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Lifestyles, Identities and Aesthetics in the Discourse of Maximalists and Minimalists. A Critical Discourse Analysis with the Use of Corpus Linguistics Methods

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Title: Lifestyles, Identities and Aesthetics in the Discourse of Maximalists and Minimalists. A Critical Discourse Analysis with the Use of Corpus Linguistics Methods
Language: English
Authors: Aneta Duda (ORCID 0000-0003-2349-3517)
Source: Educational Media International. 2025 62(2):143-169.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 27
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Information Analyses
Descriptors: Computational Linguistics, Discourse Analysis, Consumer Economics, Social Influences, Life Style, Decision Making, Mass Media, Self Concept, Aesthetics, Semantics, Trend Analysis, Social Attitudes
DOI: 10.1080/09523987.2025.2486938
ISSN: 0952-3987
1469-5790
Abstract: This paper undertakes an analysis of two divergent strategies aimed at driving culture towards the extremes: one involving stark minimalism and the other, gaudy maximalism. The former approach is predominantly embraced by the avant-garde, who possess the means to surround themselves with an array of commodities, thereby creating a distinguishing factor in a world characterized by excess and unification. Conversely, maximalism, whose origins can be traced back to the conception of luxury as abundance, seeks to eliminate fear. This study investigates the representation of minimalism and maximalism in a vast corpus of English-language articles. Specifically, the research addresses two questions: 1) How are the representations of lifestyles expressed in the most popular articles related to minimalism and maximalism? 2) What meanings do these representations convey? The primary contribution of this work is a set of meaning categories linked to the ways of justifying and realizing the minimalist and maximalist orientations. The findings of this study shed light on the discourse surrounding minimalism and maximalism, as well as illustrate how deeply entrenched these lifestyle choices are in contemporary social and educational systems.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1473438
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0185256819;5b101jun.25;2025May21.09:38;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0185256819-1">Lifestyles, identities and aesthetics in the discourse of maximalists and minimalists. A critical discourse analysis with the use of corpus linguistics methods </title> <p>This paper undertakes an analysis of two divergent strategies aimed at driving culture towards the extremes: one involving stark minimalism and the other, gaudy maximalism. The former approach is predominantly embraced by the avant-garde, who possess the means to surround themselves with an array of commodities, thereby creating a distinguishing factor in a world characterized by excess and unification. Conversely, maximalism, whose origins can be traced back to the conception of luxury as abundance, seeks to eliminate fear. This study investigates the representation of minimalism and maximalism in a vast corpus of English-language articles. Specifically, the research addresses two questions: 1) How are the representations of lifestyles expressed in the most popular articles related to minimalism and maximalism? 2) What meanings do these representations convey? The primary contribution of this work is a set of meaning categories linked to the ways of justifying and realizing the minimalist and maximalist orientations. The findings of this study shed light on the discourse surrounding minimalism and maximalism, as well as illustrate how deeply entrenched these lifestyle choices are in contemporary social and educational systems.</p> <p>Keywords: Minimalism; maximalism; media studies; lifestyle trend; critical analysis of discourse</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Both the minimalist and maximalist lifestyles, encapsulated by the maxims "less is more" and "more is more", are not new phenomena. Rejecting material goods for the sake of one's personal development and growth or attempting to capture the essence of life and equate it with pleasure seem to be desires present throughout various historical epochs and resonating with various cultures and religions (e.g., the Christian idea of poverty, ascetic Protestantism, phenomenalism and sensualism of the Cyrenaics, Victorian style).</p> <p>The modern Western culture attributes two meanings to lifestyle,[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] i.e., a means of self-expression and a means of liberating oneself from experienced limitations (Giddens, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref2">19</reflink>]). The adopted lifestyle is supposed to provide "space" for experiencing authenticity and also to serve in searching for a stronger sense of the self. Identity has gained momentum as one of the useful tools in understanding popular lifestyles. It can be conceptualised as the sum of reflections on the subjective experience of embodied self (Cote & Levine, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref3">8</reflink>]), or as McAdams ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref4">30</reflink>], p. 63) stated: "Identity is the story that the modern I constructs and tells about the me". It takes the form of a dynamic meta-narrative of the self or an inner moral source with a potential that should be cultivated (McAdams, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref5">30</reflink>]). Such a meta-narrative can be fully realized and verbalized, and subjective experiences that accompany it are manifested through a series of identity-related senses (integrity, exceptionality, distinctiveness, cohesion, continuity in time, and self-esteem).</p> <p>What is equally important for the processes of expressing identity and adopting lifestyles, in the context of the undertaken analyses, is the degree of reflecting on the relations holding between people and objects. According to Featherstone ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref6">17</reflink>], p. 86):</p> <p>Rather than unreflexively adopting a lifestyle, through tradition or habit, the new heroes of consumer culture make lifestyle a life project and display their individuality and sense of style in the particularity of the assemblage of goods, clothes, practices, experiences, appearance and bodily dispositions they design together into a lifestyle.</p> <p>On the one hand, profound significance attached to material goods can be observed, which is evidenced in consumer culture<sups>1</sups>. It seems natural to think that owning the "right" possessions brings happiness and satisfaction (Kahneman et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref7">24</reflink>]). On the other hand, objects are such "ordinary" elements of our environment that they are relatively easily neglected since they do not draw theoretical reflection (Dant, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref8">10</reflink>], p.15). Attempts have been made, for a decade or so, so that the so-called "return to objects" could manifest itself in efforts to make "an ordinary thing", together with all the accompanying aspects of life, an object of scholarly study. In practice, these efforts take the form of a niche, yet constantly growing, body of actions which aim to attach weight and proper position to objects and to do justice to their material dimension (next to their digital and virtual representations). It can be witnessed in various ways in everyday life: whether through a reduction of possessions, which draws the attention to the potential durability of objects, and extends their use (minimalism) or through setting out to produce or fix objects on one's own (<emph>Do-It-Yourself</emph> movement), as well as through collecting, amassing, and exposing objects (maximalism).</p> <p>Two polar strategies, i.e., attempts to push culture in extreme directions: either towards stark minimalism or gaudy maximalism, will be subject to analysis. The former is oftentimes an avant-garde choice for those who could afford to be surrounded by a multitude of goods. It is a specific distinction in the world of excess (even though it is imbued with many shades and is a viable strategy in the time of a crisis). The other side of the continuum is occupied by maximalism, i.e., lifestyle which canonically defines luxury as abundance but also a desire to shake off fear.</p> <p>The study discusses the legitimacy of viewing minimalism and maximalism as "a reflective project of self-realisation" (Giddens, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref9">19</reflink>], p. 214) and construing a specific lifestyle. The purpose of the paper is to exemplify the reasons for the authors' choices of the analysed texts. What is the content of the projects? The focus is turned to the media frames and discursive structures that are reconstructed inductively. Critical Discourse Analysis is used in order to perform the conceptualisations of the prevalent cultural practices and to provide tools to capture certain notions pertaining to material culture in the dimension that goes beyond technical utility, therefore helping to recognise the indefeasibility of things in the sphere of meanings.</p> <p>This paper begins with a literature review relating to the significance of objects and aesthetic processes to justify the proposition of minimalism and maximalism understood as a self-oriented and materialistic lifestyle. Then, a detailed description is provided of the identified meaning categories, thus laying the groundwork for the discussion section.</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-3">Theoretical background</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0185256819-4">Objects and identity</hd> <p>In the second half of the twentieth century, common sense knowledge of the significance of material goods in shaping one's identity was verified in many studies and on many levels.[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref10">2</reflink>] A summary of the available literature is beyond the scope of this work; however, it is worth referring back to Stephen Riggins, or Tim Dant, who offered a literature review. The conclusions of their work demonstrate that objects are important not only because of their utilitarian function but also because of their significance in the context of love, friendship, relationships, desires, successes and failures. They mediate between and designate personal, social, and cultural values. For some sociologists, the view that objects are vital in shaping one's identity was a starting point to criticize the modern society in the context of constant (re)negotiations of their significance as a symbol of social hierarchy.