref157">43</reflink>]; Unrau & Schlackman, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref158">79</reflink>]). For example, Kambara and Lin ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref159">44</reflink>]) reported ethnic differences in reading motivation dimensions (self-efficacy, challenges, curiosity, importance, involvement, recognition, grades, competition, and social) between American and Japanese elementary students. Similarly, Kambara et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref160">46</reflink>]) found ethnic differences in two dimensions of reading motivation (reading as part of self and reading for recognition) between American and Chinese college students. Together, these studies highlight the potential impact of ethnic backgrounds on various constructs of reading motivation. Although no published studies have directly investigated ethnic similarities and differences in the relationships among expectancy, value, cost, reading amount, and reading comprehension, it is plausible that racial and ethnic backgrounds may influence these associations. Accordingly, the present study aimed to examine the magnitude of both direct and indirect effects of expectancy, value, and cost on reading comprehension across ethnic groups.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-9">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184992384-10">Samples and procedure</hd> <p>The present study included a sample of 1,360 university students, consisting of 378 males, 966 females, and 16 participants whose gender was not disclosed. The sample comprised 590 White American, 199 African American, and 571 Hispanic American undergraduate students. Participants were recruited from two public universities located in the South Central region of the United States. The average age of the participants was 19.94 years (SD = 4.15). The first university had an approximate student population of 29,000, with 89.4% identifying as Hispanic, 3.3% as White, 0.8% as African American, and 6.5% as belonging to other ethnic backgrounds. The second university had an approximate student population of 16,000, with 63.5% identifying as White, 20.7% as African American, 6% as Asian, and 10% as belonging to other racial backgrounds.</p> <p>Once the university's Institutional Review Board (IRB) approvals were received, researchers publicized the project via email to recruit participants for the study. Interested individuals voluntarily participated by completing an online survey using Qualtrics. The survey included various sections, such as demographic information (e.g., age, ethnic background, socioeconomic background, and college student classification), and assessment scales used in the study. Participants were asked to self-identify their ethnicity using categories such as White, African American, Hispanic, and other. The online survey required a maximum of 40 min to complete. This study was not preregistered.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-11">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184992384-12">Expectancy</hd> <p>Expectancy was assessed using the Reading Efficacy subscale from the Adult Motivation for Reading Scale (Schutte & Malouff, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref161">68</reflink>]). The Reading Efficacy scale comprised five items (e.g., "I am confident I can understand difficult books or articles") rated on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The internal consistency reliability, assessed using Cronbach's alpha, was 0.818, 0.799, and 0.810 for White American, African American, and Hispanic American participants, respectively. We performed measurement invariance testing for the Reading Efficacy scale across White American, African American, and Hispanic American college students using multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis with robust maximum likelihood estimation (MLR). The results of the measurement invariance testing were favorable, demonstrating that the measurement models were equivalent across the three ethnic groups for both scales. Detailed results of the testing are presented in the Appendix.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-13">Value</hd> <p>The value construct was derived from the Expectancy-Value-Cost Survey (Barron et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref162">6</reflink>]). The value scale comprised three items (e.g., "I think reading is important") rated on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The Cronbach's alpha for the value subscale was 0.823, 0.779, and 0.771 for White American, African American, and Hispanic American participants, respectively. The scale was developed and extensively utilized across a broad spectrum of college samples (Getty et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref163">29</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-14">Cost</hd> <p>The cost construct was assessed using the cost subscale from the Expectancy-Value-Cost Survey (Barron et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref164">6</reflink>]). The cost scale comprised four items (e.g., "I'm unable to put in the time needed to do well in reading") rated on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The Cronbach's alpha for the cost subscale was 0.811, 0.814, and 0.836 for White American, African American, and Hispanic American participants, respectively. The scale was developed and widely used with a diverse range of college samples (Getty et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref165">29</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-15">Reading amount</hd> <p>To measure students' reading amount, the Reading Amount Scale developed by Schaffner et al. ([<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref166">66</reflink>]) was employed. The scale comprised five items (e.g., "How long do you usually read every day?") rated on a five-point Likert scale. The Cronbach's alpha for the Reading Amount Scale was 0.885, 0.835, and 0.881 for White American, African American, and Hispanic American participants, respectively. We carried out measurement invariance testing on the Reading Amount Scale for White American, African American, and Hispanic American college students using multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis with robust MLR. The results were favorable, showing that the measurement models were equivalent across the three ethnic groups. Detailed results from these analyses can be found in the Appendix.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-16">Reading comprehension</hd> <p>To evaluate students' reading comprehension, the Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests—Third Edition (WRMT-III) were utilized. The WRMT-III comprised 19 items, and participants were required to answer each question after reading a single sentence. The Cronbach's alpha for the reading comprehension task was 0.727, 0.802, and 0.759 for White American, African American, and Hispanic American participants, respectively. This standardized test was developed and validated with five groups of the US adult population, including White, African American, Hispanic, Asian, and other (Woodcock, [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref167">88</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-17">Data analysis</hd> <p>To examine the relationships among expectancy, value, cost, reading amount, and reading comprehension, we employed correlation analyses in R (Version 4.1.3; R Core Team, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref168">59</reflink>]). Additionally, we constructed separate path models for each group using the <emph>lavaan</emph> R package (Rosseel, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref169">63</reflink>]) to assess the direct and indirect effects of expectancy, value, and cost on reading comprehension through reading amount. In each path analysis model, expectancy, value, and cost were treated as exogenous variables, while reading amount was specified as a mediator, and reading comprehension as the outcome variable. For these path analyses, we utilized the Maximum Likelihood (ML) estimation method and calculated estimates using bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrapping (<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref170">10</reflink>,000 iterations) with 95% confidence intervals. It is important to note that a statistically significant result is inferred if a confidence interval does not include zero. We evaluated the fit of the models using four commonly used goodness-of-fit indices: the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). According to Hu and Bentler ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref171">40</reflink>]), a good model fit is indicated when the CFI and TLI values exceed 0.95, and the RMSEA and SRMR values are below 0.06 and 0.08, respectively.</p> <p>To examine the direct and indirect (mediated) associations of expectancy, value, and cost with reading comprehension in our proposed model (see Fig. 5), we initially conducted separate path analyses for each group using the <emph>lavaan</emph> R package (Rosseel, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref172">63</reflink>]) to test these effects and evaluate model fit. Subsequently, we performed multigroup path analyses to assess the invariance of the model across groups and compare the magnitudes of the direct and indirect effects of expectancy, value, and cost on reading comprehension through reading amount among White American, African American, and Hispanic American students. We employed Maximum Likelihood estimation with robust standard errors to account for potential non-normality in the data. Data for this study are available upon request by emailing the corresponding author.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-18">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184992384-19">Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations</hd> <p>Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1. The participants for the current study consisted of 1,360 American college students between 18 and 25 years of age (<emph>M</emph> = 19.9 years, <emph>SD</emph> = 4.15). Bivariate Pearson correlations coefficients between all study variables in each ethnic group are displayed in Table 2. Both expectancy and value were positively correlated with both reading amount and reading comprehension in all three groups (<emph>p</emph>s < 0.001). Moreover, cost was negatively correlated with both reading amount and reading comprehension across the three groups (<emph>p</emph>s < 0.05). Reading amount was positively correlated with reading comprehension in all groups (<emph>p</emph>s < 0.001).