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Pivotal Legislation Supporting College and Career Readiness for Students with Disabilities

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Title: Pivotal Legislation Supporting College and Career Readiness for Students with Disabilities
Language: English
Authors: Stephen M. Kwiatek (ORCID 0000-0001-5310-790X), Valerie L. Mazzotti, Charles L. Wood
Source: Journal of Disability Policy Studies. 2025 36(1):3-15.
Availability: SAGE Publications and Hammill Institute on Disabilities. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 13
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Descriptive
Education Level: Elementary Secondary Education
Descriptors: Students with Disabilities, College Readiness, Career Readiness, Educational Legislation, Federal Legislation, Equal Education, Elementary Secondary Education, School Desegregation, Desegregation Litigation, Educational Quality, Disabilities, Civil Rights Legislation, Career and Technical Education, Labor Force Development, Labor Legislation
Laws, Policies and Program Identifiers: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Every Student Succeeds Act 2015, Brown v Board of Education, Education for All Handicapped Children Act, Americans with Disabilities Act 1990, Carl D Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act 1990, Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act 2014, Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 2004
DOI: 10.1177/10442073241227820
ISSN: 1044-2073
1538-4802
Abstract: Historically, students with disabilities experience less in-school preparation and postschool success compared with their peers without disabilities. U.S. federal legislation has evolved in an effort to promote successful in-school and postschool success for students with disabilities. Since 1990, legislation has emphasized the importance of postschool preparation (the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), and more recently, the Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015 mandated all students be prepared for college and careers. In this article, we overview one court case ("Brown v. Board of Education") and seven pieces of pivotal legislation that had substantive impact on college and career readiness efforts. In addition, we discuss successes over time and suggest opportunities for change to enhance college and career readiness efforts.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1471424
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0185232098;9wi01jun.25;2025May20.02:58;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0185232098-1">Pivotal Legislation Supporting College and Career Readiness for Students With Disabilities </title> <p>Historically, students with disabilities experience less in-school preparation and postschool success compared with their peers without disabilities. U.S. federal legislation has evolved in an effort to promote successful in-school and postschool success for students with disabilities. Since 1990, legislation has emphasized the importance of postschool preparation (the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), and more recently, the Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015 mandated all students be prepared for college and careers. In this article, we overview one court case (Brown v. Board of Education) and seven pieces of pivotal legislation that had substantive impact on college and career readiness efforts. In addition, we discuss successes over time and suggest opportunities for change to enhance college and career readiness efforts.</p> <p>Keywords: legislation; special education law; college and career readiness; students with disabilities; secondary transition</p> <p>Transitioning into life after high school is an exciting, albeit challenging, part of life for all students. During this transition, however, students with disabilities face many of the same obstacles as their peers without disabilities, coupled with unique challenges. Specifically, students with disabilities experience lower rates of in-school preparation and postschool success than their peers without disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref1">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref2">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref3">44</reflink>]).</p> <p>U.S. school systems were not mandated to formally implement secondary transition requirements until the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1990 and were not required to examine the success of students' postschool outcomes until the passage of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) in 2004. Since 1990, the IDEA has mandated school systems prepare students with disabilities for (a) postsecondary education, (b) vocational training/integrated employment, and (c) independent living. More recently, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref4">14</reflink>] mandated all students, including students with disabilities, be prepared for college and careers. The importance of the legal mandates cannot be overstated. Decades of poor outcomes for students with disabilities exemplify [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref5">25</reflink>] assertion that families, education staff, and advocates have concerns of the process for preparing students with disabilities for adult life.</p> <p>Federal legislation has evolved over time to support students' preparation for adulthood. Given the federal emphasis on outcomes, legislation may have been one possible reason for the modest gains students with disabilities have experienced over time. For example, mandates under [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref6">23</reflink>] require that states and local education agencies annually collect and report data (i.e., state performance plans/annual performance reports [SPP/APR]) on the graduation rates (Indicator 1), dropout rates (Indicator 2), compliance with the transition components of the individualized education program (IEP; Indicator 13), and postschool outcomes (Indicator 14) for students with disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref7">67</reflink>]). There have been minimal gains for students with disabilities across these indicators ([<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref8">68</reflink>]), and research suggests that there are still disparities between the experiences of students with and without disabilities preparing for adult life ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref10">57</reflink>]).</p> <p>Researchers and practitioners will benefit from understanding the impact of legislation on successes in the field of secondary transition, such as the establishment of the Council for Exceptional Children's Division on Career Development and Transition, the publication of the <emph>Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals</emph> journal, the development of secondary transition evidence-based practices and predictors of postschool success ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref11">37</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref12">52</reflink>]), and mandates for pre-employment transition services (pre-ETS) that can lead to a globally competitive workforce ([<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref13">77</reflink>]). By reviewing federal legislation focused on transition initiatives, our hope is that researchers and practitioners will engage in opportunities for change. This might include creating advocacy groups to advocate for policy and social change at the local, state, and federal levels, including advocating for increased funding to support youth with disabilities' transition into adult life ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref14">62</reflink>]); focusing research efforts on models and strategies to build collaborative partnerships across schools, community service agencies, and families to support a cohesive and seamless transition process ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref16">26</reflink>]); and supporting practitioners to ensure they have the knowledge, skills, and tools needed to ensure all students are ready for college and careers ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref17">42</reflink>]).