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Challenges in Providing Parenting Support for Parents with Intellectual Disabilities in Japan

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Title: Challenges in Providing Parenting Support for Parents with Intellectual Disabilities in Japan
Language: English
Authors: Emiko Tanaka, Kinuko Sugiura, Marja W. Hodes, Maurice A. Feldman
Source: Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities. 2025 38(3).
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 8
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Information Analyses
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Parents with Disabilities, Intellectual Disability, Research, Misconceptions, Child Rearing, Research Needs, Attitudes toward Disabilities, Barriers, Services, Intervention
Geographic Terms: Japan
DOI: 10.1111/jar.70068
ISSN: 1360-2322
1468-3148
Abstract: Background: While there is now considerable research on parenting by persons with intellectual disabilities, most of this research comes from Western countries. A dearth of information exists about families headed by parents with intellectual disabilities from other countries. This paper summarises the state of research and practice in Japan, related to existing knowledge in the field. Method: We conducted a review of Japanese research and media information about parents with intellectual disabilities, relating the situation in Japan to existing research from primarily Western countries. Results: Evidence obtained suggests that Japan is only recently making progress to dispel eugenics mythology about sexuality and parenting in persons with intellectual disabilities and recognising the need for specialised supports. Conclusions: We make eight recommendations for future research, policy, and practice in Japan, including ending discriminatory practices, funding needed supports, and educating and training workers and professionals in evidence-based supports.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1475268
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0186163435;e0301may.25;2025Jun27.04:03;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0186163435-1">Challenges in Providing Parenting Support for Parents With Intellectual Disabilities in Japan </title> <p>Background: While there is now considerable research on parenting by persons with intellectual disabilities, most of this research comes from Western countries. A dearth of information exists about families headed by parents with intellectual disabilities from other countries. This paper summarises the state of research and practice in Japan, related to existing knowledge in the field. Method: We conducted a review of Japanese research and media information about parents with intellectual disabilities, relating the situation in Japan to existing research from primarily Western countries. Results: Evidence obtained suggests that Japan is only recently making progress to dispel eugenics mythology about sexuality and parenting in persons with intellectual disabilities and recognising the need for specialised supports. Conclusions: We make eight recommendations for future research, policy, and practice in Japan, including ending discriminatory practices, funding needed supports, and educating and training workers and professionals in evidence‐based supports.</p> <p>Keywords: intellectual disabilities; Japan; parenting</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Since the end of World War II, there has been a notable advancement in the field of research pertaining to parenting by persons with intellectual disabilities. However, much of this research has originated from Western countries, including Australia, Canada, Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In contrast, the body of research in Japan is relatively limited.</p> <p>The objective of this paper is to situate the current state of research and practice in Japan within the existing literature on this subject. First, we will analyse the current situation of parents with intellectual disabilities in Japan, including an examination of relevant laws and previous research. Next, we will introduce a contextual approach (Feldman [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref1">8</reflink>]), which guides recent research on parents with intellectual disabilities. We will summarise the literature on interventions and support for parents with intellectual disabilities. Finally, we will present recommendations for future research, policies, and practices in Japan, based on the findings of previous research in Japan and Western countries that are consistent with Japanese culture.</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-3">Situation in Japan</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186163435-4">Intellectual Disabilities Definition and Prevalence in Japan</hd> <p>In Japan, individuals seeking to demonstrate that they are persons with disabilities are required to apply for and obtain disability certificates through the government. There are three distinct categories of disability certificates: Physical Disability Certificate, Intellectual Disability Certificate, and Mental Disability Certificate (Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref2">35</reflink>]). This paper will focus on the Intellectual Disability Certificate (IDC).</p> <p>In a convoluted definition that may be due to translation errors, Article 2 of the Act on Support for Persons with Developmental Disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref3">1</reflink>]) defines a person with a developmental disability as someone "who has a developmental disability and whose daily or social life is restricted by the developmental disability and social barriers" (Translated from Japanese by the first and second authors). There is no mention of intellectual disabilities in the Act. The authority to issue IDCs is delegated to each prefecture and government‐designated city, with the criteria for issuance determined at the local level. Consequently, in reality, there is no nationally applicable definition of intellectual disability in Japan. Most jurisdictions use Japanese versions of standardised intelligence tests such as Tanaka Binet intelligence Scale V (Tanaka Education Institute [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref4">56</reflink>]) or the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale‐Third Edition (WAIS‐III; Wechsler [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref5">62</reflink>]). Like the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) intellectual disability definition (American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref6">2</reflink>]), measures of adaptive behaviour are included, such as the SM Social Life Skills Test, Third Edition (Ueno and Nagoshi [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref7">59</reflink>]), to identify intellectual disabilities. Degree of disability varies across jurisdictions from two to seven levels.