</p> <p>Table 1 Descriptive statistics (Means and Standard Deviations) of study variables for the full sample and by ethnic group (White Americans, African Americans, Hispanic Americans)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2" /><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>Full sample (N =1,360)</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>White American (N= 590)</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>African American (N =199)</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>Hispanic American (N =571)</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Mean</p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>Mean</p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>Mean</p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>Mean</p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Expectancy</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.98</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.93</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.94</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.02</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.97</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.95</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.88</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Value</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.37</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.11</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.33</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.18</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.22</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.17</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.47</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.0</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cost</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.64</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.16</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.64</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.15</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.58</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.17</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.66</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.16</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>RA</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.39</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.99</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.41</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.23</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.91</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.42</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.95</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>RC</p></td><td align="left"><p>11.02</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.8</p></td><td align="left"><p>12.21</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.42</p></td><td align="left"><p>9.47</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.02</p></td><td align="left"><p>10.27</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.74</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note.</emph> RA = reading amount; RC = reading comprehension</p> <p>Table 2 Intercorrelations among variables for White Americans, African Americans, and Hispanic Americans</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Variable</p></th><th align="left"><p>1</p></th><th align="left"><p>2</p></th><th align="left"><p>3</p></th><th align="left"><p>4</p></th><th align="left"><p>5</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="6"><p><italic>White American</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Expectancy</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2. Value</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.60***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3. Cost</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.13**</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.35***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4. Reading amount</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.39***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.69***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.50***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5. Reading comprehension</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.27***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.19***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.11**</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.25***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="6"><p><italic>African American</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Expectancy</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2. Value</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.66***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3. Cost</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.05</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.25**</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4. Reading amount</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.33***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.61***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.24**</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5. Reading comprehension</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.31***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.29***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.28***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.22**</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="6"><p><italic>Hispanic American</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Expectancy</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2. Value</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.61***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3. Cost</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.17***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4. Reading amount</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.27***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.60***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.38***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5. Reading comprehension</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.19***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.20***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.10*</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.22***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note.</emph> *<emph>p</emph> <.05. **<emph>p</emph> <.01. ***<emph>p</emph> <.001</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-20">Path analyses</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184992384-21">Path model for White Americans</hd> <p>For White Americans, the model fit indices indicated excellent fit (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref173">10</reflink>) = 897.43, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, CFI = 1.0, TLI = 1.0, RMSEA < 0.001, and SRMR < 0.001). The model is depicted in Fig. 6 and path coefficients are detailed in Table 3. R-squared values indicated that the model explained 55.8% (<emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> = 0.558) of the variance in reading amount and 10.3% of the variance in reading comprehension (<emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> = 0.103). Reading amount was positively associated with reading comprehension (β = 0.240, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.056, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI [0.130, 0.351]).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 6 Path analytic model examining direct and indirect effects of expectancy, value, and cost on reading comprehension in White Americans</p> <p>Table 3 Path coefficients among expectancy, value, cost, reading amount, and reading comprehension for White Americans</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Path</p></th><th align="left" /><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>β</p></th><th align="left"><p>SE</p></th><th align="left"><p>z</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>p</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Bootstrapped 95% CI</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="8"><p><italic>Direct effects with reading amount</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Expectancy</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.008</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.034</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.240</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.810</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.076, 0.059)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Value</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.595</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.035</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>16.890</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> <.001</p></td><td align="left"><p>(0.528, 0.666)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cost</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.297</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.030</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 9.921</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> <.001</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.356, − 0.239)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="8"><p><italic>Direct effects with reading comprehension</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Expectancy</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.249</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.051</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.890</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> <.001</p></td><td align="left"><p>(0.147, 0.346)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Value</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.124</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.064</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 1.935</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.053</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.247, 0.003)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cost</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.001</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.046</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.029</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.976</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.086, 0.092)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>Reading amount</p></td><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.240</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.056</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.255</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> <.001</p></td><td align="left"><p>(0.130, 0.351)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="8"><p><italic>Indirect effects with reading comprehension</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><p>Expectancy via reading amount</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.002</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.008</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.234</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.815</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.019, 0.015)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><p>Value via reading amount</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.143</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.034</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.207</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> <.001</p></td><td align="left"><p>(0.078, 0.210)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><p>Cost via reading amount</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.071</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.018</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 3.865</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> <.001</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.110, − 0.038)</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note.