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Positive Psychology Psychoeducation Makes a Small Impact on Undergraduate Student Mental Health: Further Curriculum Innovation and Better Well-Being Research Needed

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Title: Positive Psychology Psychoeducation Makes a Small Impact on Undergraduate Student Mental Health: Further Curriculum Innovation and Better Well-Being Research Needed
Language: English
Authors: Alan Daniel Schlechter, Maggie McDonald, Daniel Lerner, David Yaden, Jeremy D. W. Clifton (ORCID 0000-0003-3185-3105), Michael Moerdler-Green, Sarah Horwitz
Source: Journal of American College Health. 2025 73(2):563-568.
Availability: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 6
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Psychology, Psychoeducational Methods, Undergraduate Students, Mental Health, Curriculum Development, Educational Innovation, Well Being, Educational Research, Course Evaluation, Life Satisfaction, Psychopathology, Anxiety, Depression (Psychology), Effect Size
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales
DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2023.2227719
ISSN: 0744-8481
1940-3208
Abstract: Objectives: Courses on well-being are increasingly evaluated to see how they may promote mental health in college. We examined the impact of a course on students' well-being, anxiety, and depression. Methods: Subjects were undergraduates enrolled in the "Science of Happiness," (SOH) (n = 105), and "Child and Adolescent Psychopathology," (CAP) (n = 114). Well-being measures included the PERMA Profiler and Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) at the beginning and conclusion of the semester. The Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale -- 21 items (DASS-21) measured psychopathology. Results: There were significant improvements on the SWLS 1.28 (p = 0.038; d = 0.264) in SOH. There was no improvement for the PERMA Profiler in either group, and no differences between groups. There was no significant change on the DASS-21 for SOH subjects. Conclusions: Undergraduate courses that deliver positive psychology psychoeducation have a small effect size even in non-randomized studies. Future curriculum innovation is needed and better research to validate positive psychology psychoeducation.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1473023
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0182848203;acl01feb.25;2025Feb10.04:08;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0182848203-1">Positive psychology psychoeducation makes a small impact on undergraduate student mental health: Further curriculum innovation and better well-being research needed </title> <p>Objectives: Courses on well-being are increasingly evaluated to see how they may promote mental health in college. We examined the impact of a course on students' well-being, anxiety, and depression. Methods: Subjects were undergraduates enrolled in the "Science of Happiness," (SOH) (n = 105), and "Child and Adolescent Psychopathology," (CAP) (n = 114). Well-being measures included the PERMA Profiler and Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) at the beginning and conclusion of the semester. The Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale − 21 items (DASS-21) measured psychopathology. Results: There were significant improvements on the SWLS 1.28 (p =.038; d =.264) in SOH. There was no improvement for the PERMA Profiler in either group, and no differences between groups. There was no significant change on the DASS-21 for SOH subjects. Conclusions: Undergraduate courses that deliver positive psychology psychoeducation have a small effect size even in non-randomized studies. Future curriculum innovation is needed and better research to validate positive psychology psychoeducation.</p> <p>Keywords: Positive psychology; undergraduate; student; mental health; well-being</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Students attending colleges and universities in the United States (U.S.) are facing overwhelming challenges to their well-being and mental health.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>] The undergraduate experience has been associated with a high incidence of mental health disorders, smoking, illicit substance use, and dropout.[[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref4">5</reflink>]] In 2019, 88.4% of the U.S. college students surveyed reported dealing with overwhelming stress, 72.3% reported feeling very sad, 56.1% said they have felt "hopeless" and 45.2% stated they have been "too depressed to function" during the past year on campus.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref5">7</reflink>] Reports of feeling sad or hopeless and being "too depressed to function" rose by more than 20% in the five years from 2014 to 2019.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref6">7</reflink>] The COVID pandemic has exacerbated this situation; a recent study conducted in late Spring 2020 surveyed over two-thousand college students and found that 48% reported moderate-to-severe depression and 38% reported moderate-to-severe anxiety.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref7">8</reflink>] The percentage of college students that had seriously considered suicide increased by 50% between 2010 and 2020.[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref8">9</reflink>]</p> <p>Institutions of higher education have attempted to support students' mental health. Interventions include fitness classes, mind/body interventions, and the University of Vermont and NYU, among others, have devoted entire dormitories to wellness.[[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref9">3</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref10">5</reflink>]] A 30% increase in counseling center appointments from 2009 to 2014 was six times greater than the rate of growth in institutional enrollment.