</p> <p>Therefore, to understand the impact of legislation on successes in the field of secondary transition and outcomes for students with disabilities, our purpose is to (a) discuss federal legislation that promoted the preparation of students with disabilities for college and careers, (b) highlight successes over time, and (c) suggest opportunities for change to enhance college and career readiness efforts. Figure 1 provides a legislation timeline. We begin our discussion with pivotal legislation to promote college and career readiness by highlighting substantive pieces of legislation.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Legislation Timeline Supporting College and Career Readiness for Students With Disabilities. Note. Triangles = nonpivotal legislation; stars = pivotal legislation.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-2">Pivotal Legislation to Promote College and Career Readiness</hd> <p>In this section, and in Figure 2, we highlight seven pivotal pieces of legislation (i.e., legislation we believe had the largest impact) on the preparation of students with disabilities for college and careers. In addition, we provide an overview of 17 additional pieces of legislation, highlighted in Table 1, that also contributed to students with disabilities being prepared for college and careers. It is important, however, to begin this section with <emph>Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Kansas</emph> (hereinafter <emph>Brown</emph>), 347 U.S. 483 ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref18">4</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref19">79</reflink>] cited <emph>Brown</emph> as a springboard for the development of special education legislation.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Pivotal Legislation Supporting College and Career Readiness for Students With Disabilities.</p> <p>Table 1. Nonpivotal Legislation and Relevance to College and Career Readiness (CCR).</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="center">Name (P.L.)</th><th align="center">Relevance to CCR</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr73">Vocational Rehabilitation Amendments of 1954</xref> (P.L. 565)</td><td>Dedicated funding toward addressing employment-related needs of SWDs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr24">Johnson, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr56">Social Security Administration, 1954</xref>).</td></tr><tr><td><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr13">The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965</xref> (P.L. 89-10)</td><td>Provided grant funding to school districts with a history of serving underperforming students (e.g., SWDs) to mitigate achievement gaps and provide high-quality education for all.</td></tr><tr><td><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr70">Vocational Education Amendments of 1968</xref> (P.L. 90-576)</td><td>Funded a range of vocational education opportunities; contributed to the national workforce (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr69">U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare: Office of Education, 1969</xref>).</td></tr><tr><td><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr72">Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (P.L. 93-112)</xref></td><td>Delivered civil rights for people with disabilities and was modeled after the Civil Rights Act (1964). Section 503 mandated equal opportunities for individuals with disabilities, and Section 504 barred discrimination in public education, private educational institutions accepting federal funding, and employment settings (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr66">U.S. Department of Education, n.d.-b</xref>).</td></tr><tr><td><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr71">Vocational Education Amendments of 1976</xref> (P.L. 105-332)</td><td>Mitigated bias for federally funded state vocational education programs. Dedicated funding for SWDs. Required alignment of amendments with P.L. 94-142 mandates (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr24">Johnson, 2012</xref>).</td></tr><tr><td>The <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr5">Career Education Implementation Incentive Act of 1977</xref> (P.L. 95-207)</td><td>Intended to prepare each person for a career aligned with their preferences. Emphasized career education (e.g., career awareness, exploration) for all students.</td></tr><tr><td>The Education for All Handicapped [<italic>sic</italic>] Children Act of 1983 (P.L. 98-199)</td><td>Mandated states collect data and address issues students face in preparation for postsecondary education, continuing education, competitive employment, vocational training, and adult services.</td></tr><tr><td>The Education for All Handicapped [<italic>sic</italic>] <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr12">Children Act of 1986</xref> (P.L. 99-457)</td><td>Mandated student and parental involvement; preparation for adult life. Examine why SWDs dropout and develop curriculum and instructional strategies to keep students in school (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr24">Johnson, 2012</xref>).</td></tr><tr><td><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr51">Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1992 (P.L. 102-569)</xref></td><td>Emphasized all SWDs can obtain gainful employment. SWDs must have clear evidence to not provide services. Focused on readiness, instead of placement and support (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr76">Wood & Test, 1997</xref>).</td></tr><tr><td><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr54">School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994</xref> (P.L. 103-239)</td><td>Emphasized how general educators can prepare students with and without disabilities during high school for postschool employment.</td></tr><tr><td><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr22">Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997</xref> (P.L. 105-17)</td><td>Mandated schools include transition plans beginning no later than age 14. Mandated inclusion of general education teachers in IEP meetings. Emphasized importance of inclusion in general education settings.</td></tr><tr><td><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr8">Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Amendments of 1998</xref> (P.L. 105-22)</td><td>Focused on skill development during high school for postschool settings (i.e., academic, technical, vocational). Promoted vocational and technical education in high school and postschool settings.</td></tr><tr><td><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr78">Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (P.L. 104-220)</xref></td><td>Provided services for SWDs to learn with peers without disabilities. Ensured universal access through one-stop centers (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr24">Johnson, 2012</xref>).