</p> <p>A comprehensive, individualistic overview of objects' use was proposed by Gilles Lipovetsky, showcasing the phenomenon of "desocialisation of consumption", i.e., the repression of the social dimension of consumerism, linked with Veblen's or Baudrillard's sign-related constitution of a status, prestige or group distinction. Lipovetsky claims that the balance point is being tipped towards personal satisfaction, which progressively is becoming independent of other people's opinions. The reasons for this are: appreciation of autonomy, a need to be exceptional and to create a sensation. Lipovetsky ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref11">26</reflink>], p.145–147) uses the term "neonarcissism", which is supposed to reduce our dependence on social norms and shift the attention towards work on one's identity, self-image and forms of its expression. Objects do not become a source of alienation, as claimed by Marx and Baudrillard, but of freedom. Some scholars maintain that any discussion of fixed identities is questionable and should be replaced with a discussion of images as something superficial and temporary, something which is construed on the surface of our bodies or the places we live in (conf. Slater, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref12">41</reflink>], p.30).</p> <p>Which of those meanings will prove dominant in the discourses analysed in this study? Do they present a growth of "desocialisation of consumption", whereby what is of essence is taking care just of one's image and forms of its expression rather than social distinctions?</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-5">Aestheticisation</hd> <p>A continuous change in the means of expression is linked with the processes of shifting the forms of communication towards orality and iconicity (Ong, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref13">33</reflink>]). Such forms of expression are conducive to making use of aesthetics, which I refer to, after Roland Falcinelli ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref14">16</reflink>]), as the aesthetics of synthesis. Any distinctions between aesthetics and function or aesthetics and ethics/truth cease to be valid (Welsch, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref15">47</reflink>], pp. 61–65). For instance, consumer goods are devoid of technical or utilitarian functions, exploiting instead those connected with expression and semiotics (Lury, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref16">28</reflink>], p. 80). The line between ethics and aesthetics is blurred, which is linked by Featherstone ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>], p. 126) with consumer culture and its characteristic feature of aestheticisation of everyday life. Richard Shusterman ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref18">40</reflink>], p. 317) points out that which is aesthetic becomes a constitutive part of ethics, and not the other way round, when ethics was symbolised by aesthetics, in line with the philosophical traditions of Plato or Kant. In effect, one does not affirm beauty or good. Aestheticisation can do without a well-ordered narration. It is rather a collection of images (gestures, utterances, behaviours, looks, sensations, attires, furnishings, etc.), which can bring satisfaction or dissatisfaction. It all exists in a synthetic relation of inseparability, indistinguishability into ethics and aesthetics. Taking care of appearances, e.g., the design of an apartment, is morally equally desirable. Aestheticisation of the reality and human life is a manifestation of the disenchantment of the world, resulting in the renegotiation of all but aesthetic values that legitimize human activity in the world comprised, to a large extent, of massively produced artefacts.</p> <p>Alain de Botton explores how architecture, including interior design, plays a crucial role in shaping our sense of identity. He delves into how both minimalist and maximalist styles influence personal and collective notions of self, emphasizing that the spaces we inhabit reflect and contribute to the image we project to the world. Błoński and Witek ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref19">3</reflink>]) define minimalist living as rooted in anti-consumerism and reduced consumption, emphasizing responsible decision-making. Dopierala ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref20">12</reflink>]) offers three ways of conceptualizing minimalism: 1) minimalism as opposed to consumerism, 2) minimalism as a style of consumption, 3) minimalism as a form of conscious consumption. Minimalist consumption is exhibited through various behaviors, as identified by Chen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref21">6</reflink>]). The key characteristics include: 1) limiting consumption (Lloyd & Pennington, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref22">27</reflink>]), 2) preference for small-scale (Elgaaïed-Gambier, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref23">14</reflink>]), 3) simplicity in aesthetics (Peyer et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref24">35</reflink>]), 4) self-reflection and introspection (Lloyd & Pennington, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref25">27</reflink>]), 5) community engagement (Huneke, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref26">22</reflink>]).</p> <p>While existing literature provides substantial insight into lifestyle, identity, and material culture, several gaps remain that warrant further exploration. Although identity is central to lifestyle studies, there is a lack of empirical research on how individuals navigate identity shifts when adopting minimalist or maximalist lifestyles. Significant gaps also persist concerning the internal logic, rationality, and cohesion of these discourses. Current studies often focus on symbolic or aesthetic dimensions without comprehensively analyzing these lifestyles' logical structures as coherent systems. Moreover, research seldom addresses the "deep meaning" (in the sense proposed by Roland Barthes or Anthony Giddens) within these lifestyles, particularly regarding self-development and self-acceptance. Minimalism and maximalism promote distinct approaches; yet, few studies rigorously explore these discursive differences in relation to well-being or their capacity to foster identity coherence and resilience. Additionally, the relationship between aesthetics, ethics, and identity within these lifestyles remains underexplored. Addressing these gaps will provide a broader, integrative understanding of whether minimalist and maximalist lifestyles offer coherent frameworks for individuals in a consumer-driven world. Therefore, what senses and values accompany aestheticisation processes in the discourses under analysis? What experiences and feelings do the authors refer to? Is it a self-referential, iconic discourse, a vehicle for prophecies/bellweathers put forward by post-structuralists and theoreticians of post-modernity regarding the simulacrum character of the world?</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-6">Methodology of studies on the discourse of minimalists and maximalists - corpus-based critica...</hd> <p>The methodological framework of the study is formed by the Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), i.e., an interdisciplinary approach straddling social and humanistic sciences, which aims at shedding light onto messages hidden in the discourse. In line with the adopted methodology, any text constitutes a product of ideology, which promotes a given system of values (Wodak, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref27">48</reflink>], p. 192). Within CDA, text-based hidden meanings and ideologies can be decoded. Besides, the methodology assumes that there is no single universal research method and instead postulates a triangulation of methods, where the selection of research tools is dependent on that which is most useful to perform an analysis of a given material (Hart, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref28">21</reflink>], p. 402–403).</p> <p>The study also relies on corpus linguistics methods, which facilitate working with large data volumes and reducing researcher bias. CDA uncovers hidden messages and ideological constructs in discourse, revealing how language shapes social realities and power dynamics. Corpus linguistics complements this by offering a quantitative analysis of language patterns, identifying dominant trends and reducing researcher bias. This integration of methods allows for a comprehensive examination of both the broader themes and detailed meanings within the data, providing a more nuanced and replicable analysis of public discourse. By blending these approaches, the study achieves a robust understanding of cultural and ideological narratives, grounded in language as a tool for social analysis.</p> <p>Researchers such as Baker ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref29">1</reflink>]), Wodak ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref30">48</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref31">49</reflink>]), Fairclough ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref32">15</reflink>]), van Dijk ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref33">45</reflink>]) and Stubbs ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref34">42</reflink>]) have successfully combined CDA with corpus linguistics to enhance the depth and generalizability of analyses in fields such as media studies and sociolinguistics. The analysis presented in this study is grounded in and contributes to this valuable research tradition, drawing extensively from its established methodologies and theoretical frameworks. Incorporating this dual approach not only strengthens the research but also aligns with the study's focus on language as a tool to explore discourse. In this context, language serves both as a reflection and a constructor of cultural and ideological meaning, making it an ideal medium for examining trends such as minimalism and maximalism. By grounding these trends in broader socio-cultural narratives, this approach offers deeper insights into how they are framed and communicated in public discourse.</p> <p>In the first stage of the study, a qualitative and quantitative analysis (Dörnyei, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref35">13</reflink>]) is performed in order to provide a multi-faceted analysis of trends in lifestyle and to ground results in more robust and context-sensitive interpretations. The quantitative analysis was performed with the use of Wordsmith Tools 8.0. The expressions used to describe minimalism and maximalism are extracted from the corpus word list, i.e., a list of all of the words that appear in a text or corpus together with their use frequency and the percentage value that the word contributes towards the whole text (Baker, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref36">1</reflink>], p. 51). Lists of frequency for the most frequently used nouns and verbs were subject to the analysis. The key terms extracted from the articles were based on topical relevance. The corpus contains 170,662 words selected from 108 most popular (topping the Google search engine list) online articles dealing with the issue of minimalism (<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref37">57</reflink>) and maximalism (<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref38">51</reflink>). A Google search was conducted between 1 May 2023, and 30 June 2023. The search targeted articles published between 1 January 2020, and 30 June 2023, to capture a comprehensive and up-to-date selection of material on minimalism and maximalism, particularly in light of global events like the COVID-19 pandemic and their influence on lifestyle choices. Only articles that explicitly focused on minimalism or maximalism as central themes were included. The selection was limited to English-language pieces published in online media or lifestyle blogs, as these platforms are crucial for reflecting trends in public discourse. To maintain this focus, academic papers and reports were excluded. Articles discussing unrelated topics, such as financial minimalism or political maximalism, were also omitted. Additionally, duplicates and articles with minimal content (fewer than 300 words) were removed to ensure relevance.