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref11">10</reflink>] Even though students seeking mental health treatment increased from 19% in 2007 to 34% by 2017, many students who seriously consider suicide never go to a counseling center.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref12">11</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref13">12</reflink>] The JED Foundation, a premier anti-suicide nonprofit that focuses on the undergraduate population, launched a nationwide Campus Program that has enrolled 336 campuses committed to preventing suicide and promoting mental health.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref14">13</reflink>] The 4-year program is a blue print for the most evidence based techniques to help students develop life skills, promote connectedness, and identify students at risk.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref15">13</reflink>] This is only one of many efforts underway to prevent suicide but a recent systematic review concluded that although interventions have improved knowledge of faculty and staff who identify those at risk and manage crisis, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that the efforts have had an impact on students' psychosocial outcomes.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref16">14</reflink>]</p> <p>Interventions that focus on improving well-being may support undergraduate institutions' efforts to address the rising challenges facing students. High well-being is associated with diminished stress, low suicidal behavior, and high academic performance, regardless of whether the individual has a mental health disorder.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref17">6</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref18">15</reflink>] Well-being may be more mutable than environmental stressors faced by students and may be perceived as less threatening and stigmatizing than efforts focused on reducing psychopathology. A recent meta-analysis demonstrated a small but significant effect size for positive psychology interventions.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref19">16</reflink>] The study of positive psychology and its interventions are now taught at many colleges but it is unclear to what extent such classes benefit students or how these classes fit into the overall effort to improve undergraduate mental health.</p> <p>Evaluating the impact and effectiveness of teaching well-being in colleges has been challenging. Consistently, studies of undergraduate positive psychology studies find small but significant benefits but they are often under powered and are not randomized.[[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref20">17</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref21">19</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref22">21</reflink>]] A recent study of 112 undergrads taking a class on positive psychology at the University of New Mexico found significant improvement in well-being scores, similar to other studies investigators used another psychology class as a control group.[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref23">22</reflink>] Using psychology students limits generalizability of the results, since women constitute 84% of students in health professions and 78% majoring in psychology.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref24">23</reflink>] In a recent attempt to improve on randomization, Hood et al. used the students on the class waiting list as a comparison and found a significant improvement in well-being.[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref25">24</reflink>] Several of these studies use a control group which reduces threats to internal validity but the students have not been randomized. Randomization would involve students enrolled in a study to be randomized to either a positive psychology course or a control. It is unclear if students would be willing to do this or if the risks would outweigh the benefits to the subjects as it may significantly impact their college trajectory.</p> <p>This study examines the wellbeing impact of a semester course, "The Science of Happiness" (SOH) that has been offered for seven years at a large northeastern U.S. private university. SOH subjects were compared to students in another departmental course ("Child and Adolescent Psychopathology"; (CAP)). Although not a randomized study, to further the body of research on the psychoeducation of positive psychology, the students in both classes were randomly selected to participate in the evaluation to minimize volunteer bias. The class also differs from traditional positive psychology curriculum in that it focuses on both opportunities to develop well-being and how to overcome mental health challenges. Based on research showing that student well-being can be elevated through classes on positive psychology, we hypothesized that in the SOH condition well-being scores would increase and anxiety and depression scores would decrease.</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-3">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182848203-4">Sample</hd> <p>During the Spring 2019 semester (January – May), students in SOH and CAP were selected using a random number generator to participate in the study. Inviting the students to participate in the evaluation improved the self-selection bias inherent in non-randomized studies. A total of 219 students participated in the study (SOH, <emph>n</emph> = 105; CAP, <emph>n</emph> = 114). See demographic information in Table 1.</p> <p>Table 1. Baseline demographics and characteristics by group.