</emph> β = standardized beta, <emph>SE</emph> = standard error</p> <p>Expectancy did not significantly predict reading amount (β = − 0.008, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.034, <emph>p</emph> = 0.810, 95% CI [− 0.076, 0.059]). However, value and cost were positively and negatively associated with reading amount, respectively (value: <emph>β</emph> = 0.595, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.035, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI [0.528, 0.666]; cost: <emph>β</emph> = − 0.297, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.030, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI [− 0.356, − 0.239]). Moreover, expectancy, value, and cost were significantly correlated (either positively or negatively) with each other. For example, cost showed significant negative correlations with both expectancy (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.130, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.048, <emph>p</emph> = 0.007, 95% CI [− 0.221, − 0.030]) and value (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.348, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.045, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI: − 0.434, − 0.254). Moreover, there was a positive correlation between expectancy and value (<emph>β</emph> = 0.604, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.058, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI [0.501, 0.730]).</p> <p>There was a significant direct effect of expectancy on reading comprehension (<emph>β</emph> = 0.249, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.051, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI [0.147, 0.346]). However, the indirect effect of expectancy on reading comprehension through reading amount was not significant (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.002, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.008, <emph>p</emph> = 0.815, 95% CI [− 0.019, 0.015]). Value had no significant direct effect on reading comprehension (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.124, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.064, <emph>p</emph> = 0.053, 95% CI [− 0.247, 0.003]). In contrast, there was a significant indirect effect of value on reading comprehension, mediated by reading amount (<emph>β</emph> = 0.143, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.034, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI [0.078, 0.210]). The absence of a significant direct effect but presence of a significant indirect effect of value on reading comprehension indicates full mediation. While there was no significant direct effect of cost on reading comprehension (<emph>β</emph> = 0.001, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.046, <emph>p</emph> = 0.976, 95% CI [− 0.086, 0.092]), we found that the influence of cost on reading comprehension was fully mediated by reading amount (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.071, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.018, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI [− 0.110, − 0.038]).</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-22">Path model for African Americans</hd> <p>For African Americans, the model showed a good fit using traditional indices (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref174">10</reflink>) = 264.35, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, CFI = 1.0, TLI = 1.0, RMSEA < 0.001, and SRMR < 0.001). The model is depicted in Fig. 7 and path coefficients are presented in Table 4. R-squared values indicated that the model explained 39% (<emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> = 0.390) of the variance in reading amount and 16.7% of the variance in reading comprehension (<emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> = 0.167). It should be noted that reading amount was not correlated with reading comprehension (<emph>β</emph> = 0.062, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.084, <emph>p</emph> = 0.463, 95% CI [− 0.093, 0.234]).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 7 Path analytic model examining direct and indirect effects of expectancy, value, and cost on reading comprehension in African Americans. Note. RA: reading amount; RC: reading comprehension. *p <.05. **p <.01. ***p <.001. Bold and solid lines represent statistically significant effects. Dashed lines represent effects that are not statistically significant. Standardized beta coefficients are noted for each path</p> <p>Table 4 Path coefficients among expectancy, value, cost, reading amount, and reading comprehension for African Americans</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Path</p></th><th align="left" /><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>β</p></th><th align="left"><p>SE</p></th><th align="left"><p>z</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>p</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Bootstrapped 95% CI</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="8"><p><italic>Direct effects with reading amount</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Expectancy</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.103</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.064</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 1.603</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.109</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.226, 0.026)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Value</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.662</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.076</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.730</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> <.001</p></td><td align="left"><p>(0.518, 0.816)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cost</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.078</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.058</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 1.336</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.182</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.192, 0.037)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="8"><p><italic>Direct effects with reading comprehension</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Expectancy</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.262</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.090</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.916</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.004</p></td><td align="left"><p>(0.079, 0.436)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Value</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.020</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.099</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.201</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.841</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.178, 0.210)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cost</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.245</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.077</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 3.184</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.001</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.395, − 0.096)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>Reading amount</p></td><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.062</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.084</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.735</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.463</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.093, 0.234)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="8"><p><italic>Indirect effects with reading comprehension</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><p>Expectancy via reading amount</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.006</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.011</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.600</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.548</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.039, 0.007)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><p>Value via reading amount</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.041</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.056</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.732</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.464</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.060, 0.158)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><p>Cost via reading amount</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.005</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.010</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.504</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.614</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.039, 0.005)</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note.</emph> β = standardized beta, SE= standard error</p> <p>Neither expectancy nor cost significantly predicted reading amount (expectancy: β = –0.103, SE = 0.064, <emph>p</emph> = 0.109, 95% CI [− 0.226, 0.026]; cost: <emph>β</emph> = − 0.078, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.058, <emph>p</emph> = 0.182, CI [− 0.192, 0.037]). Nonetheless, value significantly predicted reading amount (<emph>β</emph> = 0.662, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.076, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI [0.518, 0.816]). Furthermore, value was related positively and negatively with expectancy (<emph>β</emph> = 0.655, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.116, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI [0.455, 0.912]) and cost (β = -0.248, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.083, <emph>p</emph> = 0.003, 95% CI [− 0.434, − 0.076]), respectively. However, there was no significant correlation between expectancy and cost (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.045, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.093, <emph>p</emph> = 0.628, 95% CI [− 0.210, 0.156])).