</p> <p>In reference to minimalism, the most frequently used words are: <emph>life</emph> (f = 437), <emph>things</emph> (f = 371), <emph>time</emph> (f = 313), <emph>de/clutter</emph><sups>3</sups> (f = 274), <emph>living</emph> (f = 223), <emph>space</emph> (f = 187), <emph>home</emph> (f = 151), <emph>lifestyle</emph> (f = 148), <emph>items</emph> (f = 149), <emph>stuff</emph> (f = 137), mind/set (f = 135), <emph>change</emph> (f = 126), checklist (f = 107), <emph>simple</emph> (f = 108), <emph>money</emph> (f = 101), <emph>simplicity</emph> (f = 94), <emph>possessions</emph> (f = 90), <emph>experience</emph> (f = 76), <emph>peace</emph>/<emph>ful</emph> (f = 62), <emph>challenge</emph> (f = 52), <emph>freedom</emph> (f = 52). The most frequently used phrasal verbs are: <emph>get(ing) rid of</emph> (f = 124). In the case of the discourse on maximalism, these are: <emph>design</emph> (f = 446), <emph>home</emph> (f = 382), <emph>like</emph> (f = 338), <emph>interior/s</emph> (f = 313), <emph>have</emph> (f = 299), <emph>style/s</emph> (f = 274), <emph>space</emph> (f = 211), <emph>things</emph> (f = 209), <emph>pattern</emph>/<emph>s</emph> (f = 207), <emph>room</emph> (f = 194), <emph>love</emph> (f = 180), <emph>look</emph> (f = 162), <emph>art</emph> (f = 153), <emph>object/s</emph> (f = 131), <emph>colour/s</emph> (f = 115), <emph>house</emph> (f = 115), <emph>life</emph> (f = 115), <emph>bold/ness</emph> (f = 113), <emph>creative/ity</emph> (f = 90), <emph>en</emph>/<emph>joy</emph> (f = 89). When it comes to corpus linguistics, the key words in the target corpus are used much more frequently than those used in the referential corpus (Scott, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref39">39</reflink>], p. 236).</p> <p>On the level of the qualitative analysis, I analysed the selected concordance values (keywords in context), i.e., a list of searched words appearing in a text together with their collocations and contexts of use (one, two, three or more words to the left or right of a keyword). Identifying patterns among the obtained concordances helps to establish the dominant discourses and discourse-related representations of a given phenomenon. I rely on a semi-automated technique to characterize salient patterns containing these words, cf. lexical bundles (Biber et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref40">2</reflink>]). Such concordances present the most common sequences containing the word of interest, e.g., the word most frequently used in the maximalists' discourse, "design", sorted according to the surrounding words. They were useful to elucidate patterns such as "WORD design", where WORD can stand for any word (see Figure 1).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Part of a sorted concordance which exemplifies the pattern "WORD design" (by the order in which the texts appear in the corpus).</p> <p>Applying the aforementioned methodology, a total of 84 lexical patterns were identified, which highlight a variety of properties that are attributed to <emph>maximalist(s)/minimalist(s)</emph>' <emph>life</emph>, <emph>objects, time, living, lifestyle</emph>, <emph>home, design</emph> (the most popular key words in the material). Of these, 48 were selected for an in-depth study (exemplary 21 patterns are presented in Table 1 and instances for the most frequent fillers in Table 2). Each pattern contains a filler, i.e., WORD, WORD and the key word or the word and WORD, WORD. Thirty-seven patterns were ignored, i.e., those which were deemed peripheral to the main focus of the study or those whose fillers had low frequencies.</p> <p>Table 1. Exemplary patterns selected for an in-depth analysis of the discourse of minimalism.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Pattern</td><td>Instances for the most frequent fillers</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>WORD minimalism</td><td><italic>Practice/ing, implementing, using, pursue</italic></td></tr><tr><td>minimalism WORD WORD</td><td><italic>brings freedom, and simplicity, of ideas, helps reduce, is atool, teaches discipline, define value</italic></td></tr><tr><td>minimalism WORD WORD WORD</td><td><italic>is a lifestyle, is owning fewer, is intentionally living, is/may cut/ting down, is prioritizing experiences, is the intentional, challenges and changes, to reduce stress, is removing things, gives you more, live a meaningful (life), as/brings freedom from, and simple living, as a means/tool</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD life</td><td><italic>meaningful, changed, mental, good, true, simple/simplified/simpler/ simplifie/s, bigger, appealing, optimized, rich, full, fulfilling, purposeful, relaxing, real, enjoying</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD WORD life</td><td><italic>simplify/ing/ied my/your, room for, areas of, declutter/ing your, create/ ing a/the, enrich your, craft your, make your, change your, pressures of, more peaceful, downsizing your, more contented, pleasures in, slow/s down, improve your, happiness in</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD WORD WORD life</td><td><italic>simple things in, balance in your, stuff that clutters, changes in your/ change as your, add value to/value to your, live the best, help create a, a more focused, live an intentional, radical shift in, overall quality of</italic></td></tr><tr><td>life WORD</td><td><italic>change/changing/ed/ing, crisis, philosophy, balance, style, clutter-free, experiences, choice/s, decision, course</italic></td></tr><tr><td>life WORD WORD</td><td><italic>with less, by decluttering, giving realization, more convenient</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD home</td><td><italic>tiny, cluttered, organized, smaller, efficient, calm, relaxing</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD WORD home/s</td><td><italic>downsizing your, declutter your/our, organizing your, more simple, eat at, freeing your</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD WORD WORD home/s</td><td><italic>checklist for the, space in your, reorganisation of the, eliminated from our/your</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD things</td><td><italic>unnecessary, simple, no, removing, little, fewer, non-essential, wrong, goodbye</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD WORD things</td><td><italic>declutter the, absence of, the right, cutting out, reducing your, minimise your, list the, number of, use/having/owning fewer</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD WORD WORD things</td><td><italic>get rid of, the/some list of, ideas rather than, always cut out, small number of, less than 100, happiness not through, focusing on little, letting go of, less money on, wardrobe full of, can't keep the</italic></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 2. Exemplary patterns selected for an in-depth analysis of the discourse of maximalism.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Pattern</td><td>Instances for the most frequent fillers</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>WORD maximalism</td><td><italic>design, embrace/ing, bringing, practicing, appreciate</italic></td></tr><tr><td>maximalism WORD WORD</td><td><italic>is personalized, represents life/individuality, is creative/courageous, rejects minimalist, about expression, embraces decoration/pattern/color, is defined (by excess)</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD design</td><td><italic>interior, home, eclectic, creative, biggest, boldest, frivolous, visual, unconventional, influential, good-quality, decorations, fabrics, chic, luxury</italic></td></tr><tr><td>design WORD</td><td><italic>trends, tips, style, movement, world, aesthetics, joy, choices, expression, gallery, studio, firm</italic></td></tr><tr><td>design WORD WORD</td><td><italic>with artwork, to display, and inspiration, going viral</italic></td></tr><tr><td>design/s WORD WORD WORD</td><td><italic>and features colors; is overstuffed, garish; is bold wallpaper; break style rules, that feels happy, that goes beyond</italic></td></tr><tr><td>home WORD</td><td><italic>design, reflected, decorators, décor</italic></td></tr><tr><td>home WORD WORD</td><td><italic>with meaningful, with significant, become museum/s, incredibly unique, prioritizing comfort, should reflect</italic></td></tr><tr><td>home WORD WORD WORD</td><td><italic>with a chaotic, is completely full, overflowing with memorabilia, objects to remember, with patterned wallpaper, playing with colourful, a happy space, has to reflect, is apersonal matter, stuffed with, to stimulate us, you are proud</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD home</td><td><italic>eclectic, perfect, excessive, comfort, self-designed, cluttered, creative, dream, unique, curated, well-loved, happy</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD WORD home</td><td><italic>decorate/ing their/your, make your/making a, personalizing your, designing your</italic></td></tr><tr><td>WORD WORD WORD home</td><td><italic>fully enjoy my/your, house into a, creative chaos at, joy in a</italic></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Thus, I proceeded with a semantic-pragmatic classification of the content words (fillers) included in the patterns, on the basis of a close reading of the texts (e.g., full sentences) and consideration of their contexts. Taking the most frequent fillers as a point of reference for the in-depth analysis, semantic groups of the top key words were created by considering semantically related fillers. This led to a set of the three main categories referring to 1) Identity and Lifestyle, 2) Home and Object 3) Social Context of Lifestyle, and six meaning subcategories linked to the ways of justifying and realizing the minimalist and maximalist orientations. Table 3 shows a dominance of the "Identity and Lifestyle" category in the discourse of minimalists and the "Home and Object" category in the discourse of maximalists. The former relates to the processes of self-development, together with the rigorous "techniques of the self", the essence of which is mindfulness, simplicity, elements of therapeutic culture (discovering the "true" needs, "real" pleasures, freedom), with elements of biographic conversion. The latter is dominated by interior design (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref41">1</reflink>), decorating with "anything that brings comfort" (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref42">4</reflink>), "filling up space in the room with a collage of colors, materials, and textures" (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref43">1</reflink>), a "curated hoarding" (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref44">2</reflink>) of meaningful elements (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref45">3</reflink>) and an "ornate display" of personality (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref46">5</reflink>). Both discourses exhibit clear references to instability and unpredictability of the contemporary world (maximalism) and a lack of future vision beyond/under the capitalist imperative of perpetual economic expansion (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref47">6</reflink>) (minimalism).