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Variable</td><td>Group</td><td /></tr><tr><td>SOH (<italic>N</italic> = 64)</td><td>CAP (<italic>N</italic> = 88)</td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Age, years, M (SD)</td><td char=".">19.78 (1.31)</td><td char=".">19.57 (1.51)</td><td char=".">0.367</td></tr><tr><td>Gender, female, % (N)</td><td char=".">46 (71.9)</td><td char=".">79 (89.8)</td><td char=".">0.008**</td></tr><tr><td>Race, % (N)</td><td /><td /><td char=".">0.448</td></tr><tr><td> African American or Black</td><td char=".">4 (6.2)</td><td char=".">5 (5.7)</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Asian</td><td char=".">32 (50.0)</td><td char=".">33 (37.5)</td><td /></tr><tr><td> White</td><td char=".">24 (37.5)</td><td char=".">42 (47.7)</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Other</td><td char=".">4 (6.2)</td><td char=".">8 (9.1)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Ethnicity, N (%)</td><td /><td /><td char=".">0.180</td></tr><tr><td> Hispanic</td><td char=".">7 (10.9)</td><td char=".">18 (20.5)</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Non-Hispanic</td><td char=".">57 (89.1)</td><td char=".">70 (79.5)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Academic Level at Recruitment</td><td /><td /><td char=".">0.001**</td></tr><tr><td> Freshman</td><td char=".">13 (20.3)</td><td char=".">20 (22.7)</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Sophomore</td><td char=".">18 (28.1)</td><td char=".">31 (35.2)</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Junior</td><td char=".">12 (18.8)</td><td char=".">30 (34.1)</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Senior</td><td char=".">20 (31.2)</td><td char=".">6 (6.8)</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Other</td><td char=".">1 (1.6)</td><td char=".">1 (1.1)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Relationship</td><td /><td /><td char=".">0.545</td></tr><tr><td> Single</td><td char=".">39 (60.9)</td><td char=".">59 (67.0)</td><td /></tr><tr><td> In a relationship</td><td char=".">25 (39.1)</td><td char=".">29 (33.0)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Satisfaction with Life</td><td char=".">23.91 (5.69)</td><td char=".">21.81 (6.96)</td><td char=".">0.050*</td></tr><tr><td>Overall Well-being</td><td char=".">6.81 (1.25)</td><td char=".">6.67 (1.69)</td><td char=".">0.570</td></tr><tr><td>Depression</td><td char=".">4.91 (3.94)</td><td char=".">5.76 (4.86)</td><td char=".">0.249</td></tr><tr><td>Anxiety</td><td char=".">5.31 (3.77)</td><td char=".">5.44 (3.75)</td><td char=".">0.833</td></tr><tr><td>Stress</td><td char=".">7.22 (3.93)</td><td char=".">7.22 (4.16)</td><td char=".">0.997</td></tr><tr><td>Spend Time with Friends</td><td char=".">3.77 (0.96)</td><td char=".">3.35 (1.34)</td><td char=".">0.037*</td></tr><tr><td>Sleep</td><td char=".">2.64 (1.43)</td><td char=".">2.64 (1.63)</td><td char=".">0.987</td></tr><tr><td>Exercise</td><td char=".">2.45 (1.60)</td><td char=".">2.22 (1.64)</td><td char=".">0.376</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Note: For <emph>p</emph>< =0.05*; <emph>p</emph> < 0.01**.</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-5">Procedures</hd> <p>The university's institutional review board approved all study procedures. During the opening weeks of the semester, the study's research coordinator attended class and described the nature of the study, that is to see how students' well-being and mental health change over the course of a semester. Students were not told that this was a study of the SOH or CAP specifically. Students who had been randomly chosen received an email inviting them to participate. To protect anonymity and minimize any perceived coercion, instructors left the room during discussions of the study and this research coordinator was not involved in any aspect of the students' education. Consenting students accessed study measures <emph>via</emph> Qualtrics. All data was identified by unique codes known only to the students.</p> <p>Assessments were obtained at two time points: baseline (January 2019) at course start and one month after the end of the semester (June 2019). After an initial invitation to participate, two follow-up emails were sent. Compensation for participation in the study was a $10 Amazon gift certificate given after each completed assessment.</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-6">Measures</hd> <p>Participants asked for basic demographic information (age, sex, race/ethnicity) during the baseline assessment. Well-being was assessed using two scales, The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) and the PERMA Profiler.[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref26">25</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref27">26</reflink>] The SWLS is one of the most well-established well-being scales and consists of five items, such as "I am satisfied with my life." Responses are recorded on a 7-point scale that ranges from 7 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree) and it has been shown to have high internal consistency and high temporal reliability.[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref28">25</reflink>] PERMA is the acronym for a definition of well-being developed by Dr. Martin Seligman, one of the leading researchers in the field of positive psychology, it stands for Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment. In addition to negative emotion and subjectively-experienced health, the PERMA Profiler measures five aspects of wellbeing as defined by Seligman and has a summary score, Overall Well-being (2011).[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref29">26</reflink>] These aspects include positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. Responses are recorded for 21 questions on an 11-point scale with different endpoints depending on the question. The scores have shown high internal consistency in prior studies with Cronbach's ∝ >.80 and has been validated in undergraduate contexts.