</td></tr><tr><td><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr61">Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Act of 1999 (P.L. 106-170)</xref></td><td>Supported individuals with disabilities to work without losing Medicare or Medicaid benefits. Extended Medicare coverage for disability-insurance recipients by 4.5 years. Provided other support services from an employment network of the individual's choice (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr24">Johnson, 2012</xref>; Social Security Administration, n.d.).</td></tr><tr><td>The <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr46">No Child Left Behind Act of 2001</xref> (NCLB; P.L. 107-110)</td><td>Reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and mandated teacher accountability for students to meet rigorous academic standards. Iterated teacher accountability with the use of scientifically supported practices for all students, including transition-age youth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr64">U.S. Department of Education, 2002</xref>).</td></tr><tr><td>Carl D. Perkins Act and Technical Education Improvement Act of 2006 (P.L. 98-524)</td><td>Emphasized the importance of career technical education (was vocational education) on the importance of work. Highlighted general educators' roles in preparing students for work.</td></tr><tr><td><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr18">Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008</xref> (P.L. 110-315)</td><td>Enacted multiple policy changes to support individuals with extensive support needs with postschool education opportunities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr24">Johnson, 2012</xref>).</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note.</emph> P.L. = Public Law; IEP = Individualized Education Program; SWDs = students with disabilities.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-3">Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Kansas, 347 U.S. 483 (1954)</hd> <p>On May 17, 1954, <emph>Brown</emph> overturned <emph>Plessy v. Ferguson</emph>'s (hereinafter <emph>Plessy</emph>; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref20">49</reflink>]) ruling of separate but equal. Separate but equal legally allowed discrimination of individuals from diverse racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds in public settings. <emph>Brown</emph>'s decision ruled that separate was not equal and, after almost six decades, overturned <emph>Plessy.</emph> This historic ruling is often cited as a substantive victory toward civil rights and provided equal protections, under the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, to individuals from diverse racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds ([<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref21">79</reflink>]). Given the focus on civil rights from this court case, advocates of students with disabilities argued separate was not equal for students with disabilities and, in turn, paved the way for federal legislation to provide equal access to education for students with disabilities.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-4">The Education for All Handicapped [ sic ] Children Act of 1975 (P.L. 94-142)</hd> <p>Derived from <emph>Brown</emph> and a precursor to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, the United States Congress passed the Education for All Handicapped [<emph>sic</emph>] Children Act (EAHCA) on November 19, 1975, and ensured children with disabilities ages 3 to 21 receive a free and appropriate public education (FAPE). Free and appropriate public education is based on six key principles: (a) zero reject, (b) nondiscriminatory testing, (c) appropriate education designed to meet stated student needs listed in the individualized education program (IEP), (d) instruction in the least restrictive environment (LRE), (e) due process, and (f) parent participation ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref22">10</reflink>]). In addition, the EAHCA acknowledged consumer, home-making, and industrial arts programs were appropriate for students with disabilities. Emphasizing the importance of students with disabilities experiencing in-school opportunities to prepare students for postschool employment, this law required parents, teachers, and other specialists to include at least one career education goal in each student's IEP.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-5">The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-336)</hd> <p>Expanding civil rights protections for public- and private-sector employment and services, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed on July 26, 1990 (https://<ulink href="http://www.ada.gov/ada%5fintro.htm">www.ada.gov/ada%5fintro.htm</ulink>). The ADA guaranteed protections and banned discrimination for individuals with disabilities in all public and private sectors, such as transportation, telecommunications, employment, and community living. The ADA ensured that all individuals with disabilities had access to all areas of adult life, including postsecondary education, employment, and community living.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-6">Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act Amendments of 1990 (P.L. 101-...</hd> <p>Passed on September 25, 1990, the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act Amendments of 1990 approved extensive funding for vocational education. These funds were allotted to prepare youth in the United States to be globally competitive in the workforce. This act organized special populations into three groups: (a) disadvantaged students, including academically disadvantaged, potential for dropout, students with low English proficiency; (b) students with disabilities, including students who received Section 504 and IEP services; and (c) other groups like children in foster care and children/youth in correctional facilities. Federal funds supported workforce readiness programs to prepare students, including students with disabilities, for work.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-7">The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (IDEA; P.L. 101-476)</hd> <p>The United States Congress reauthorized the EACHA and renamed it the IDEA (1990) on October 30, 1990. The IDEA is the first federal legislation that directly addressed transition with a specific focus on transition services and supports for secondary students with disabilities. This law's reauthorization required a statement of needed transition services and supports be included in every student's IEP who is age 16 or older. The IDEA 1990 defined transition:</p> <p>As used in this part, "transition services" means a coordinated set of activities for a student, designed within an outcome oriented process that promotes movement from school to post-school activities, including postsecondary education, vocational training, integrated employment (including supported employment), continuing and adult education, adults services, independent living, or community participation. (Section 300.18[a])</p> <p>For the first time, the IDEA implemented formal secondary transition requirements for schools to prepare students for three postschool outcome areas: postsecondary education, vocational training/integrated employment, and independent living. To prepare students for adult life, the IDEA (1990) required student transition services and supports be based on student strengths, preferences, and interests. The IDEA further required inclusion of employment and other adult living objectives in students' IEPs. Schools must also provide students access to functional vocational assessments and acquisition of daily living skills, as needed. Also, the IDEA mandated schools provide transition services and supports for students no later than 16 years old.