</p> <p>Table 3. Largest semantic categories in the Keywords list.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Category</td><td>Subcategories</td><td>The most frequent key words, phrases</td><td>Category</td><td>Subcategories</td><td>The most frequent key words, phrases</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><bold>Minimalism</bold></td><td><bold>Maximalism</bold></td></tr><tr><td>Identity and lifestyle</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Self-development and "techniques of the self" projects</p></list-item></list></td><td><italic>mind/set/full, meaningful, mental, full, fulfilling, simplicity (as a tool for spiritual growth), purposeful, relaxing, mental, true, real, rich, enjoying, slower, intentional, challange</italic></td><td>Home and objects</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Eclectic design</p></list-item></list></td><td><italic>eclectic, chaotic creative, boldest, frivolous, visual, unconventional, different features, decorations, colors, fabrics, more is more, break style rules, go beyond</italic></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(2) The rationality of control</p></list-item></list></td><td><italic>self-control, discipline/more disciplined, effective, rationalise</italic></td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(2) Materiality and Excess</p></list-item></list></td><td><italic>over/stuffed, excessive garish, bold, full, clutter, glorious</italic></td></tr><tr><td>(3) The processes of conversion</td><td><italic>change, improve, radical shift, choice/s, decision</italic></td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(3) Sentiment</p></list-item></list></td><td><italic>meaningful, significant, museum/s, unique, memorabilia, objects to remember</italic></td></tr><tr><td>Home and objects</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(4) Design: functionality and simplicity</p></list-item></list></td><td><italic>organized home, decluttered/clutter-free/less-cluttered home, checklist, (white) space, (more) simplicity/simplify, cut/ting out, reducing, get rid of, removing, small number, less than 100, reorganisation, eliminate</italic></td><td>Identity and lifestyle</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(4) Self-expression</p></list-item></list></td><td><italic>express/ing yourself/myself, creative/ity, personalize/ing, display, individuality, self-designed, unique style, personal, unique story</italic></td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(5) Anti-materiality</p></list-item></list></td><td><italic>with less, little, fewer, non-essential, wrong, unnecessary, absence, happiness not through (things), focusing on little</italic></td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(5) Self-acceptation and</p></list-item></list>emotional well-being</td><td><italic>love, joy, happy, comfort, proud, vibrant, fun, pleasure/able,</italic></td></tr><tr><td>Social context of lifestyle</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(6) Criticism of (over)consumption</p></list-item></list></td><td><italic>Consumerism, pressures, (over)consumption, less is more, capitalism/tic</italic></td><td>Social context of lifestyle</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(6) Escape from uncertainty</p></list-item></list></td><td><italic>pandemic, escape, recession, crisis</italic></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>I realize that several of these words might belong to more than one (sub)category. For example, some words could belong to the "Identity" as well as to the "Home" frame, such as <emph>space, simplicity</emph>, etc. Words considered ambiguous were classified into a given group depending on their context of use and their dominant meaning.</p> <p>To clarify, the methodological steps are summarized as follows: First, materials were selected by entering specific keywords into Google, with a custom date range filter applied to restrict the results to the designated timeframe. A corpus of 108 articles was compiled by selecting the most popular and relevant entries based on the criteria outlined above. Quantitative analysis was then performed using Wordsmith Tools 8.0 to extract word frequencies and calculate their relative contributions to the overall text. This was followed by qualitative analysis, using concordance data to examine keywords in context and identify patterns and thematic groupings.</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-7">Finding: meaning categories of minimalist and maximalist lifestyle discourses</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0185256819-8">Self-development and self-acceptation: between challenge and pleasure</hd> <p>Minimalists and maximalists have some resources to the self, but they represent different ways of expressing the modern sense of agency, inwardness, and self-determination. While the answer to the question "who am I" offered by minimalists correlates with the result of reflexive choices (resolutions, e.g., limiting the number of possessions to <emph>get rid of</emph> (f = 124), choosing a new <emph>lifestyle</emph> (f = 148), <emph>self-improvement</emph> (f = 21), reducing over-<emph>consumption</emph> (f = 13)), in the case of maximalists the answer is "I am what I am" and "I am proud of it" (<emph>proud</emph>, f = 12). The minimalist approach can characterized by constantly striving to do better in life, defining oneself and one's needs anew (discovering the "true self"), having to justify one's decisions (e.g., on internet blogs or in interviews), reading inspirational books and articles related to the efforts made to forge new habits.</p> <p>What is of essence here is the ideology of effectiveness (<emph>effective</emph>, f = 13), summarized as "minimalism is a habit of highly effective people". Effectiveness is searching for answers to the question whether one can find better solutions to eliminate unnecessary activities and redundant objects. In line with minimalist principles and McKeown's ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref48">31</reflink>]) arguments, focusing on what is truly essential can enhance both effectiveness and productivity. Therefore, the guidelines offered here concern those objects which fulfil their function quickest, most effectively, and with minimal cost and effort. Challenges are taken on (<emph>challenge</emph>, f = 52), and projects are realized, e.g., "Take the 12-12-12 challenge" or "Minimalist Lifestyle Starter Tips". The applied ethics does not refer to moral codes, regulations, or bans but rather refers to procedures, techniques, activities, procedures, or, in line with Michael Foucault, "technologies of the self" (Foucault, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref49">18</reflink>]), helping an individual to shape their own lifestyle and form their own subjectivity.</p> <p>In contrast, maximalism is generally an affirmation of "the self", a specific kind of manifestation of one's exceptional value: "Maximalism is appealing because it's like putting yourself and your family on display, which is something you should be proud of because it's YOU!". The central tendency observed within the maximalist discourse is striving to <emph>display</emph> (f = 41) one's personality, expression (<emph>express/ion</emph>, f = 45), individuality through a creation of one's identity as totally unique and exceptional: "Instead of wearing basics to simplify our everyday life, why not invest in clothing items that truly represent your personality – no matter how extravagant?" Additionally, "maximalist home is meant to be different from the homes of those around it. It is creative, personable, and sticks out", just like its owners who are characterised by "playfulness and bold gestures: living boldly and in pursuit of comfort and happiness".</p> <p>Instead of the "white box" with "no signs of life", apparently offered by minimalism, the ideology of maximalism is to be surrounded with <emph>vibrant</emph> (f = 25), <emph>gorgeous</emph> (f = 9) and <emph>garish</emph> (f = 8) objects, aiming at realizing the epicurean objective of bringing <emph>joy</emph> (f = 89), <emph>happy/iness</emph> (f = 68), and generally at boosting one's good mood: "It's (...) the pursuit of pleasure. Things are good if they feel good". "Each object should make you happy: Surrounding yourself with beloved domestic items instantly boosts your personal feel-good factor".</p> <p>The practices of decorating and adorning flats with various items, cushions, curtains, memorabilia, are supposed to bring <emph>pleasure</emph> (f = 25) and <emph>cosiness</emph> (f = 15). However, the maximalist discourse presents cosiness and the effect of "warm interior design" ("home" as opposed "house") not as the joy of being together, experiencing the warmth of informal cordiality but rather as a need to reach the state of feeling good, of self-care or self-expression: "It embodies your unique self: wants – needs – daily habits – design values & tastes". In this discourse, the maximalists seem as those who derive a sense of satisfaction or security from collecting and saving objects and those who have an attachment to possessions rather than to other people. Boym ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref50">4</reflink>]) provides a relevant framework for explaining how material possessions are intimately tied to nostalgia and personal identity and how individuals use objects to maintain a connection to their past and to achieve a sense of security. This perspective aligns with the maximalist discourse, as it highlights how an attachment to possessions can serve as a means of preserving one's identity and emotional stability.</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-9">Self-limiting choices and unlimited boldness</hd> <p>When it comes to the identity-related differences between minimalists and maximalists, it should be observed that while the former exhibit a strong orientation towards control, the latter promote an element of unpredictability, a lack of control and rules: "The key to maximalism is that there really are no rules". Maximalism is supposed to be "the anti-minimalist trend that celebrates mess and creative chaos". "Instead of forcing designers along well-trodden paths, maximalism allows them to give free rein to their creativity. Here, form follows feeling rather than function".