</p> <p>To assess psychopathology, the 21-item Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21) measures three central mental health problems (anxiety, depression, stress) by asking a series of questions about various associated feelings, cognitions, and symptoms.[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref30">27</reflink>] Responses are recorded on a 4-point severity scale. The DASS-21 has been shown to have high internal consistency with Cronbach ∝ of.93 and reliability of.93.[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref31">27</reflink>]</p> <p>Three 5-point Likert scale questions were included to assess possible behavioral mechanisms that could explain changes in well-being. They included questions on the amount of time students were spending with friends, sleeping, and exercising.</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-7">Experimental condition</hd> <p>The "Science of Happiness" course is a 14-week undergraduate seminar that is grounded in the current understanding of emerging adulthood and the challenges that students face in college, neuroscience, and positive psychology. The course is not specific to this study and has been taught over the past 7 years in a similar manner. Students learn about key areas proven to enhance well-being, including how to define well-being, neuroplasticity, the value of physical health (eating, exercise, sleep), and the development of excellence and passions. Students develop skills in core components of cognitive-behavior therapy, mindfulness, and goal setting.</p> <p>The curriculum consists of 4 blocks:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Well-being (5 classes)</item> <p></p> <item> Change (3 classes)</item> <p></p> <item> Tools for Change (14 classes)</item> <p></p> <item> Positive Excellence (3 classes)</item> </ulist> <p>There are 25 classes during each semester which are divided into four blocks. First, the study of well-being, or PERMA, with each component covered in detail, primarily using studies that apply contextually to the student population and current environment. The next block is focused on the ability of people to change and strategies to capitalize on neuroplasticity. "Tools for Change" includes classes on optimism and pessimism, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, mindfulness, positive relationship skills, exercise, and sleep. The final block addresses the development of excellence and healthy passions in the service of realizing an individual's potential both in and away from the classroom.</p> <p>Weekly recitations are run by recent graduates, taking advantage of the benefits of peer education. The recitations are focused on having the students operationalize the material in the class. For example, during the weeks that the students are learning about gratitude they write a gratitude letter and read it to a recipient, and another week keep a gratitude journal. These activities along with the exercise to use a student's top character strengths in new and novel ways have been show to elevate well-being in previous research [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref32">28</reflink>]. See list of all recitations in Table 2.</p> <p>Table 2. Weekly recitation topics.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Good Day Experiment</td><td>Sleep Journal</td></tr><tr><td>VIA Survey of Signature Strengths</td><td>Food & Mood Journal</td></tr><tr><td>Random Acts of Kindness</td><td>Stages of Change</td></tr><tr><td>Decision Making</td><td>Gratitude Letter</td></tr><tr><td>CBT: Observing Automatic Thoughts</td><td>Mindfulness and Technology</td></tr><tr><td>Three Good Things</td><td>Savoring</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Recitation leaders facilitate the delivery of these wellness activities and track student participation <emph>via</emph> attendance metrics.</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-8">Comparison condition</hd> <p>CAP, taught by a different professor than SOH, has been taught for over 10 years and is a highly rated class on the psychopathology of children and adolescents. In CAP there are both didactic lectures and a more tangible hands-on component. Specifically, students are required to observe clinicians interviewing patients.</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-9">Data analysis</hd> <p>Analyses were preformed using <emph>R</emph> statistical software, with significance at <emph>p</emph> <.05. Continuous measures were summarized with means and standard deviations, categorical measures with frequencies and proportions. Only participants with two time points were included in analysis. Baseline demographic and clinical differences were examined between the two groups using a t-test or a Wilcoxon Rank-Sum test for numerical variables, and using Fisher's exact test for categorical variables.</p> <p>Paired t-tests were performed to analyze the pre/post changes for satisfaction with life and overall wellbeing score in each class. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were performed to analyze the pre/post changes for DASS-21 (depression, anxiety, and stress) in each class. Repeated Measures ANOVA was performed to test pre/post difference between SOH and CAP classes.</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-10">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182848203-11">Baseline characteristics</hd> <p>At baseline, intervention (<emph>n</emph> = 105) and control (<emph>n</emph> = 114) conditions differed in gender distribution (<emph>p</emph> <.001), academic level at recruitment (<emph>p</emph> =.002), time spent with friends (<emph>p =</emph> 0.037), and SWLS (2.1, <emph>p</emph> = 0.024). No difference was found in age, race/ethnicity, relationship status, or Overall Wellbeing between the two groups. Between baseline and follow-up attrition was greater in the experimental condition (39%) versus control (23%) but no difference was found between the students who completed the questionnaires at follow-up and those who did not (Table 1).