</p> <p>It is noteworthy that both expectancy and cost showed only direct effects on reading comprehension (expectancy: <emph>β</emph> = 0.262, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.090, <emph>p</emph> = 0.004, 95% CI [0.079, 0.436]; cost: <emph>β</emph> = − 0.245, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.077, <emph>p</emph> = 0.001, 95% CI [− 0.395, − 0.096]), whereas indirect effects through reading amount were not significant (expectancy: <emph>β</emph> = − 0.0006, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.011, <emph>p</emph> = 0.548, 95% CI [− 0.039, 0.007]; cost: <emph>β</emph> = − 0.005, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.010, <emph>p</emph> = 0.614, 95% CI [− 0.039, 0.005]). There was no significant direct effect of value on reading comprehension (<emph>β</emph> = 0.020, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.10, <emph>p</emph> = 0.841, 95% CI [− 0.178, 0.210]) and indirect effect of value on reading comprehension through reading amount (<emph>β</emph> = 0.041, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.056, <emph>p</emph> = 0.464, 95% CI [− 0.060, 0.158]).</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-23">Path model for Hispanic Americans</hd> <p>For Hispanic Americans, the model demonstrated a good fit using traditional indices (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref175">10</reflink>) = 683.071, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, CFI = 1.0, TLI = 1.0, RMSEA < 0.001, and SRMR < 0.001). The model is depicted in Fig. 8 and path coefficients are displayed in Table 5. R-squared values indicated that the model explained 44.8% (<emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> = 0.448) of the variance in reading amount and 6.7% of the variance in reading comprehension (<emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> = 0.067). Reading amount was positively correlated with reading comprehension (<emph>β</emph> = 0.160, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.054, <emph>p</emph> = 0.003, 95% CI [0.053, 0.266]).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 8 Path analytic model examining direct and indirect effects of expectancy, value, and cost on reading comprehension in Hispanic Americans. RA: reading amount; RC: reading comprehension. *p <.05. **p <.01. ***p <.001. Bold and solid lines represent statistically significant effects. Dashed lines represent effects that are not statistically significant. Standardized beta coefficients are noted for each path</p> <p>Table 5 Path coefficients among expectancy, value, cost, reading amount, and reading comprehension for Hispanic Americans</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Path</p></th><th align="left" /><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>β</p></th><th align="left"><p>SE</p></th><th align="left"><p>z</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>p</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Bootstrapped 95% CI</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="8"><p><italic>Direct effects with reading amount</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Expectancy</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.099</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.045</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 2.188</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.029</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.189, − 0.015)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Value</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.615</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.040</p></td><td align="left"><p>15.457</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> <.001</p></td><td align="left"><p>(0.538, 0.695)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cost</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.273</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.034</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 7.968</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p> <.001</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.339, − 0.204)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="8"><p><italic>Direct effects with reading comprehension</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Expectancy</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.144</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.056</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.582</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.010</p></td><td align="left"><p>(0.035, 0.252)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Value</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.005</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.065</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.076</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.939</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.119, 0.133)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cost</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.039</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.046</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.837</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.403</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.130, 0.051)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>Reading amount</p></td><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.160</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.054</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.968</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.003</p></td><td align="left"><p>(0.053, 0.266)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="8"><p><italic>Indirect effects with reading comprehension</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><p>Expectancy via reading amount</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.016</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.009</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 1.755</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.079</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.039, − 0.003)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><p>Value via reading amount</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.098</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.034</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.887</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.004</p></td><td align="left"><p>(0.032, 0.165)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><p>Cost via reading amount</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.044</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.015</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 2.830</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.005</p></td><td align="left"><p>(− 0.077, − 0.015)</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note.</emph> β = standardized beta, SE = standard error</p> <p>Expectancy amount was positively predicted reading amount (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.099, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.045, <emph>p</emph> = 0.029, 95% CI [− 0.189, − 0.015]). In addition, value and cost were positively and negatively correlated with reading amount, respectively (value: <emph>β</emph> = 0.615, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.040, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI [0.538, 0.695]; cost: <emph>β</emph> = − 0.293, SE = 0.034, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI [− 0.339, − 0.204]). Furthermore, value was positively correlated with expectancy (<emph>β</emph> = 0.614, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.066, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, 95% CI [0.492, 0.754]) and negatively correlated with cost (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.174, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.052, <emph>p</emph> = 0.003, 95% CI [− 0.275, -0.072]). However, expectancy showed no significant relation with cost (<emph>β</emph> = 0.027, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.052, <emph>p</emph> = 0.595, 95% CI: − 0.069, 0.132).</p> <p>Expectancy demonstrated both direct effects on reading comprehension (<emph>β</emph> = 0.144, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.056, <emph>p</emph> = 0.010, 95% CI [0.035, 0.252]) and indirect effects through reading amount (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.016, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.009, <emph>p</emph> = 0.008, 95% CI [− 0.039, − 0.003]), indicating reading amount partially mediated the relationship between expectancy and reading comprehension. Our results showed that both value and cost had no significant direct effects on reading comprehension (value: <emph>β</emph> = 0.005, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.065, <emph>p</emph> = 0.939, 95% CI [− 0.119, 0.133]; cost: <emph>β</emph> = − 0.039, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.046, <emph>p</emph> = 0.403, 95% CI [− 0.130, 0.051). However, they demonstrated significant indirect effects via reading amount (value: <emph>β</emph> = 0.098, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.034, <emph>p</emph> = 0.004, 95% CI [0.032, 0.165]; cost: <emph>β</emph> = − 0.044, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.015, <emph>p</emph> = 0.005, 95% CI [− 0.077, − 0.015]). The results indicated that reading amount fully mediated relations between value and cost and reading comprehension.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-24">Multigroup path analyses</hd> <p>While the preceding path analyses have revealed distinct patterns of direct and indirect effects within each group (see Table 6), it remains uncertain whether the magnitudes of these effects differ between the groups. To address this question, we conducted multigroup path analyses to examine significant differences in the direct or indirect paths among the three ethnic groups.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref176">1</reflink>] We initially tested an unconstrained (baseline) model in which no parameters were constrained across groups. Subsequently, we employed a chi-square difference test to compare the fit of the baseline model, in which all parameters are freely estimated in each group, with a constrained model in which our parameters of interest (direct or indirect paths) were fixed to be equal across groups. It is important to note that pairwise parameter comparisons are performed when the chi-square difference test yields significance. Conversely, pairwise parameter comparisons are not required when the chi-square difference test does not reach significance.