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-8">The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-446)</hd> <p>Reauthorized on December 3, 2004, Congress renamed the IDEA to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA). The [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref23">23</reflink>] explained the purpose of this amendment was "to ensure that all children with disabilities have available to them a free appropriate public education that emphasizes special education and related services designed to meet their unique needs and prepare them for further education, employment, and independent living" ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref24">23</reflink>], 300.1a). With this current iteration of the IDEA, the law emphasized transition supports and services that aligned with a results-oriented process to improve students with disabilities' functional and academic achievement. The reauthorization focused on students' strengths, preferences, and interests, which ensured students were directly involved in their transition planning process and promoted their successful transition into postschool life. In addition, vocational education replaced vocational training and was added to the list of possible transition services. The [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref25">23</reflink>] mandated that students' postschool goals were based on age-appropriate transition assessments, and IEPs must include a description of transition services and an aligned course of study to foster student success with achieving their postschool goals. This reauthorization also required that schools invite students to their IEP/transition planning meetings, discuss a transfer of rights at the age of majority, and ensure that outside agencies responsible for providing transition services were invited to the IEP meeting. Furthermore, prior to students' exit from high school, schools were mandated to provide a summary of performance that documented present levels of academic and functional performance, postschool goals, and transition supports and service needs.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-9">The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014 (P.L. 113-128)</hd> <p>Amending the Workforce Investment Act of 1998, the U.S. Congress passed the WIOA on July 22, 2014. This legislation improved services for individuals with disabilities by guaranteeing the receipt of pre-ETS ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref26">63</reflink>]). Pre-ETS comprise five mandated activities: (a) job exploration counseling; (b) work-based learning experiences, which can be provided in school, outside of school, and/or within community settings; (c) workplace readiness skills training on independent living and social skills; (d) provision of counseling when enrolled in comprehensive postsecondary education opportunities; and (e) instruction in self-advocacy, including peer mentoring. The intention of pre-ETS is to prepare high school students with disabilities for work, regardless of whether or not they qualify for vocational rehabilitation services.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-10">The Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015 (P.L. 115-224)</hd> <p>Passed on December 10, 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) reauthorized the [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref27">46</reflink>] ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref28">65</reflink>]). Whereas the [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref29">23</reflink>] mandated students with disabilities be prepared for postschool education/training, employment, and independent living, the ESSA was novel in mandating all students be prepared with rigorous academic standards in preparation for college and careers ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref30">65</reflink>]). To promote student readiness for college and careers, the ESSA requires important information be shared with education professionals, families, students, and communities on required statewide assessments used to measure college and career readiness ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref31">65</reflink>]). Where a pattern of low graduation rates remained over time and students were not making progress, the ESSA mandated accountability and action to foster positive change ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref32">65</reflink>]). Last, implemented supports ensure evidence-based interventions were implemented with all students to prepare them for college and careers.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-11">Summary of Pivotal Legislation</hd> <p>From <emph>Brown</emph>, these pieces of pivotal legislation enacted significant changes to prepare students with disabilities for college and careers. In 1975, federal legislation mandated no student, regardless of the intensity of support needs from their disability, could be denied education and were, therefore, guaranteed FAPE (EAHCA). Fifteen years later in 1990, the ADA extended civil rights protections to individuals with disabilities in public and private sectors. In addition, federal legislation mandated a focus on in-school preparation for life after high school: postsecondary education, vocational training/integrated employment, and independent living ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref33">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref34">21</reflink>]). Renamed in 2004, the IDEIA emphasized that the purpose of the IDEA was to prepare students for postschool success (i.e., education, employment, independent living). Also, the legislation changed to a results-oriented process, mandated use of age-appropriate transition assessments, and required the inclusion of transition services, course of study, and summary of performance. To support a globally competitive workforce in the United States, the [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref35">77</reflink>] improved services received by individuals with disabilities, including requiring the receipt of pre-ETS. Most recently, the [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref36">14</reflink>] mandated the use of evidence-based interventions to prepare students for college and careers. Along with pivotal legislation, 17 additional pieces of legislation have contributed to preparing students for college and careers. Table 1 provides a summary of additional legislation, along with commentary about its connection to college and career readiness efforts.