</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-12">Outcomes within group</hd> <p>SOH subjects saw an increase in life satisfaction 1.28 (<emph>p</emph> =.038; <emph>d</emph> =.264). Average mean increase in Overall Well-being (pre-post) per student was.02 (<emph>p</emph> = 0.887). Linear regression and ANOVA conducted to test if pre/post changes differed by age, race, or gender were not significant (<emph>p</emph> <.05). There was no significant change on the DASS-21 for the SOH subjects.</p> <p>The control condition saw no changes in SWLS (<emph>M</emph><subs>diff</subs> =.875, <emph>p</emph> =.089) or Overall Well-being (<emph>M</emph><subs>diff</subs> = −0.08, <emph>p</emph> =.521) with no evidence that age, race, or sex had an effect on the pre/post difference for either scale. For CAP, there was a significant mean difference of anxiety (post-pre) on the DASS-21 with a decline in anxiety by 1.18 (<emph>p</emph> < 0.001) and of stress by 0.99 (<emph>p</emph> = 0.013). For changes in both groups see Table 3.</p> <p>Table 3. Analysis of pre/post changes.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Group</td><td>Outcome</td><td>Pre mean (SD)</td><td>Post mean (SD)</td><td>P-value</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>SOH</td><td>Satisfaction with life</td><td char=".">23.91 (5.69)</td><td char=".">25.19 (4.65)</td><td char=".">0.038*</td></tr><tr><td>Overall Well-being</td><td char=".">6.81 (1.25)</td><td char=".">6.83 (1.34)</td><td char=".">0.887</td></tr><tr><td>CAP</td><td>Satisfaction with life</td><td char=".">21.81 (6.96)</td><td char=".">22.68 (6.84)</td><td char=".">0.089</td></tr><tr><td>Overall Well-being</td><td char=".">6.67 (1.69)</td><td char=".">6.59 (1.58)</td><td char=".">0.521</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>Pre median [IQR]</td><td>Post median [IQR]</td><td /></tr><tr><td>SOH</td><td>Depression</td><td char=".">4.50 ([2.00, 6.25])</td><td char=".">4.00 ([2.00, 6.00])</td><td char=".">0.654</td></tr><tr><td>Anxiety</td><td char=".">5.00 ([2.00, 8.00])</td><td char=".">4.00 ([2.00, 7.00])</td><td char=".">0.062</td></tr><tr><td>Stress</td><td char=".">6.00 ([4.00, 10.00])</td><td char=".">6.00 ([4.00, 10.00])</td><td char=".">0.360</td></tr><tr><td>CAP</td><td>Depression</td><td char=".">4.00 ([2.00, 8.25])</td><td char=".">4.00 ([1.00, 8.00])</td><td char=".">0.373</td></tr><tr><td>Anxiety</td><td char=".">5.00 ([2.75, 8.00])</td><td char=".">3.50 ([2.00, 6.00])</td><td char="."><0.001**</td></tr><tr><td>Stress</td><td char=".">6.50 ([4.00, 10.00])</td><td char=".">5.00 ([3.75, 8.00])</td><td char=".">0.013*</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>2 Median used when distribution was not found to be normal.</item> <item>3 Note: For <emph>p</emph> < 0.05*; <emph>p</emph> < 0.01**.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0182848203-13">Outcomes between group</hd> <p>There was no significant difference between the two groups when it came to all outcomes. For example, repeated measures ANOVA for SWLS suggested a p-value of 0.78.</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-14">Potential mechanism of change</hd> <p>We explored three possible mechanisms for the significant change to SWLS. For exercise and time spent with friends, there was no significant difference for either SOH or CAP. The mean of the differences for sleep in the SOH was 0.67 (<emph>p</emph> = 0.001) indicating that sleep significantly increased after SOH. Linear regression and ANOVAs were conducted to test if changes differed by age, race, or gender. Results indicated that changes in sleep differed by race (df = 3, <emph>F</emph> = 2.86, <emph>p</emph> = 0.044). We performed linear regression to test the relationship between change in sleep and change in satisfaction with life for students in SOH and found that increases in sleep were not associated with the increase in life satisfaction (beta = −0.60, t = −1.56, <emph>p</emph> = 0.123). No significant change was found for change of sleep in the comparison condition (<emph>p</emph> = 0.36). Repeated measures ANOVA was performed and while the condition and the interaction between time was not significant (<emph>p</emph> = 0.27 and <emph>p</emph> = 0.37), there was significant time effect (<emph>p</emph> = 0.004).</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-15">Discussion</hd> <p>In this study we compared undergraduate students being taught about well-being with those learning about psychopathology. At baseline the groups were similar in age, race, ethnicity and Overall Wellbeing as measured by the PERMA scale. They differed significantly in gender distribution and the students in the SOH had a higher mean score on the baseline SWLS and the amount of time they reported spending with friends. As the quality of one's relationships is highly correlated with well-being, this is consistent. One-month after the semester ended, the SOH students were found to have a significantly higher score on the SWLS with a small effect size consistent with previous studies.[[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref33">17</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref34">19</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref35">21</reflink>]] There was no decline in depression or anxiety found in SOH subjects, and although a decline was found in the students in the comparison course, it was not statistically significantly different between groups.