</p> <p>Table 6 Results of path analysis among expectancy, value, cost, reading amount, and reading comprehension for each group</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Ethnicity</p></th><th align="left"><p>Variable</p></th><th align="left"><p>Direct and /or indirect effects</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>White American</p></td><td align="left"><p>Expectancy</p></td><td align="left"><p>Direct effect with RC</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Value</p></td><td align="left"><p>Indirect effect with RC via RA (full mediation effect)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cost</p></td><td align="left"><p>Indirect effect with RC via RA (full mediation effect)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>African American</p></td><td align="left"><p>Expectancy</p></td><td align="left"><p>Direct effect with RC</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Value</p></td><td align="left"><p>No indirect and direct effects</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cost</p></td><td align="left"><p>Direct effect with RC</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Hispanic American</p></td><td align="left"><p>Expectancy</p></td><td align="left"><p>Direct effect with RC</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Value</p></td><td align="left"><p>Indirect effect with RC via RA (full mediation effect)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cost</p></td><td align="left"><p>Indirect effect with RC via RA (full mediation effect)</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note.</emph> <emph>RA</emph> = reading amount, <emph>RC</emph> = reading comprehension</p> <p>Since the previous results indicated that there were direct effects of expectancy on reading comprehension across all three ethnic groups, we tested whether the associations of expectancy with reading comprehension differed significantly by ethnicity using the chi-square difference test. The test revealed that the change in fit from the unconstrained model to the constrained model was not statistically significant (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref177">6</reflink>) = 9.3684, <emph>p</emph> = 0.1539), indicating that the magnitudes of direct path effects of expectancy on reading comprehension did not differ among the three groups. Furthermore, given our observation that both White American and Hispanic American college students who value reading activities tend to read more, and that increased reading amounts facilitate their reading comprehension (demonstrating the full mediation of value on reading comprehension), we conducted another multigroup path analysis. This analysis aimed to determine whether there was an ethnic disparity in the magnitude of the full indirect effect of value on reading comprehension through reading amount, specifically among White American and Hispanic American college students. The chi-square difference test showed that the unconstrained model did not differ significantly from the constrained model, in which indirect path coefficients from value to reading comprehension through reading amount were constrained to equality across the two ethnic groups (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref178">6</reflink>) = 12.267, <emph>p</emph> = 0.0563). This finding suggests that the magnitudes of all full indirect effects of value on reading comprehension through reading amount were similar among White American and Hispanic American college students.</p> <p>Additionally, our previous path analysis demonstrated indirect effects of reading amount on the relationship between cost and reading comprehension (supporting the full mediation of cost on reading comprehension) for both White American and Hispanic American college students. In our multigroup path analysis, the chi-square difference test revealed that the change in fit from the unconstrained model to the constrained model was statistically significant (<emph>χ</emph><sups><bold>2</bold></sups>(<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref179">6</reflink>) = 31.297, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). Given the significant result, we proceeded with pairwise parameter comparisons to explore group differences. However, it is important to note that our previous path analysis did not reveal any indirect effects of cost on reading comprehension through reading amount for African Americans (see Table 6). As a result, this group was excluded from the pairwise comparisons, and the analyses were conducted exclusively between White Americans and Hispanic Americans. The comparison showed that there was no statistically significant difference between White Americans and Hispanic Americans (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.183, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.115, <emph>z</emph> = − 1.597, <emph>p</emph> = 0.110), suggesting that the magnitudes of full indirect path effects of cost on reading comprehension through reading amount did not differ between these groups.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-25">Discussion</hd> <p>The primary impetus for this study was the lack of sufficient research exploring the relationships among expectancy, value, cost, reading amount, and reading comprehension, particularly in relation to ethnic differences. Although cost is crucial for understanding the development of student motivation (Barron & Hulleman, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref180">5</reflink>]), it has received limited attention until recent years (Jiang et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref181">41</reflink>]). This study extends the situated expectancy-value theory by focusing on expectancy, value, and cost. First, we investigated the relationships among expectancy, value, cost, reading amount, and reading comprehension, with a particular emphasis on White American, African American, and Hispanic American college students. Second, we examined the direct and indirect effects of expectancy, value, and cost on reading comprehension, with reading amount serving as a mediator. Third, we compared the magnitude of these direct and indirect effects across different ethnic groups.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-26">Associations among expectancy, value, and cost</hd> <p>We investigated the associations among expectancy, value, and cost across the three ethnic groups. In line with our initial hypothesis, our findings revealed a positive correlation between expectancy and value among college students in all groups, aligning with the findings reported by Dietrich et al. ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref182">19</reflink>]). This suggests that college students who perceive themselves as competent readers are more likely to value and prioritize reading. Additionally, our results demonstrated that value was negatively correlated with cost across the three ethnic groups, which is consistent with previous research (Conley, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref183">16</reflink>]; Dietrich et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref184">19</reflink>]; Flake et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref185">26</reflink>]; Trautwein et al., [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref186">78</reflink>]). This finding implies that college students who place a higher value on reading are less likely to perceive reading as a burdensome activity.</p> <p>However, our study extends previous research that reported a negative correlation between expectancy and cost (Conley, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref187">16</reflink>]; Dietrich et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref188">19</reflink>]; Flake et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref189">26</reflink>]; Trautwein et al., [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref190">78</reflink>]). Specifically, we found a negative association between expectancy and cost only among White American college students. This association was not significant for African American and Hispanic American college students. One potential explanation for the discrepancy between our findings and those of previous studies could be our focus on ethnic differences. Unlike other studies that did not specifically examine or discuss the effects of ethnicity among participants, our study focused on these differences. For example, Trautwein et al. ([<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref191">78</reflink>]) conducted their study with German secondary students but did not address ethnic differences in their analysis. Similarly, Conley et al. ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref192">16</reflink>]) included a sample with 69% Hispanics, 17% Asians, 10% Whites, 2% African Americans, and 2% Pacific Islanders but did not distinguish ethnic groups in their data analysis. As a result, our study emphasizes the importance of considering ethnic differences in the association between expectancy and cost among American college students. Further research is needed to explore potential ethnic variations in this relationship. Such research will provide a more comprehensive understanding of how these factors interact and vary across different ethnic groups.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-27">Associations between expectancy, value, cost and reading amount</hd> <p>We also examined the associations between expectancy, value, cost, and reading amount among the three ethnic groups. Consistent with our hypothesis, our findings revealed a positive correlation between expectancy and reading amount across all three ethnic groups. This result aligns with the findings reported by Geng et al. (2012), who analyzed these variables using 2018 PISA data from 80 countries. Our findings suggest that students are more likely to engage in extensive reading activities if they believe they can successfully complete reading tasks. As hypothesized, our results also extend the findings of El-Khechen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref193">25</reflink>]), who studied fourth-grade students in Germany, by demonstrating a positive correlation between value and reading amount among White American, African American, and Hispanic American college students in the United States. This suggests that college students are more inclined to engage in reading when they perceive value in reading tasks. Furthermore, our results support our hypothesis that cost was negatively correlated with reading amount across all three ethnic groups. When students perceive high costs, such as the sacrifices required to engage in reading, they tend to read less. The novelty of our finding regarding the association between cost and reading amount underscores the need for increased attention in the current literature. Given the limited prior research on this association, there is a clear need for further investigation in this area.