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-12">Discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0185232098-13">Successes Over Time</hd> <p>Stemming from <emph>Brown</emph> (1954), the evolution of legislation over time supports students with disabilities being college and career ready. Beginning with the EAHCA in 1975, legislation guaranteed students with disabilities a FAPE and could not be refused an education because of the nature of their disabilities. In 1990, and most recently in 2004, the IDEA and IDEIA mandated students be prepared for adult life. Further emphasizing the importance of preparing students for adult life, the [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref37">14</reflink>] mandates that all students, regardless of disability status, must be prepared for college and careers. Federal legislation has also acted as an impetus for additional changes in the field, including the (a) development of the Division on Career Development and Transition; (b) creation of the peer-reviewed journal, <emph>Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals</emph>; (c) development of national technical assistance centers focused on secondary transition ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref38">45</reflink>]); (d) identification of secondary transition evidence-based practices and predictors of postschool success ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref39">37</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref40">52</reflink>]); and (e) requirements for pre-ETS ([<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref41">77</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-14">Development of the Division on Career Development and Transition</hd> <p>Formed only 1 year after the passage of the EAHCA (1975), the Council of Exceptional Children (CEC) formed its 12th Division: The Division on Career Development (DCD) in 1976 ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref42">3</reflink>]). The initial focus of DCD on career development may be attributed to Dr. Sidney P. Marland, Jr. (U.S. Commissioner of Education) declaring career education a top priority at the U.S. Office of Education in 1970 ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref43">20</reflink>]). In 1980, states began forming DCD units, becoming the fastest growing CEC division ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref44">3</reflink>]).</p> <p>Madeline Will, Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services, introduced the term <emph>transition. Transition</emph> was "reinforced by the passage of transition-related amendments in the [EAHCA], and then, again in 1990 with the passage of [the IDEA], which mandated transition services for youth and young adults with disabilities" ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref45">32</reflink>], p. 7). In an effort to align with current legislation and highlight a focus of careers and other aspects of adult life, in the Spring of 1993, the DCD voted to change its name to the Division on Career Development and Transition (DCDT; [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref46">74</reflink>]). Highlighting the importance of preparing students for multiple postschool outcome areas, the DCDT Mission is to "promote national and international efforts to improve the quality of and access to career, vocational, and transition services for individuals with exceptionalities, across the lifespan" (https://dcdt.org/about-dcdt, 2023, para. 2).</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-15">Creation of the Journal: Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals</hd> <p>Two years after DCD was formed, <emph>Career Development for Exceptional Individuals</emph> (CDEI) published its first issue in 1978 and included bi-annual publications as a part of DCD. From the first issue of CDEI, topics included career education for individuals with disabilities, measurement of career education, and career awareness for elementary-age students. The importance of the journal and supporting career development for students and youth with disabilities cannot be overstated. For example, [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref47">75</reflink>] transition model focused on the duration of supports needed for obtaining employment. In [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref48">17</reflink>], Halpern published his model, which included employment as a critical component of this transition model, but it also included residential environment and social and interpersonal networks. In 1990, the IDEA mandated transition across these outcomes: postsecondary education, vocational training/integrated employment, and independent living. The IDEA's outcome areas appeared to be influenced by both Will and Halpern. In 2004, the IDEIA updated the outcome areas to education/training, employment, and independent living. In 2012, CDEI was renamed <emph>Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals</emph> (CDTEI). Then co-editors of CDTEI, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref49">58</reflink>], noted, "adding the term 'Transition' to the title will clarify the purpose of the journal and tie it more closely to the Division" (p. 3).</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-16">Development of National Technical Assistance Centers</hd> <p>As part of the Secondary Education and Transitional Services for Handicapped [<emph>sic</emph>] Youth Initiative from the EAHCA Amendments of [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref50">11</reflink>], Congress authorized the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services to spend $6.6 million annually to support student preparation for postschool life ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref51">53</reflink>]). As part of this funding, Congress contracted the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign to develop the first Secondary Transition Intervention Effectiveness Institute in 1985, which examined secondary transition and issues nationally ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref52">53</reflink>]). Since that time, the federally funded transition center has been housed at the University of Minnesota, and then, at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte (UNC Charlotte), where it has been housed since October 2006. In 2015 at UNC Charlotte, the National Technical Assistance Center on Transition became the first national transition center dually funded by the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Special Education Programs and the Rehabilitation Services Administration, highlighting the importance of collaboration across agencies to prepare students for adult life.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-17">Identification of Evidence-Based Practices and Predictors of Postschool Success</hd> <p>Stemming from [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref53">46</reflink>] and [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref54">23</reflink>] mandates, researchers initially identified evidence-based practices in the field of secondary transition ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref55">59</reflink>]) and established predictors of postschool success ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref56">60</reflink>]). With the mandate of research-validated practices to prepare students for college and careers, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref57">14</reflink>] recently reaffirmed the importance and use of effective practices to prepare students for adult life. As the field of secondary transition continues growing and maturing, there is a need for research to strengthen existing and identify new practices and predictors ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref58">36</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref59">38</reflink>], 2021). In addition, there is a need to utilize practices and predictors through schoolwide initiatives that support all students like multi-tiered systems of supports (MTSS; [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref60">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref61">43</reflink>]). This should include examining established frameworks focused on college and career readiness, including investigating specific college and career readiness domains on outcomes for youth with disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref62">31</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref63">33</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref64">40</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-18">Requirements