</p> <p>Class structure and the demographics of the students in the SOH may have contributed to the lack of improvement in overall wellbeing which was contrary to the primary hypothesis of the study. Differing from previous research, the SOH is not purely a class on positive psychology, was not primarily female (as has been the case in previous studies and was the case for CAP), nor is it made up primarily of students majoring in psychology. The first six classes do focus on well-being and the students utilize several interventions that have been shown to elevate the overall PERMA score, but approximately 35% of the semester is spent covering material related to overcoming mental health challenges. The students in the SOH differed from the students in CAP in terms of academic level, having a significantly greater proportion of seniors while the CAP students were predominately sophomores and juniors. Departing seniors who are worried about their post-college lives may be less focused on their well-being. At the outset of the semester, the students in the SOH had a higher score on the satisfaction with life scale, which is a broader assessment measure than PERMA. SWLS is less specifically about well-being and may have greater sensitivity to picking up change in this population. The improved sleep scores found in the SOH may also be related to the year of recruitment, as seniors may be more receptive to the sleep hygiene education in the SOH due to maturity or past experience of sleeplessness.</p> <p>Students in CAP had a greater reduction in depression and anxiety, contrary to the second hypothesis. No decline in depression or anxiety was observed in two previous studies using CAP students as comparisons.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref36">17</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref37">29</reflink>] The pressures of sophomore year related to finding one's major and doing well in introductory courses may be greater than the pressures in the senior year. Future research using the DASS-21 into how stress and anxiety differ by major and year may allow universities to more precisely support students during challenging moments.</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-16">Limitations</hd> <p>There are several limitations to this study. A bias due to self-selection remains because the students self-selected into the SOH or the CAP course. There was a baseline difference in SWLS and potentially students who choose to take the SOH are biased to report higher levels of well-being. It is unclear if the potential benefits of the subject matter last beyond the immediate conclusion of the course and long-term follow-up would enhance the results. There is no standard in the literature for assessing well-being and though the PERMA Profiler is well accepted, the study may have benefited from using more scales that are less general, similar to the research done by Maybury.[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref38">30</reflink>] The dropout rate from both the intervention and control course was high. Although the baseline population did not differ from the subjects who remained in the study, the high dropout rate calls into question whether the sample represented the original population it was drawn from. The high number of non-completers may be related to method of contact used by the study: all study invitations and questionnaires were sent <emph>via</emph> email. Communicating through text may be a much more effective way of sending study invitations and measures as this is currently the preferred mode of communication for undergraduate students.</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-17">Future directions</hd> <p>There are several areas worth pursuing to better understand how teaching well-being should be included in the prevention strategies employed on college campuses. Positive psychology interventions have been shown to have a small to moderate effect size and these are in non-randomized studies where the effect size would presumably be greater. Positive psychology may need to identify interventions capable of larger effects on wellbeing to have a greater impact on the student body. The problem might not be pedagogy, but the content of the research itself. Randomized studies need to be conducted to show the value in such classes. Until then, such classes might best be understood as primarily excellent, academically rigorous courses on engaging and relevant subject matter and secondarily a well-being enhancing activity. Although mediators were examined in the current study, additional mediators such as motivation, autonomy, race, and socio-economic status need to be examined in future research to see who may benefit most from the psychoeducation of positive psychology. Most importantly, finding alternative ways to connect with students using platforms which directly address today's college students are critical. Digital interventions, which appeal to young adults, to conduct aggressive universal screening, treat mental health disorders and promote well-being are growing in popularity and evidence base and may work in conjunction with classes on well-being in the effort to support undergraduate student mental health.[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref39">24</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref40">31</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0182848203-18">Conflict of interest disclosure</hd> <p>The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements, of United States and received approval from the Institutional Review Board of NYU Langone Health.</p> <ref id="AN0182848203-19"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Keyes KM, Gary D, O'Malley PM, Hamilton A, Schulenberg J. 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  Data: Positive Psychology Psychoeducation Makes a Small Impact on Undergraduate Student Mental Health: Further Curriculum Innovation and Better Well-Being Research Needed