</p> <p>Maximalism is not a modern orientation towards purposefulness and rationality but is rather expressed by a conviction that one cannot predict the future. Therefore, instead of "cutting out and making sad sacrifices", maximalists recommend: "Pile it on, enjoy it all, forget the rules!". Maximalism is a stance to the world and to oneself. It is a stance rejecting self-limitation and self-denial built on the fear that a catastrophe is imminent (see: "Searching for escape"). The essence of maximalism is <emph>boldness</emph> (<emph>bold/ness</emph>, f = 113), <emph>creativity</emph> (<emph>creative/ity</emph>, f = 90), <emph>excess</emph> (f = 49) and <emph>passion/s</emph> (f = 20).</p> <p>Minimalists' responses to the "how to live?" question point to a certain model which is supposed to promote greater <emph>discipline</emph> (f = 6). Individuals should be subject to greater control to maintain <emph>order</emph> (f = 31) and stay <emph>organised</emph> (f = 16): "The simple act of clearing, cleaning, and properly arranging has strong psychological effects. If you struggle with this exercise it may be worth deeper introspection and a more concerted effort to maintain order in your life and space".</p> <p>Minimalists strive to eliminate chaos, associated with excess, for the sake of gaining control over themselves and their lives through a purposeful-rational choice of basic goods. They give advice to each other pertaining to how to rationalize their choices, how to reduce the amount of goods used, how to decorate the apartment in a minimalist way, getting rid of unnecessary furniture or clothes. One of the most frequent words in their discourse is <emph>de/clutter</emph> (f = 274) <emph>and checklist</emph> (f = 107) – with the latter pointing to the list of items constituting an ideal minimalist inventory. There are numerous descriptions of the content of their optimally fitted "capsule wardrobes". Minimalists' skillfulness, optimality, and conscious management are confronted with visual mess and excess, associated with thoughtlessness, laziness, irresponsibility, and frustration: "It's amusing that something so important and essential to their day-to-day could be so disorganized – so much so that it actually causes frustration".</p> <p>Objects are meticulously (rationally, functionally) selected, and the list descriptions are presented on internet blogs. Subsequent steps (e.g., "Decluttering, organizing, and paring down" or "10 Simple Steps To Get Started With Minimalism"), crucial to achieve the minimalist priorities, are described. Being in charge of objects, illusory to a greater or lesser extent, ought to correspond with potential cognitive and behavioral changes in various aspects of life. Minimalism, as a tool, helps to accomplish many, often overlapping, objectives; initially, relating to the decluttering of the living space, and, ultimately, to "getting in charge" of stuff and maintaining greater discipline.</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-10">Material and transcendent extensions of self</hd> <p>Minimalists' identity equals being free of materiality, which is all that which limits, oppresses, poisons. A ritual is defined as cleansing, getting rid of things (<emph>get rid of</emph>, f = 124). In the case of maximalists collecting goods is a ritual. Maximalists negotiate identity through material objects. Numerous comments on the significance of objects ("We want only to be surrounded by things that have a purpose, that have been created for both their beauty and their meaning") and a focus on their <emph>interior design</emph> (f = 142) validate the role of accommodation/materiality. This kind of setting in relation to the world is that of a home which provides an existential ground for their embodied being: they are both in it and of it, they act in relation to it.</p> <p>Stability of identity manifests itself as accumulated excess: "Maximalism in an aesthetic of excess and redundancy". If we assume that an act of getting rid of things is an act of self-identity, whereby minimalists reject certain aspects of "self", then it is understandable why maximalists collect or expose things that remind them who they are, give testimony to their passions, experiences or skills as homeowner: "People look at their homes as a way to share their personal stories, travels, family history, belief systems, and character".</p> <p>In the maximalists' discourse, integrity and stability of identity guarantee an extension and "exporting" of an individual – their memory, accepted values – to the outside, to the material spaces: "(...) our craving for happier and more personalized spaces that teleport us to the places we love".</p> <p>However, minimalists' self is constituted by a sense of inwardness, which is best captured through the inner depth. The life's goal is to eliminate anxiety from one's consciousness, to effectively cope with a crisis, to bring back inner peace (<emph>peace/ful</emph>, f = 62). An orientation towards contemplation, discovering oneself, experiencing "the true essence of the world" should serve as a metaphysical approach towards oneself and the world, where "self", the universe and absolute meld into one: "(...) people can be happier by aligning themselves more closely with nature and rejecting all mainstream desires".</p> <p>The maximalists' strategy is linked with another type of philosophy than the one promoted by minimalists, which places "self" within a broader context. What is accentuated here is not the relationship between an individual and the universe, nature, but rather their place not only within a community (e.g., the family) but also as an idealized form of self-expression. The inhabited space being marked with its owner's personality traits is an important element of the discourse. In the process of making the house interior private, hence in the process of progressive differentiation and spatial customization, individuals can find some room for boundless creativity and self-fulfilment:</p> <p>We want our homes to stimulate us, too, and how much stimulation can you get from a white box? It's about creating a kind of fantasy, a fantasy that we can sink into, but one that excites and informs us, and emotionally lifts us up at the same time.</p> <p>Self-expression emerging from such a discourse, in the context of a lack of more substantial identity foundations ready to be extracted, seems to be a basic value and means of self-fulfilment. Deleuze ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref51">11</reflink>]) provides a pertinent framework for understanding how desire and aesthetics shape subjectivity and how individuals may focus on the material and sensory aspects of their inner world as a way to construct and express their identities. Within this discourse, the external world is perceived as less meaningful compared to the rich, material world that individuals build around themselves.</p> <p>What is of importance is the sense that home objects were picked on one's own or filled with personal meaning (<emph>meaningful</emph>, f = 24). Their presence is supposed to be a source of satisfaction or pride. Privacy is a condition not only for confronting the domestic, safe fortress with foreign exterior but also to confront individual satisfaction derived from occupying a domesticated space filled with "self".</p> <p>Minimalists view independence and mobility as more important than material goods. A need to be <emph>free</emph> (f = 52) is tied with a need for <emph>change</emph> (f = 126), <emph>mobility</emph> (f = 13) rather than safety (<emph>safety</emph>, <emph>security</emph>, f = 0). Not being attached to objects and readiness to change should provide minimalists with greater liberty to generate "programmes of self-actualisation" and "mastery" (Giddens, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref52">19</reflink>], p. 9). Instead of purchasing goods, minimalists prefer collecting experiences (<emph>experience/s</emph>, f = 117): "I started questioning my stuff, removing one by one the unnecessary things from my life, eventually jettisoning 90% of my material possessions, replacing them with worthwhile experiences". "Minimalism is a theory based on valuing experiences rather than things". Possessions are insignificant, what really matters is to <emph>experience real freedom</emph>. However, "to experience" encompasses "to consume". In lieu of possessions and status, the designates of which are predominantly virtual, a source of satisfaction for minimalists are undertaken enterprises and collected experiences. Distinctive functions emerge from the sphere of experiences and emotions.</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-11">Sentimental and functional</hd> <p>In the discourse of minimalists, home is an "emotional warehouse" (Gurney, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref53">20</reflink>]), where various feelings, together with their wealth of functions, are experienced and stored. The most common ones are: scope for creativity (<emph>creative/ity</emph>, f = 90), a space that offers <emph>freedom</emph> (f = 52), security (<emph>safe/security</emph>, f = 26), bringing sensual <emph>pleasure</emph> (f = 26), evoking <emph>memories</emph> (f = 18): "Through maximalism, homes become museums of personal interests, hobbies, and precious memories". It is an intimate space, however, deficient in a context for close, caring relationships. When it comes to homes, the discourse of minimalism most frequently mentions functionality (<emph>funcional/ity</emph>, f = 15), good organisation (<emph>organise/ing</emph>, f = 54).</p> <p>Maximalism and minimalism are the bipolar points on the axis of individuals-objects, stretched between emotionality and reflexivity. Even though today there is no doubt that the traditional dualism between reason and emotions cannot be upheld, it is clearly visible in the analysed discourses. It results from the level of reflexivity of the relationship between individuals and objects. There are two modes of acting, drawing from various inspirations. The ideology of functionality is juxtaposed with the one of sentiment and nostalgia.</p> <p>Functionality clashes with sentiment and attachment, viewed as impediments to change. Minimalists subject the purchasing of or getting rid of things to scrupulous reflection. Their choices are strongly marked with a need to rationalize, justify, and look for possible motivations of their decisions. Such moments of reflection over things are most commonly linked with radical changes in minimalists' lifestyle, with a specific form of conversion, "biographical transformation": "A dramatic re-organization of the home causes correspondingly dramatic changes in lifestyle and perspective". They describe dilemmas connected with imposing all sorts of logic and narration upon themselves. Oftentimes such a reflection required reworking new patterns of thought and action, ultimately bringing satisfaction with the decision taken:</p> <p>I had already simplified my life, paid off my debt, changed my spending habits, and radically reduced my cost of living. So I sold my house, paid off my car, eliminated nearly all my bills, and moved into a tiny $500-per-month minimalist apartment (...) Over time, I slowly became an "expert" on leaving the corporate world in the pursuit of dreams.