for Pre-Employment Transition Services (ETS)</hd> <p>The U.S. Department of Education and the [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref65">23</reflink>] have emphasized the importance of preparing students with disabilities for adult life. With pre-ETS, however, federal mandates ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref66">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref67">77</reflink>]) no longer focus solely on special education. Although legislation has previously mandated general education teachers prepare all students for careers (i.e., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref68">54</reflink>]), WIOA reaffirmed the importance of general education teacher involvement in preparing all students for adult life and has yet again become a critical focus. Career technical education, a general education initiative, emphasized academic knowledge and technical and employability skills, along with increasing employment opportunities for individuals who are chronically unemployed or underemployed, including individuals with disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref69">6</reflink>]), and now, vocational rehabilitation is focusing on pre-ETS while students are in school to prepare them for success after high school ([<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref70">77</reflink>]). From these legislative efforts and federally funded transition projects, researchers have identified novel ways of supporting practitioners with assessing college and career readiness for students with and without disabilities, including the ongoing development of the College and Career Readiness for Transition assessment (CCR4T; https://ccr4t.education.uconn.edu/; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref71">31</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref72">33</reflink>]) and the novel Secondary Transition Fidelity Assessment ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref73">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref74">34</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-19">Opportunities for Change</hd> <p>The field of secondary transition has clearly evolved and continues growing over time to prepare students for adult life. As the field continues to evolve, educators, advocates, families, and researchers must collaborate to prepare students for adult life. Given students with disabilities experience modest gains over time ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref75">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref76">57</reflink>]), there are still opportunities for growth that may improve outcomes for students with disabilities, including the (a) development of student–parent college and career readiness advocacy groups, (b) intentionality and focus on preparing all students for college and careers, and (c) collaboration to prepare students for college and careers. Collaboration is critical in the transition planning process to ensure youth are ready to transition into adult life; therefore, policy makers, researchers, and practitioners should identify, implement, and evaluate effective models of collaboration that support transition personnel and families through state- and local-level initiatives ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref77">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref78">26</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-20">Development of Student–Parent College and Career Readiness Advocacy Groups</hd> <p>Currently, there are no national advocacy groups specific to students and parents advocating for college and career readiness needs. We find this surprising considering the historic roles parents have played in shaping legislation. For example, in [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref79">48</reflink>]; hereinafter <emph>PARC</emph>) and [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref80">39</reflink>]; hereinafter <emph>Mills</emph>), parent advocacy led to greater educational opportunities for students with disabilities. As noted by [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref81">79</reflink>], <emph>PARC</emph> and <emph>Mills</emph> were critical, along with 46 court cases from 28 states, in ensuring students with disabilities have access to a FAPE, as mandated only a few years later by the EAHCA (1975). In addition, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref82">23</reflink>] mandates students and families engage in the IEP process. Furthermore, the Office of Special Education Programs has dedicated money to ensuring each state has a parent training and information center, further highlighting the importance of parents and families in the role of supporting students with disabilities throughout the education process. Given the critical roles of parent advocates in shaping laws governing the education of students with disabilities, federal legislation could devote money to the formation of student–parent college and career readiness advocacy groups. As part of the [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref83">23</reflink>], families receive a 1-year notice that students will reach the age of majority and become their own legal guardians. However, as noted by [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref84">50</reflink>], families may seek to obtain guardianship because of a lack of understanding of and familiarity with alternatives to guardianship, like power of attorney, supported decision-making, representative payee, and educational representative, which may impact college and career outcomes. By supporting a national student–parent college and career readiness advocacy groups, or by providing additional support to parent training and information centers focused on college and career readiness, there are opportunities to prepare students for the age of majority. Families can work with students when they are younger to develop the skills necessary to share their voice and choice for adult life, thereby developing critical skills for becoming self-advocates by the time students reach the age of majority. These advocacy groups can and should collaborate with other advocacy groups that have a history of effectiveness, like The Association for the Severely Handicapped (TASH) and the National Council on Independent Living. Also, considering parental engagement, parent expectations, and self-determination/self-advocacy are predictors of postschool success ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref85">37</reflink>]), focusing federal funding on these efforts may make it more likely students with disabilities experience postschool success. Furthermore, by supporting critical advocacy groups, the most important voices, including self-advocates and families, of the transition process may be amplified.