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-28">Associations between expectancy, value, cost, and reading comprehension</hd> <p>We also explored the associations between expectancy, value, cost, and reading comprehension. Our results confirmed our hypothesis, revealing a positive correlation between expectancy and reading comprehension among college students from three diverse ethnic backgrounds. This finding aligns with previous studies conducted with elementary and middle school students (Lau, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref194">49</reflink>]; Proctor et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref195">58</reflink>]; Solheim, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref196">70</reflink>]; Taboada et al., [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref197">73</reflink>]), suggesting that college students are more likely to achieve better reading comprehension when they believe in their ability to successfully complete reading tasks. This underscores the importance of self-efficacy beliefs in promoting reading comprehension among college students. Additionally, our results supported our hypothesis that value was positively correlated with reading comprehension across White American, African American, and Hispanic American college students. This finding is consistent with prior research conducted with elementary and secondary students, which suggests a positive association between value and reading comprehension (Anmarkrud & Braten, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref198">2</reflink>]; Geng et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref199">28</reflink>]; Kanonire et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref200">47</reflink>]; Wang & Guthrie, [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref201">81</reflink>]; Wigfield & Guthrie, [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref202">87</reflink>]). It indicates that college students' reading comprehension scores are higher when they place importance and value on reading. Furthermore, our results supported our hypothesis that cost was negatively correlated with reading comprehension among all three ethnic groups. This finding is consistent with the study by Durik et al. (2006), which also found a negative correlation between cost and educational outcomes. It suggests that college students' reading comprehension scores are lower when they perceive a higher cost or negative aspects associated with engaging in reading tasks. In summary, our findings provide new empirical evidence that expectancy, value, and cost are important factors associated with college students' reading comprehension, aligning with existing literature on younger student populations.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-29">Direct and indirect effects of expectancy, value, and cost on reading comprehension through r...</hd> <p>Our path models provide valuable insights into the similarities and variations among ethnic groups regarding the direct and indirect effects of expectancy, value, and cost on reading comprehension, mediated by reading amount. Our results revealed a positive direct effect of expectancy on reading comprehension across all three ethnic groups. These findings suggest that college students' reading comprehension abilities are enhanced when they have confidence in their capacity to successfully tackle reading tasks, which aligns with previous research (Lau, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref203">49</reflink>]; Proctor et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref204">58</reflink>]; Solheim, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref205">70</reflink>]; Taboada et al., [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref206">73</reflink>]). Moreover, the indirect effect of expectancy on reading comprehension through reading amount was not evident in the White American and African American groups. However, a significant indirect effect of expectancy on reading comprehension was found among Hispanic American college students, although the effect size was small and negligible (-0.016). The null effects and small size of these effects indicate that reading amount did not significantly mediate the relationship between expectancy and reading comprehension, thus supplementing the observed direct effects across different ethnic groups.</p> <p>Regarding the role of value, our path models indicated a complete positive mediating role of reading amount in the relationship between value and reading comprehension for White American and Hispanic American college students. However, no significant indirect or direct effects of value on reading comprehension were observed among African American college students. This result suggests that White American and Hispanic American college students who value reading activities tend to engage in more reading, and this increased reading amount facilitates their reading comprehension. Nonetheless, reading amount did not play a significant role in mediating the effect of value on reading comprehension for African American college students. This discrepancy may reflect different patterns in the influence of ethnic variation on reading value and its impact on reading comprehension. Specifically, it highlights the role of cultural and social factors, such as beliefs and values among different ethnic groups. For example, previous research indicates that reading value is influenced not only by individual beliefs but also by the beliefs and behaviors of socializers. For White American students, personal beliefs predominantly shape their valuation of reading (Guthrie et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref207">34</reflink>]). Conversely, African American students' attitudes toward reading are more influenced by their peers (Graham et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref208">31</reflink>]). Consequently, it is plausible that White American and Hispanic American students with a positive personal value toward reading engage in more reading activity, which subsequently enhances their reading comprehension. In contrast, African American students' reading values, which are more influenced by peers than by personal beliefs, might result in a disconnect between individual reading value and reading amount, potentially affecting both their reading amount and comprehension.</p> <p>Additionally, our results demonstrated an indirect effect of reading amount on the relationship between cost and reading comprehension for both White American and Hispanic American college students. Interestingly, among African American college students, a direct negative effect of cost on reading comprehension was observed. We believe there are underlying cultural and social factors that might contribute to these observed differences. This finding suggests that White American and Hispanic American college students who perceive a higher cost or negative aspects associated with reading tasks tend to engage in less reading, which adversely affects their reading comprehension. While both White American and Hispanic American college students exhibited indirect effects, their attitudes and engagement with education and reading differ in significant ways.</p> <p>For White American students, there is a pronounced focus on individual goals, achievement, and success (Hamamura, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref209">38</reflink>]), with reading amount recognized as a fundamental element of both educational attainment and personal growth. Nonetheless, if the perceived cost of reading—including time, effort, or emotional burden—becomes high, students might choose to engage in other activities that are perceived as less demanding or more rewarding. This could lead to a reduction in reading amount and, subsequently, lower reading comprehension. For Hispanic American students, there is a significant emphasis on family values and community support (Kambara & Lin, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref210">44</reflink>]). While education is highly valued, additional pressures stemming from family responsibilities and cultural expectations can influence students' perceptions of the costs associated with reading. These students may view reading as both important and challenging due to the need to balance familial duties, work, and academic responsibilities. Consequently, if the perceived demands of reading become too great, students might reduce their reading efforts, leading to diminished reading comprehension. In contrast, reading amount did not mediate the relationship between cost and reading comprehension for African American college students. African American students may face unique cultural and systemic challenges (Banaji et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref211">4</reflink>]) that influence their attitudes toward reading. Experiences with systemic inequities, such as limited access to resources and support, can exacerbate their perception of the costs associated with reading. For these students, the direct negative impact of perceived costs on reading comprehension—without mediation by reading amount—might suggest that immediate burdens, such as lack of support, directly constrain their ability to engage with reading effectively. Overall, these findings highlight both the similarities and differences in the mediating role of reading amount between expectancy, value, cost, and reading comprehension across diverse ethnic groups. They provide initial insights into ethnic disparities in reading motivation and associated factors. Future research should examine both ethnic-specific and general patterns in the direct and indirect influences of expectancy, value, and cost on reading comprehension across various ethnicities and countries.</p> <p>Regarding the contributions of our findings to the SEVT framework, our study provides empirical evidence supporting the direct effect of expectancy on reading comprehension, as suggested by the SEVT framework. However, the results regarding the indirect effects of value and cost on reading comprehension offer partial support for the idea that these factors directly influence achievement-related choices and performance. We found no evidence that background factors, such as ethnicity, specifically influence the relationship between expectancy and achievement. Furthermore, our study introduces novel evidence that the impact of subjective task value and cost on achievement varies by ethnicity. These findings highlight the need to refine the SEVT framework and suggest the development of an updated version tailored to the reading domain.