</p> <p>In the discourse of maximalists, arguments justifying the collection of things are derived from the past and memory, as reflected in the statement: "Personally I see it as a collection of emotions and memories". This perspective aligns with Svetlana Boym's theories ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref54">4</reflink>]) on nostalgia and the aesthetic dimensions of modernity, highlighting how maximalists use their collections to anchor their identities and express their personal histories.</p> <p>Objects help to organize and store memories since emotions evoked by a given object can be linked with one's dearest and nearest, relationships, etc. Getting rid of those would be tantamount to the betrayal of one's ideals and denial of one's relationships. Conversely, minimalists express different sentiments: rationality, practicality, minimalism being in vogue seem to be justified and dictate to reject emotions as a troublesome impediment to change.</p> <p>What proved to be crucial in the clash between functionality and sentiment was to define problematic objects as <emph>unnecessary clutter</emph> (f = 32), <emph>junk</emph> or <emph>treasure/s</emph> (f = 26). The latter evaluation is justified: "So we say never hold back with the personal objects, mementos, pictures and paintings that evoke a memory or a story, as those are the things that transform a house into a home". Unwillingness to discard such objects, according to Jonathan Culler ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref55">9</reflink>]), is identical to the fear of forgetting one's past.</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-12">Searching for escape</hd> <p>At a moment of time where the ongoing climate change, economic uncertainty, mutating pandemic, geopolitical crisis all threaten to destroy the things that the middle classes take for granted, there appears to be a renewed interest in things (maximalism) or "new forms of inwardness" (minimalism). Both approaches are a manifestation of a desire for "a different world": "The world can be a grey, grim place and in response, we want our homes to exist as a kind of joyful refuge" seems to be maximalists' manifesto.</p> <p>Embracing the thesis that Western society may be perceived as anomic,[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref56">3</reflink>] minimalists have pessimistic perceptions of global capitalism that caused them to view their lifestyle as a form of escape, which in turn allowed for "personal growth". Minimalists attempt to escape what they describe as a very materialistic and "morally bad" society and as such perceived a reversal of their previous "conformist" lives. The minimalists' life goals are determined by realizing a project of "self-improvement" (f = 27). Such an experience of the authentic "self" is described by Taylor ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref57">43</reflink>], pp. 130, 176) as "radical turn" to the self as a self or first-person subjectivity, owing to which we are thus able to conceive of ourselves as having inner depths (Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref58">44</reflink>], pp. 539–40). Christopher Lasch ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref59">25</reflink>], p.29) explains that as people lost hope in improving the world politically, they retreated into self-improvement.</p> <p>In the time of a crisis and social tensions, the "return to materialistic things" motto seems to be sound: "In contrast to the optimism that accompanied the slick minimalism of the nineties, the terrifying situation that we live in today has conjured a desire for the wealthy to hide themselves away". Objects help to make oneself comfortable in the world. Thanks to their materialistic dimension they are palpable and solid, hence are able to counter an excess of loosely drifting meanings and be used as support: "In a changing world, where constants are being challenged, clutter core helps people ground themselves in the material, and in beautiful things that often hark from a more stable past".</p> <p>Functions of objects are grounded in various narrations (see above). By construing meanings which give them a sense of security, maximalists rely on certain goods to shield themselves from anxiety, stress, uncertainty, risk. Maximalists imagine and experience their home as a resource to "finding one's own space" outside the social, political and economic contradictions: "We create a space in which we can retreat from all the terror outside". In their discourse a home performs the role of an idealized form of a safe, cozy stronghold where one can hide from the world: "We want to feel safe, we want to feel comfortable, we want to feel protected and taken care of – stuff can act like a literal cocoon". Since every now and then unpredictable things happen, it is recommendable to be prepared in advance: "(...) the more money you spend the more protected you can become, hidden amongst your excessive home décor".</p> <p>However, Cohen and Taylor ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref60">7</reflink>], p. 15) raise an important observation: What "the collapse of meta-narratives" implies is that there is no single meaning system or metaphor that we can use to obtain a sense of the world <emph>from</emph> which we want to distance ourselves or <emph>against</emph> which we want to construct an alternative. Hence, post-structural thought argues that it is not possible to talk about escape when there is no all-encompassing reality from which to escape. As Rojek ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref61">38</reflink>], p. 212) cynically states in "Ways of Escape": "There is no escape".</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-13">Aesthetics: transparent simplicity – eclectic enclave</hd> <p>The aesthetics of simplicity, functionality prevalent in the minimalist approach takes the form of eclecticism and abundance in the case of maximalizm (defined as "a counter aesthetic to the minimalist hegemony"). A wealth of objects forms colorful mosaics, and a wealth of patterns, colors, shapes, layers, and materials becomes a synonym of warmth and "coziness". Minimalistic materials such as glass or concrete are treated as cold (inhuman, unwelcoming): "These homes are impossible, they have no signs of life".</p> <p>Maximalism is "a reaction against the muted tone and empty homes of minimalists". Such an aesthetic stands in opposition to the formal codes of minimalism which are expected to be "rigid and lack personality". Maximalists' apartments are equipped with all that is needed, therefore one should be isolated from the external world (a symbol of instrumental, cold relations and unpredictable events) by means of curtains, shutters, and blinds. Those, in turn, wanted to be discarded by modernistic reformer, striving to replace the bourgeois with modern transparency. Such cosiness/decorativeness came in for criticism hurled by minimalists, who, after modernistic architects and philosophers such as Walter Benjamin, claim that its objective is to free individuals from symbiotic and limiting structures (van Herck, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref62">46</reflink>], pp. 124–127). Le Corbusier justified his attack on cosy interior by a need to object to "sentimental hysteria", Bruno Taut claimed that "cosy practices are an almost primitive or neurotic ritual of 'rugglueing'", while Hannes Meyer believed that "cosiness (Gemütlichkeit) is something that should find its place in 'the heart of the individual" and not on "the wall of his home" (after: van Herck, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref63">46</reflink>], p. 124). Such a belief contributed to promoting the model that is motivated by rationality and tidiness. Being separated and isolated was treated by Benjamin as egocentric individualism. His model, ideal for 20th century, was a house of glass, an epitome of openness and transparency (van Herck, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref64">46</reflink>], p. 127). Consequently, a minimalist design aesthetic is characterized by "white" (f = 47) rooms with little furniture or décor; by "extreme spareness and <emph>simplicity</emph>" (f = 94).</p> <p>The discourse of maximalists leans towards the traditional vision of home, rooted in space, where objects are carriers of emotions, feelings, memories, identity, but also bring sensual pleasure. Cosiness and abundance, just like in the Victorian times, can be treated as a bridgehead for traditional way of reasoning about home, a bulwark against the expansion of the modern, uncertain, unpredictable, and turbulent.</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-14">Conclusions</hd> <p>The findings align well with the theoretical exploration of identity and aestheticisation by showcasing minimalism and maximalism as unique, aesthetic strategies for self-development. Both styles operate under a culture of expressive individualism, indicating that they reflect not only aesthetic preferences but also personal and existential narratives that prioritize subjective well-being and identity over traditional social norms.</p> <p>The analysed discourse has re-emphasized "the self" (according to postmodernism which has threatened the validity of its meanings), as individual worldviews have been relied upon to (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref65">1</reflink>) re-justify escape as a state of mind (minimalism) or self-expression through home interiors (maximalism) and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref66">2</reflink>) shift "objectivity" (truth/ethics) away towards subjective experiences (minimalism) and aesthetics of synthesis (maximalism).</p> <p>The contrast between minimalism and maximalism highlights two distinct approaches to self-development and self-expression through home and lifestyle choices. Minimalists focus on functionality, control, and the pursuit of inner peace by decluttering and simplifying their lives. Their approach is grounded in rationality and self-discipline, aiming to eliminate excess and embrace experiences over material possessions. Minimalism is seen as a method for achieving personal growth and self-improvement amidst societal and environmental uncertainties.</p> <p>In contrast, maximalists celebrate individuality and self-expression through abundance and eclecticism. Their approach is characterized by boldness, creativity, and a celebration of material possessions as reflections of personal identity. Maximalism embraces a sense of comfort and security through the accumulation of objects that evoke happiness and a strong sense of self. This perspective views material abundance as a response to contemporary anxieties and a way to create a personal sanctuary.</p> <p>Both discourses reflect broader cultural responses to modern challenges: minimalism seeks to navigate these challenges by reducing material dependency and focusing on personal development, while maximalism confronts them by immersing in sensory and emotional experiences through a richly adorned living space.