</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-21">Intentionality and Focus on Preparing All Students for College and Career Readiness</hd> <p>As the importance of preparing all students for college and careers continues to be emphasized in federal legislation ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref86">14</reflink>]), it is important to reflect on how to support students, families, educators, vocational rehabilitation, and others with preparing students for their postschool lives. A student's educational level of success should not be solely dependent upon the case manager the student has in high school. Although federal legislation (i.e., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref87">23</reflink>]) intends for students with disabilities to be prepared for the lives they want across outcome areas, students with disabilities experience less success than their peers without disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref88">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref89">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>Federal legislation currently includes transition-focused requirements for IEPs, including Indicator 13 secondary transition component of the IEP. One of these requirements includes ensuring students' postschool goals, IEP goals, and transition services are based on age-appropriate transition assessment. Therefore, it will be important to consider providing funding for training transition service providers on implementing and using transition assessment data. This should include training on using a variety of transition assessments to learn about students' and families' strengths, preferences, interests, and needs, along with presenting opportunities to learn about cultural nuances of the transition planning process ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref90">1</reflink>]). By thoughtfully using transition assessment data, educators can develop the skills to build relationships with families to maximize family voice and choice in transition planning. When reauthorizing federal legislation (i.e., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref91">23</reflink>]), consideration should be given to ensuring more strategic use of transition assessment to help mitigate use only for compliance, like occurring only because of an IEP meeting. In short, there is a need to revisit federal guidance for transition assessment.</p> <p>Federal legislation has minimum compliance requirements related to transition assessment requirements for education/training, employment, and independent living ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref92">23</reflink>]). States, however, can implement additional requirements to maximize the use of transition assessments and go beyond minimum federal requirements. Although independent living includes where and with whom a person lives, independent living can and does encompass more. For example, Oklahoma provides additional guidance on transition assessment requirements related to independent living. More specifically, Oklahoma requires assessment of community participation, which goes beyond the minimum independent living requirements of where and with whom a student lives ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref93">47</reflink>]). This aligns with independent living outcomes and extends them to support IEP teams with thinking broadly about independent living and considering community participation. Federal legislation may consider providing additional funding to address other indicators, along with Indicator 13. In addition, preservice and in-service training programs should focus on training teachers to address each of the transition-focused indicators (i.e., Indicator 1 graduation rates; Indicator 2 dropout rates; Indicator 13 compliant transition components of the IEP; Indicator 14 postschool outcomes; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref94">38</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-22">Collaboration and Training to Prepare Students for College and Careers</hd> <p>As federal legislation mandates all students be prepared for college and careers ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref95">14</reflink>]), there is a need for collaboration among professionals (e.g., career technical education, general education, special education, vocational rehabilitation; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref96">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref97">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref98">37</reflink>]). Research suggests that students with disabilities are missing from interdisciplinary research ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref99">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref100">33</reflink>]). For example, students with disabilities were disproportionately underrepresented in research focused on career technical education when compared with peers without disabilities, regardless of overlapping policies to support all students for employment ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref101">28</reflink>]) and were largely missing from college and career readiness efforts ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref102">33</reflink>]). Because of this, future policies should explicitly include guidance for students with disabilities to access college and career readiness efforts available to all students ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref103">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref104">33</reflink>]), thus highlighting the importance of collaboration. Unfortunately, not all professionals are prepared to address current college and career readiness mandates, including the use of evidence-based practices ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref105">35</reflink>]); therefore, a need exists to provide preservice training across licensures between special education and general education with stronger ties to IDEIA's (2004) and ESSA's ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref106">14</reflink>]) mandates to prepare students for college and careers ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref107">55</reflink>]). In addition, there is a need for high-quality professional development to ensure all collaborators, including general educators, have the knowledge and skills necessary to prepare students to help ensure they achieve postschool success. As noted by [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref108">41</reflink>], "training matters when it comes to implementing transition practices" (p. 58). One example would be providing asynchronous online professional development to train general education teachers about the predictors of postschool success ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref109">27</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0185232098-23">Conclusion</hd> <p>Looking at the past can help us prepare for the future. Legislation has contributed to in-school preparation and postschool success for students with disabilities. However, as legislation further evolves, an additional focus should be uniting secondary transition and college and career readiness efforts ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref110">29</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref111">43</reflink>]) to prepare all students, including students with disabilities, for the adult lives they want and deserve.</p> <ref id="AN0185232098-24"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref90" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Achola E. (2019). 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Intervention in School and Clinic, 57(3), 54–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/10534512211014874</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0185232098-25"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> This article is based on the dissertation completed by Kwiatek (2021).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The first author received funding from the University of North Carolina at Charlotte's Department of Special Education and Child Development Research Fund.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stephen M. Kwiatek</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5310-790X</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Stephen M. Kwiatek; Valerie L. Mazzotti and Charles L. 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  Data: Pivotal Legislation Supporting College and Career Readiness for Students with Disabilities