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-30">Practical implications</hd> <p>Our findings have several practical implications. Since expectancy directly affects reading comprehension across all ethnic groups, fostering positive expectations about reading could be universally beneficial. Interventions for White American and Hispanic American students should focus on enhancing their perceived value of reading and providing strategies to reduce the perceived or actual costs associated with reading to improve both reading volume and comprehension. For African American students, interventions might need to consider the influence of peer networks on reading. Programs that incorporate peer support could help bridge the gap between reading value and reading activity. Additionally, integrating culturally relevant reading materials and pedagogies that align with peer influences could boost engagement and comprehension. In terms of cost, for White American and Hispanic American students, effective interventions should focus on reducing the perceived effort and enhancing the rewards associated with reading activities. For African American students, providing additional support and resources to address specific barriers or costs related to reading (e.g., access to resources, time constraints, or perceived difficulty) may improve their reading outcomes. Several useful strategies can be employed to address these perceived or actual costs. For instance, offering access to digital reading platforms and audiobooks might help mitigate issues related to resource availability. Additionally, providing aids such as annotated texts, summaries, and discussion guides could lower the costs associated with complex materials and further enhance reading comprehension.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-31">Limitations</hd> <p>The present study has provided valuable insights into the associations between expectancy, value, cost, reading amount, and reading comprehension across three ethnic groups in the United States. However, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of this work and emphasize the need for further investigation to deepen our understanding in this domain. First, the current study focused on three major ethnic groups, representing only a subset of the American college student population. Future research should aim to include a broader range of minority groups, such as American Indian, Asian American, Asian Pacific Islander, and others, to provide a more comprehensive representation of the United States' demographic composition. Second, it would be beneficial to explore different age cohorts, including K-12 populations, in future studies. Adopting a cross-sectional or longitudinal design would enable a better understanding of how the associations between expectancy, value, cost, and reading motivation-related variables evolve over time. Understanding how these factors change across the lifespan would help educators identify significant predictors of reading achievement and tailor interventions accordingly. Third, this study employed standardized assessments of lower-order reading comprehension, specifically targeting sentence comprehension among college students. Future research should strive to incorporate a wider range of tests that encompass higher-order reading comprehension, such as evaluating students' comprehension of paragraphs and passages. By including a diverse array of comprehension measures, researchers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of students' reading abilities and their relationship with expectancy, value, and cost variables.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-32">Conclusion</hd> <p>In the present study, we investigated the associations among expectancy, value, cost, reading amount, and reading comprehension in a sample of 1,360 American college students representing three ethnic groups: White American, African American, and Hispanic American. We also examined how reading amount mediates the relationships between expectancy, value, cost, and reading comprehension across these ethnic groups. Our findings reveal both similarities and differences in the direct and indirect effects of expectancy, value, and cost on reading comprehension, as mediated by reading amount, among these groups. Additionally, the study demonstrated comparable magnitudes of both direct and indirect effects across the ethnic groups. This research highlights both universal and group-specific patterns of reading motivation among American college students. Future research should aim to replicate these findings and investigate additional variables that may influence reading motivation and comprehension, including cultural differences, educational practices, and individual characteristics.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-33">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184992384-34">Conflicts of interest</hd> <p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest. All co-authors have reviewed and agree with the contents of the manuscript, and there are no financial interests to report. We certify that this submission is original work and is not under consideration by any other publication.</p> <hd id="AN0184992384-35">Appendix</hd> <p>To ensure the comparability of the reading efficacy and reading amount scores across White, African American, and Hispanic college students, we examined the measurement invariance properties of the scales using multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis. The robust maximum likelihood estimator (MLR) was employed, as recommended by Rhemtulla et al. ([<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref212">61</reflink>]). We tested configural, metric, and scalar invariance sequentially. The configural model of the reading efficacy scale was constructed based on the factorial structure of the ARMS proposed by Schutte and Malouff ([<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref213">68</reflink>]). Conversely, the configural invariance model of the reading amount scale was constructed based on the measurement model proposed by Schaffner et al. ([<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref214">66</reflink>]). For both scales, the metric model imposed equality constraints on the factor loadings, while the scalar model imposed additional equality constraints on the item intercepts across ethnic groups.</p> <p>The global fit of each model was evaluated using the following criteria: the comparative fit index (CFI) and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) should exceed 0.90, and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) should be approximately equal to or less than 0.08 (Little, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref215">51</reflink>]). If a configural model did not meet the global fit criteria, we consulted the largest modification index (MI) to add a residual covariance to the model. This process was repeated until an acceptable global fit was achieved. Furthermore, the change in fit between models of two consecutive levels was evaluated using the criterion that the change in CFI (|ΔCFI|) should be less than 0.01 (Cheung & Rensvold, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref216">13</reflink>]). According to Widaman and Reise ([<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref217">82</reflink>]), at least (partial) metric invariance is required for the relationship between two latent constructs to be comparable across groups.</p> <p>The initial configural invariance model of the reading efficacy scale, constructed based on the unidimensional factor structure proposed by Schutte and Malouff ([<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref218">68</reflink>]), exhibited inadequate global fit (CFI & TLI < 0.90, RMSEA > 0.08). Consequently, we consulted the largest modification index (MI) and added a residual covariance between items 19 and 20. However, the global fit remained inadequate (CFI = 0.942, TLI < 0.90, RMSEA > 0.08). Thus, we again referred to the largest MI and added a residual covariance between items 14 and 20 (see Figure 9). This modified configural model with two residual covariances demonstrated acceptable global fit (CFI = 0.963, TLI = 0.921, RMSEA = 0.072). The metric invariance model, built upon this modified configural model, displayed acceptable global fit (CFI = 0.964, TLI = 0.948, RMSEA = 0.059) and a |ΔCFI| (0.001) within the acceptable range when compared to the modified configural model. The scalar invariance model, constructed based on the metric model, also exhibited adequate global fit (CFI = 0.918, TLI = 0.910, RMSEA = 0.077). However, its |ΔCFI| (0.046) relative to the metric model exceeded the acceptable threshold. These results suggest that the factor loadings of the reading efficacy scale were invariant across ethnic groups, but its item intercepts were not. Table 7 presents detailed testing results.</p> <p>Similar to the reading efficacy scale, the initial configural invariance model of the reading amount scale demonstrated inadequate global fit (CFI = 0.975, TLI = 0.950, RMSEA > 0.08). Subsequently, we consulted the largest MI and added a residual covariance between items 2 and 5 (see Figure 10). As a result, the global fit improved to an acceptable level (CFI = 0.999, TLI = 0.997, RMSEA = 0.025). The metric invariance model, built upon this modified configural model, exhibited acceptable global fit (CFI = 0.993, TLI = 0.990, RMSEA = 0.044) and a |ΔCFI| (0.006) within the acceptable range when compared to the modified configural model. Similarly, the scalar invariance model, constructed based on the metric model, also displayed acceptable global fit (CFI = 0.988, TLI = 0.987, RMSEA = 0.048) and a |ΔCFI| (0.005) within the acceptable range relative to the metric model. These results indicate that the reading amount scale possessed invariant factor loadings and item intercepts across ethnic groups. Table 8 presents detailed testing results.