</p> <p>It is hard to dig for deep meaning (be it historical, psycho-analytic, or other) in the maximalists' discourse, filled mostly with images of interiors, which merely skate along its surface. The maximalist aesthetic of synthesis shared an enchantment with excess, a demand for pleasure, and an openness, encapsulated by "bold perspectives and even bolder aesthetics". Aesthetic experiences refer to sensual pleasure, hence are mostly an object of subjective liking, not anchored in any ontological judgments. Design, an element of the material culture, can, of course, be a valid form of self-expression, but self-expression is not only an aesthetic thing, and the fact that we have been culturally conditioned to associate "self-expression" with applying "beautiful objects" may be diminishing our ability to truly exercise expression.</p> <p>For minimalists, integrity of their existence is based on self-care techniques, and is linked with a mindset prioritizes the pursuit of pleasure or peace. This approach aligns with David Brooks' examination of modern self-help and lifestyle trends (Brooks, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref67">5</reflink>]), which explores contemporary notions of character and self-improvement. Personal development and intentional lifestyle choices contribute to the quest for meaning, reflecting the minimalist focus on achieving fulfillment through a simplified and mindful way of living.</p> <p>Developing one's identity, associated with inwardness (meditation practices) may be treated as a specific retreat from the world, from that which cannot be controlled. Instead, it seems to be an orientation towards the self, which could be constantly improved and which is viewed as an objective (self-subjectivisation). What is more, the ultimate goal of the conversion is not to get to know oneself (a view shared by Plato or by Christian practice of studying secrets of conscience) but to train, with the recommendation <emph>gnothi seauton</emph> referring to one of many types of exercise. The analysed minimalists' discourse is another suggestion of "self-improvement project", concentrating on making things/life easier through reducing possessions or decluttering space/mind. A reorganisation of the home does not need to cause corresponding changes in lifestyle. Such a discourse does not promote reflections on why or what for we exist. What matters is only how we exist. "Minimalism is about the journey", but without having a clear goal of the journey. The analyzed discourse <emph>de facto</emph> describes a kind of empirical fiction, a specific type of philosophy, i.e., a mosaic of arbitrarily selected elements of Buddhism, Epicureanizm, feng-shui or <emph>slow</emph> ideology. It reduces the complexity of human behavior to another set of psychological recommendations.</p> <p>What emerges from these guidelines is a myth of "happiness", life's success, and other desirable values one should follow once objects are gotten rid of. Minimalists are convinced that the discarded objects yield way to some "regained world", with "more space, freedom, peace, calm". The simplicity is associated with moral purity, but the minimalist project to be realized has no moral content whatsoever.</p> <p>Maximalists do not want to free themselves from the imperfect self, from sensual arousal coming from the outside but rather want their attitude towards the self to be affirmed. They should be able to be in touch with themselves, i.e., they aim at self-subjectivisation. Both discourses are examples of a generalized culture of expressive individualism, in which people are encouraged to find their own ways of realizing their individual character, and to seek their own fulfilment. While in the past the process of socialization only offered a chance to individuals to articulate their subjectivity, today it is almost obligatory. Developing one's individuality is not a privilege but a prerequisite of satisfaction and self-fulfilment.</p> <p>One of the constitutive elements of the maximalists' discourse is the sense of how valuable living can be. A vision of ideal home is promoted tirelessly, thus becoming a model, topos, something to reach for and achieve. Home may simply be a space where people feel at ease; however, in this discourse it is an inalienable source of identity, a place of absolute freedom and ontological security. The interior design of the house (most frequent key word), and the decorations all reflect the occupant's sense of self. Home is an expression of a person's subjectivity in the world. Making an ideal home, meeting all sorts of expectations (whether pertaining to its interior design or to one's psychological-social needs), is not always real, which may cause frustration and a feeling of failure, yet this is not mentioned in the maximalists' discourse.</p> <p>Manifestations of such expressiveness (maximalism) or reflexivity (minimalism) constitute a sign of individuals' personal care of maintaining a consistent concept of the self within various biographical experiences. It should be mentioned that such a form of individual expression or reflection is socially conditioned according to Giddens' concepts of modernity ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref68">19</reflink>]), which involve the construction of identities in contemporary societies.</p> <p>It should be noted that such forms of individual expression or reflection are socially conditioned according to Giddens' concepts of modernity and the construction of identities in contemporary societies ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref69">19</reflink>]). Even though both discourses stress a need not to succumb to ever-changing trends imposed on them from the outside ("Maximalizm Is Not A Trend, It Is A Life Expression"), it can be assumed, after Giddens ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref70">19</reflink>]), that self-reflexivity/self-expression is effects of institutional reflexivity/expressivity present in the social system. What is clearly visible here are "expert systems" ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref71">19</reflink>], p. 144), such as design or furniture industry, represented by famous interior designers recommending specific arrangements. Most of the presented examples of aestheticisation were selected by experts in relation to their professional activity and the projects of their design studios.</p> <p>In addressing the question of whether consumerism has lost its status-related dimension, as Lipovetsky suggests, the evidence indicates that the aesthetics of both maximalism and minimalism have evolved into new symbols of luxury. The minimalist emphasis on quality and functionality introduces a concept of luxury that is not contingent on excess but instead rooted in simplicity, refined materials, and the purposefulness of each object. Maximalism, on the other hand, conveys status through elaborate displays and the selective use of extravagant materials or exclusive brands, highlighting a distinct approach to self-representation. This approach is evident in maximalist interiors that combine new and vintage items, handmade artifacts, and mass-produced pieces, merging diverse styles to create layered, eclectic environments that are increasingly accessible to middle-income consumers.</p> <p>These aesthetic choices can be interpreted as promoting a taste associated with the middle and upper-middle class, despite the reluctance of the discourse's authors to directly address class or financial considerations in home decor. Instead, both styles serve as idealized representations of identity, where the home and its contents function as symbols of a personal narrative – the "story about the me" – while still acting as overt markers of social class.</p> <p>The research questions probe whether these aesthetic approaches contribute to a "desocialisation of consumption" and reflect a superficial form of identity. The analysis of discursive identity formation presented in this paper highlights the potential for shallowness, as these discourses may reframe identity as an individual project defined by aesthetic alignment. However, the discourses do not indicate a trend toward "desocialisation of consumption," where personal image and self-expression take precedence over social distinctions. Both discourses, in their media-driven form, become vehicles for spreading fashion, a cultural trend shaping the consumption styles, visible in the organization of arranging space, spending free time, designing interiors, etc. They promote values forming the cultural mainstream of today's advanced societies.</p> <p>As Eva Illouz ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref72">23</reflink>]) concludes, the intersection of emotions, consumerism, and identity provides insight into many of the cultural contradictions of capitalism. It is hard to state unequivocally whether they are examples of resistance or subversion or a new form of social differentiation (it seems that those two are not mutually exclusive), or an expression of conformity (adhering to the current fashions). They shall not be discredited; however, since they give expression to doubts sparked by modernity. An individual perspective helps to look at them as an attempt to redefine one's biography, to attribute one's life with new significance, to open up new alleys of experience, to represent a new type of sensitivity to the challenges posed by the late modernity, to look for a stronger sense of identity. Still, being labelled as fashionable lifestyles, they do not contextualize their activity within any moral framework, or are not linked with fundamental existential questions. They rather sound thought-provoking, suggesting either being enclosed in, after Kierkegaard, an aesthetic stadium or escaping from contemporary social crises and contradictions. It should be noted, though, that the stance of "being constantly open to revision" (minimalists), and of rejecting moral certainty may prove really challenging.</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-15">Discussion and limitations</hd> <p>This article extends the existing knowledge on minimalist and maximalist lifestyles by providing a nuanced exploration of newly identified discursive frameworks surrounding them. While previous research has focused on the aesthetic or material aspects of minimalism and maximalism, this study shifts the focus to the "deep meanings" shaping these discourses. By analyzing the ways in which both narratives address identity construction, self-expression and personal development, the research contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of how individuals negotiate their identities within the cultural and social contexts that valorize these lifestyles.</p> <p>Furthermore, this study broadens the discourse on self-reflexivity and self-expression in contemporary culture, drawing on Anthony Giddens' work on modernity. Both minimalism and maximalism can be understood as responses to the demands for self-authenticity and identity construction in the modern world. The tension between external influences – such as consumer culture, the design industry, and expert systems – and individual desires for self-expression illustrates how deeply entrenched these lifestyle choices are in contemporary social systems, which is particularly notable given that minimalism is framed as a countercultural, anti-consumerist lifestyle.