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  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Alan+Daniel+Schlechter%22">Alan Daniel Schlechter</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Maggie+McDonald%22">Maggie McDonald</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Daniel+Lerner%22">Daniel Lerner</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22David+Yaden%22">David Yaden</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jeremy+D%2E+W%2E+Clifton%22">Jeremy D. W. Clifton</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3185-3105">0000-0003-3185-3105</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Michael+Moerdler-Green%22">Michael Moerdler-Green</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sarah+Horwitz%22">Sarah Horwitz</searchLink>
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  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+American+College+Health%22"><i>Journal of American College Health</i></searchLink>. 2025 73(2):563-568.
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  Label: Availability
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  Data: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Label: Peer Reviewed
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  Data: Y
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  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 6
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
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  Label: Document Type
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Label: Education Level
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
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  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychology%22">Psychology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychoeducational+Methods%22">Psychoeducational Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Undergraduate+Students%22">Undergraduate Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mental+Health%22">Mental Health</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Curriculum+Development%22">Curriculum Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Innovation%22">Educational Innovation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Well+Being%22">Well Being</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Research%22">Educational Research</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Course+Evaluation%22">Course Evaluation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Life+Satisfaction%22">Life Satisfaction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychopathology%22">Psychopathology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Anxiety%22">Anxiety</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Depression+%28Psychology%29%22">Depression (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Effect+Size%22">Effect Size</searchLink>
– Name: SubjectThesaurus
  Label: Assessment and Survey Identifiers
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Depression+Anxiety+and+Stress+Scales%22">Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/07448481.2023.2227719
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0744-8481<br />1940-3208
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Objectives: Courses on well-being are increasingly evaluated to see how they may promote mental health in college. We examined the impact of a course on students' well-being, anxiety, and depression. Methods: Subjects were undergraduates enrolled in the "Science of Happiness," (SOH) (n = 105), and "Child and Adolescent Psychopathology," (CAP) (n = 114). Well-being measures included the PERMA Profiler and Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) at the beginning and conclusion of the semester. The Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale -- 21 items (DASS-21) measured psychopathology. Results: There were significant improvements on the SWLS 1.28 (p = 0.038; d = 0.264) in SOH. There was no improvement for the PERMA Profiler in either group, and no differences between groups. There was no significant change on the DASS-21 for SOH subjects. Conclusions: Undergraduate courses that deliver positive psychology psychoeducation have a small effect size even in non-randomized studies. Future curriculum innovation is needed and better research to validate positive psychology psychoeducation.
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: EJ1473023
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        Value: 10.1080/07448481.2023.2227719
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 6
        StartPage: 563
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Psychology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Psychoeducational Methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Undergraduate Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mental Health
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Curriculum Development
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      – SubjectFull: Educational Innovation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Well Being
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Research
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Course Evaluation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Life Satisfaction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Psychopathology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Anxiety
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Depression (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Effect Size
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Positive Psychology Psychoeducation Makes a Small Impact on Undergraduate Student Mental Health: Further Curriculum Innovation and Better Well-Being Research Needed
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            NameFull: Michael Moerdler-Green
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              Value: 73
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of American College Health
              Type: main
ResultId 1