</p> <p>Table 7 Measurement testing results of the reading efficacy scale across White American, African American, and Hispanic American College Students</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Model</p></th><th align="left"><p>χ<sup>2</sup></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>df</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>CFI</p></th><th align="left"><p>|ΔCFI|</p></th><th align="left"><p>TLI</p></th><th align="left"><p>RMSEA</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Configural invariance 1</p></td><td align="left"><p>172.614</p></td><td align="left"><p>27</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.892</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.821</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.109</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Configural invariance 2<sup>a</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>101.874</p></td><td align="left"><p>24</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.942</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.892</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.085</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Configural invariance 3<sup>b</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>70.791</p></td><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.963</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.921</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.072</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Metric invariance</p></td><td align="left"><p>79.870</p></td><td align="left"><p>31</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.964</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.001<sup>c</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.948</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.059</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Scalar invariance</p></td><td align="left"><p>151.739</p></td><td align="left"><p>41</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.918</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.046<sup>d</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.910</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.077</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>a</sups>Added the residual covariance between items 19 and 20</p> <p> <sups>b</sups>Added the residual covariance between items 14 and 20</p> <p> <sups>c</sups>Change in CFI from the configural invariance model 3</p> <p> <sups>d</sups>Change in CFI from the metric invariance model</p> <p>Table 8 Measurement testing results of the reading amount scale across White Americans, African American, and Hispanic American College Students</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Model</p></th><th align="left"><p>χ<sup>2</sup></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>df</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>CFI</p></th><th align="left"><p>|ΔCFI|</p></th><th align="left"><p>TLI</p></th><th align="left"><p>RMSEA</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Configural invariance 1</p></td><td align="left"><p>79.128</p></td><td align="left"><p>15</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.975</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.950</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.097</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Configural invariance 2<sup>a</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>15.455</p></td><td align="left"><p>12</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.999</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.997</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.025</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Metric invariance</p></td><td align="left"><p>37.278</p></td><td align="left"><p>20</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.993</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.006<sup>b</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.990</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.044</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Scalar invariance</p></td><td align="left"><p>57.847</p></td><td align="left"><p>28</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.988</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.005<sup>c</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.987</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.048</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>a</sups>Added the residual covariance between items 2 and 5</p> <p> <sups>b</sups>Change in CFI from the configural invariance model 2</p> <p> <sups>c</sups>Change in CFI from the metric invariance model</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 9 Modified Configural Invariance Model of the Reading Efficacy Scale Across White American, African American, and Hispanic American College Students. 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British Journal of Educational Psychology. 2022. 10.1111/bjep.12495</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0184992384-38"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> We appreciate the reviewer's valuable suggestion to include control variables, particularly socioeconomic status (SES), in our analysis. We re-ran the multigroup path analyses for each predictor (expectancy, value, and cost), incorporating family economic background as an additional control variable. Specifically, family economic background was included as a predictor of both reading amount and reading comprehension in each model. The re-analysis yielded results that matched our original findings and confirmed the robustness of our conclusions, even after accounting for SES. These results suggest that family socioeconomic background does not significantly influence the primary relations examined in our study.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Hitomi Kambara; Yu-Cheng Lin; Hung-Chu Lin and Po-Yi Chen</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Hitomi Kambara Hitomi Kambara is an Associate Professor in the Department of Bilingual and Literacy Studies at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley. Her research focuses on reading motivation across diverse racial and ethnic groups, as well as in international contexts.</p> <p>Yu-Cheng Lin Yu-Cheng Lin is an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychological Science at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley in the United States. His research mainly focuses on cognitive mechanisms of language processing, particularly in the domain of monolingual and bilingual written and spoken word recognition.</p> <p>Hung-Chu Lin Hung-Chu Lin is a Professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Her research focuses on developmental processes in communication, social cognition, and emotional competence. Dr. Lin collaborates across disciplines to explore social and cultural influences on developmental outcomes, with an emphasis on advancing innovative pedagogical approaches.</p> <p>Po-Yi Chen Po-Yi Chen is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling at National Taiwan Normal University. His methodological research primarily focuses on issues such as missing data and measurement invariance models in structural equation modeling. He is also interested in applying latent variable and quantitative modeling techniques to empirical research in education, psychology, health, and social sciences.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib80" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib35" 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  Data: Examining the Mediating Role of Reading Amount between Reading Motivation and Reading Comprehension among American College Students: Ethnic Similarities and Differences
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hitomi+Kambara%22">Hitomi Kambara</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5302-1305">0000-0001-5302-1305</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yu-Cheng+Lin%22">Yu-Cheng Lin</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hung-Chu+Lin%22">Hung-Chu Lin</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Po-Yi+Chen%22">Po-Yi Chen</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Social+Psychology+of+Education%3A+An+International+Journal%22"><i>Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal</i></searchLink>. 2025 28(1).
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Label: Education Level
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
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  Label: Descriptors
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Motivation%22">Reading Motivation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Comprehension%22">Reading Comprehension</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ethnic+Groups%22">Ethnic Groups</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Differences%22">Racial Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22White+Students%22">White Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22African+American+Students%22">African American Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Hispanic+American+Students%22">Hispanic American Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Habits%22">Reading Habits</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1007/s11218-025-10034-8
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  Data: 1381-2890<br />1573-1928
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Reading motivation significantly influences the academic success of American college students. Existing literature often treats American students as a homogeneous group and overlooks the impact of diverse ethnic backgrounds on reading motivation. To address this gap, the present study investigated the relationships among reading motivation, reading amount, and reading comprehension in a sample of 1360 American college students representing three ethnic groups: White American, African American, and Hispanic American. Additionally, we explored the role of reading amount as a mediator in the relationship between reading motivation and reading comprehension, and assessed the magnitude of these effects across the three ethnic groups. Path analysis for each ethnic group revealed a direct effect of expectancy on reading comprehension for all groups. Furthermore, indirect effects of value and cost on reading comprehension were observed among White American and Hispanic American college students, whereas African American college students exhibited a direct effect of cost on reading comprehension. Multigroup path analyses showed similar magnitudes of direct and indirect effects across the three ethnic groups. Our findings provide new evidence of both commonalities and differences in reading motivation among American college students from different ethnic backgrounds.
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  Data: 2025
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      – SubjectFull: College Students
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      – SubjectFull: Reading Motivation
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      – SubjectFull: Reading Comprehension
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      – SubjectFull: Ethnic Groups
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Differences
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      – SubjectFull: White Students
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      – SubjectFull: African American Students
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      – SubjectFull: Reading Habits
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      – TitleFull: Examining the Mediating Role of Reading Amount between Reading Motivation and Reading Comprehension among American College Students: Ethnic Similarities and Differences
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