</p> <p>Despite their apparent divergence, these lifestyles share an underlying connection in their reliance on individualism and the cultivation of a unique identity, thereby contributing to the broader discourse on expressive individualism in modern societies. This article challenges simplistic dichotomies between minimalism and maximalism and offers a more integrated view of how these lifestyles reflect broader cultural transformations in contemporary society. By doing so, it contributes to the ongoing conversation about the role of material culture, identity formation, and the pursuit of well-being in modern life.</p> <p>To address the limitations of this research, it is important to note that the data are limited to specific material, on-line media, articles and blogs, potentially overlooking other relevant voices or practices. The analyzed discourse might not represent the broader population practicing minimalism or maximalism, as the viewpoints could be skewed towards those who are more vocal or have more resources to engage in these lifestyles. Additionally, presenting minimalism and maximalism as distinct and opposing paradigms may oversimplify the complexities of individual experiences, as many people blend elements of both lifestyles. The study may not fully capture these nuances. The research reflects trends and discourses from a specific period, and as cultural and social contexts change rapidly, the findings may not be applicable to future developments or shifts in lifestyle trends. Minimalism and maximalism are dynamic and evolving lifestyles, and the study may not adequately address the fluidity and changing nature of these practices over time or across different contexts. The study does not fully account for the influence of cultural and socioeconomic differences on minimalism and maximalism. Variations in regions, economic conditions, and cultural backgrounds can significantly impact how these lifestyles are practiced and perceived. Addressing these limitations would involve incorporating diverse cultural and socioeconomic contexts and acknowledging the fluid nature of lifestyle practices.</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-16">Implications</hd> <p>The components, which aptly describe both minimalism and maximalism emotional expressiveness, reflectiveness, and an attitude of empathy (compassion) (Richards & Brown, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref73">36</reflink>], p. 20), on one hand, address the demands of contemporary culture and education, and on the other, provide the means through which these demands are expressed. They are tied to emotional imagination, empathy skills, ways of thinking about oneself and relationships with others and reflections on what constitutes a good (appropriate, fulfilling, and happy) life. Minimalism fosters empathy through mindfulness, introspection, and deliberate connections, while maximalism creates immersive environments that allow individuals to learn diverse perspectives and cultures. These trends also provide specific media tools and instructions for applying such principles.</p> <p>Both approaches manifest in educational media through distinct yet complementary strategies. Minimalism is evident in user interface and instructional design, where platforms like Google Classroom and Moodle prioritize clarity and reduce cognitive overload through streamlined navigation and restrained visual elements (Norman, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref74">32</reflink>]). In microlearning, applications such as Duolingo and Khan Academy employ bite-sized lessons that maintain conceptual integrity while eliminating extraneous content. Additionally, typography and visual design research suggests that clutter-free, high-contrast text improves readability and comprehension, allowing cognitive resources to focus on learning rather than processing superfluous stimuli (Mayer, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref75">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>Conversely, maximalism, though seemingly at odds with cognitive efficiency, leverages multimodal engagement to enhance learning. Gamification and virtual reality platforms, such as Minecraft, integrate dynamic visuals and interactive storytelling to foster experiential learning. Hypermedia and multimodal platforms, like Edutopia and BBC Bitesize, employ videos, infographics, and interactive elements to cater to diverse learning styles. This aligns with dual coding theory (Paivio, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref76">34</reflink>]), which posits that combining verbal and visual stimuli enhances memory retention.</p> <p>An optimal educational media strategy synthesizes both paradigms. AI-driven platforms like Coursera and Smart Sparrow adopt minimalist interfaces while incorporating maximalist engagement tools, such as real-time feedback and interactive simulations. According to Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref77">29</reflink>]), effective instructional design balances essential processing (learning-relevant content) with generative processing (motivation-driven engagement). For instance, TED-Ed videos blend minimalist narration with maximalist animation, optimizing retention. Similarly, blended learning environments integrate minimalist LMS platforms for structured content delivery alongside maximalist, experience-based methodologies like flipped classrooms and problem-based learning.</p> <p>Minimalism and maximalism are not opposing forces but complementary frameworks that, when applied strategically, enhance educational effectiveness. Minimalist approaches ensure clarity and cognitive efficiency, while maximalist strategies promote engagement and contextual depth. Future research should empirically assess these paradigms in diverse educational contexts to refine best practices, enabling educators to harness both deep learning and sustained engagement.</p> <hd id="AN0185256819-17">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <p>Correction Statement</p> <p>This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.</p> <ref id="AN0185256819-18"> <title> Notes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> A lifestyle is understood here as a relatively steady set of dispositions, tastes, opinions, objects, behaviours typical of given groups or individuals. 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  Data: Lifestyles, Identities and Aesthetics in the Discourse of Maximalists and Minimalists. A Critical Discourse Analysis with the Use of Corpus Linguistics Methods
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Aneta+Duda%22">Aneta Duda</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2349-3517">0000-0003-2349-3517</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Educational+Media+International%22"><i>Educational Media International</i></searchLink>. 2025 62(2):143-169.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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– Name: Pages
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  Data: 27
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  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research<br />Information Analyses
– Name: Subject
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computational+Linguistics%22">Computational Linguistics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Discourse+Analysis%22">Discourse Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Consumer+Economics%22">Consumer Economics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Influences%22">Social Influences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Life+Style%22">Life Style</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Decision+Making%22">Decision Making</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mass+Media%22">Mass Media</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept%22">Self Concept</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Aesthetics%22">Aesthetics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Semantics%22">Semantics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Trend+Analysis%22">Trend Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Attitudes%22">Social Attitudes</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/09523987.2025.2486938
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
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  Data: 0952-3987<br />1469-5790
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This paper undertakes an analysis of two divergent strategies aimed at driving culture towards the extremes: one involving stark minimalism and the other, gaudy maximalism. The former approach is predominantly embraced by the avant-garde, who possess the means to surround themselves with an array of commodities, thereby creating a distinguishing factor in a world characterized by excess and unification. Conversely, maximalism, whose origins can be traced back to the conception of luxury as abundance, seeks to eliminate fear. This study investigates the representation of minimalism and maximalism in a vast corpus of English-language articles. Specifically, the research addresses two questions: 1) How are the representations of lifestyles expressed in the most popular articles related to minimalism and maximalism? 2) What meanings do these representations convey? The primary contribution of this work is a set of meaning categories linked to the ways of justifying and realizing the minimalist and maximalist orientations. The findings of this study shed light on the discourse surrounding minimalism and maximalism, as well as illustrate how deeply entrenched these lifestyle choices are in contemporary social and educational systems.
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: EJ1473438
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      – Text: English
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      Pagination:
        PageCount: 27
        StartPage: 143
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      – SubjectFull: Computational Linguistics
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      – SubjectFull: Discourse Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Consumer Economics
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      – SubjectFull: Social Influences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Life Style
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      – SubjectFull: Decision Making
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      – SubjectFull: Mass Media
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      – SubjectFull: Self Concept
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      – SubjectFull: Aesthetics
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      – SubjectFull: Semantics
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      – TitleFull: Lifestyles, Identities and Aesthetics in the Discourse of Maximalists and Minimalists. A Critical Discourse Analysis with the Use of Corpus Linguistics Methods
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