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  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Stephen+M%2E+Kwiatek%22">Stephen M. Kwiatek</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5310-790X">0000-0001-5310-790X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Valerie+L%2E+Mazzotti%22">Valerie L. Mazzotti</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Charles+L%2E+Wood%22">Charles L. Wood</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Disability+Policy+Studies%22"><i>Journal of Disability Policy Studies</i></searchLink>. 2025 36(1):3-15.
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  Data: SAGE Publications and Hammill Institute on Disabilities. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
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  Label: Page Count
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  Data: 13
– Name: DatePubCY
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  Data: 2025
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  Label: Document Type
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Descriptive
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Secondary+Education%22">Elementary Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Students+with+Disabilities%22">Students with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Readiness%22">College Readiness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Career+Readiness%22">Career Readiness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Legislation%22">Educational Legislation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Federal+Legislation%22">Federal Legislation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Equal+Education%22">Equal Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+Secondary+Education%22">Elementary Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Desegregation%22">School Desegregation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Desegregation+Litigation%22">Desegregation Litigation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Quality%22">Educational Quality</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Disabilities%22">Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Civil+Rights+Legislation%22">Civil Rights Legislation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Career+and+Technical+Education%22">Career and Technical Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Labor+Force+Development%22">Labor Force Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Labor+Legislation%22">Labor Legislation</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Individuals+with+Disabilities+Education+Act%22">Individuals with Disabilities Education Act</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Every+Student+Succeeds+Act+2015%22">Every Student Succeeds Act 2015</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Brown+v+Board+of+Education%22">Brown v Board of Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Education+for+All+Handicapped+Children+Act%22">Education for All Handicapped Children Act</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Americans+with+Disabilities+Act+1990%22">Americans with Disabilities Act 1990</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Carl+D+Perkins+Vocational+and+Applied+Technology+Education+Act+1990%22">Carl D Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act 1990</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Workforce+Innovation+and+Opportunity+Act+2014%22">Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act 2014</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Individuals+with+Disabilities+Education+Improvement+Act+2004%22">Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 2004</searchLink>
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  Label: DOI
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  Data: 10.1177/10442073241227820
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1044-2073<br />1538-4802
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Historically, students with disabilities experience less in-school preparation and postschool success compared with their peers without disabilities. U.S. federal legislation has evolved in an effort to promote successful in-school and postschool success for students with disabilities. Since 1990, legislation has emphasized the importance of postschool preparation (the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), and more recently, the Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015 mandated all students be prepared for college and careers. In this article, we overview one court case ("Brown v. Board of Education") and seven pieces of pivotal legislation that had substantive impact on college and career readiness efforts. In addition, we discuss successes over time and suggest opportunities for change to enhance college and career readiness efforts.
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: EJ1471424
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RecordInfo BibRecord:
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    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1177/10442073241227820
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 13
        StartPage: 3
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Students with Disabilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Readiness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Career Readiness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Legislation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Federal Legislation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Equal Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary Secondary Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: School Desegregation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Desegregation Litigation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Quality
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Disabilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Civil Rights Legislation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Career and Technical Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Labor Force Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Labor Legislation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Every Student Succeeds Act 2015
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Brown v Board of Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Education for All Handicapped Children Act
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Americans with Disabilities Act 1990
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Carl D Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act 1990
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act 2014
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 2004
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Pivotal Legislation Supporting College and Career Readiness for Students with Disabilities
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Stephen M. Kwiatek
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Valerie L. Mazzotti
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Charles L. Wood
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 06
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1044-2073
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1538-4802
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 36
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Disability Policy Studies
              Type: main
ResultId 1