</p> <p>In general, severe intellectual disability is defined as an IQ of less than 35, moderate intellectual disability as an IQ 35–50, and mild intellectual disability as an IQ 50–70. Some regions include IQ scores in the 80s combined with developmental disorders (Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref8">36</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref9">37</reflink>]). In Japan, developmental disorders include autism, Asperger's syndrome [sic], other pervasive developmental disabilities, learning disabilities [North American definition of average intelligence and significant academic delays], attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and other similar disorders of brain function whose symptoms usually appear at an early age and are specified by government ordinance Act on Support for Persons with Developmental Disabilities, Art. 2, 2016 (Translated from Japanese by first and second authors). There is no unique certificate system for people with developmental disabilities or disorders. Although the legal relationship between intellectual disabilities and developmental disabilities is not clear Takahashi ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref10">49</reflink>]), It is generally accepted that people who have one (or more) of the above developmental disabilities and also have an IQ that falls within the relevant (low) range should obtain a certification of intellectual disability; those who have a developmental disability and IQ above the local intellectual disability level should obtain a mental disability certificate. It is noted that Japan is currently engaged in a process of reviewing and standardising the IDC, with a view to aligning it with the AAIDD definition (Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref11">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>The most recent data (2022) indicate that there are 1,249,939 individuals with an IDC or approximately 1% of the general population in Japan according to the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref12">37</reflink>]). This prevalence is similar to the U.S. (Benevides et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref13">4</reflink>]), although it is recognised that estimates vary somewhat across studies depending on differences in definitions, methodologies, and other factors (McBride et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref14">27</reflink>]).</p> <p>Having an IDC has advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, certification can confer tax and employment benefits. However, the IDC may result in stigma that keeps qualified people from pursuing certification. Moreover, there are likely numerous individuals who are potentially eligible but are unaware of the application process or find it too complex and abandon efforts to obtain or maintain certification. Terakawa et al. ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref15">57</reflink>]) found that 60% of 173 mothers with intellectual disabilities did not have a certificate. Nobuhara and Nagawa ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref16">38</reflink>]) found that many mothers with intellectual disabilities obtained a certificate and began using disability welfare services only after the birth of their children.</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-5">Prevalence of Parents With Intellectual Disabilities in Japan</hd> <p>As in other countries, the precise prevalence of intellectual disabilities among parents in Japan is uncertain due to at least two specific factors in the context of Japan. First, there likely is a discrepancy between the number of individuals with an IDC and the number of persons who would meet the AAIDD criteria of intellectual disabilities. Second, the actual living conditions of people with disabilities are not fully understood due to the absence of questions about disabilities in most large‐scale surveys such as the national census. The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref17">34</reflink>]) "Survey on living difficulties for people with disabilities" revealed that 4.3% of IDC certificate holders were under 65 years of age and married, while 3.1% were living with their children. These percentages were demonstrably lower than those observed among individuals with physical disabilities (52.1% and 29.9%, respectively) and mental disabilities (27.1% and 15.5%, respectively).</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-6">Knowledge of the Rights of Parents With Disabilities in Japan</hd> <p>In Japan, the National Eugenic Law was enacted in 1940 with the objective of prohibiting individuals with disabilities from procreating. Following the country's transition to a democratic system after World War II, the Eugenic Protection Law was enacted in 1948 and remained in force until 1996. As indicated in the official statistics, a total of 24,993 cases of eugenic surgeries were conducted between the years 1948 and 1996, excluding those performed for the purpose of maternal protection. Of these cases, 16,475 were instances of forced sterilisation that did not require consent (House of Representatives [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref18">18</reflink>], Vol. 2:17). Moreover, despite being proscribed by the Eugenic Protection Law and related statutes, hysterectomies and oophorectomies have been performed in conjunction with one another for reasons including the burden on caregivers (e.g., menstrual care) (Matsubara [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref19">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>The 1996 amendment saw the deletion of the phrase "in order to prevent the birth of defective offspring from a eugenic perspective" and the renaming of the Eugenic Protection Law to the Maternal Protection Law. In 2001, the court ruled that the forced isolation and eugenic protection policies for Hansen's disease patients were unconstitutional and that the state was liable for compensation. After that, the government did not acknowledge its responsibility regarding the Eugenic Protection Law, and it was not until 2019 that a law was enacted to provide a one‐off payment of a lump sum of 3.2 million yen (about USD21,000, current exchange rates) per person in compensation for the Eugenic Protection Law. However, the government did not provide a clear apology that is expected and the court cases continued, with 39 cases being brought across the country.</p> <p>In 2022, Japan underwent an examination of its initial report on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which it ratified in 2014. The UN identified 93 concerns and made 92 recommendations, one note, and one encouragement. The recommendations included a proposal to review the content and deadline of the 2019 compensation system for the former Eugenic Protection Law, and to clearly prohibit forced sterilisation, including vasectomy, and forced abortion for disabled women in the future. Additionally, it was proposed that measures be taken to enable disabled people to choose who they live with, become parents, and fulfil their parenting responsibilities (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref20">31</reflink>]).</p> <p>While the Eugenic Protection Law has been recognised as a violation of the rights of individuals with disabilities, a recent incident has garnered significant attention as an illustration of the attitudes and customs surrounding parents with intellectual disabilities in Japan. An agency had required a couple to be sterilised to continue to live together in a group home from 1998 to 2022 (Yomiuri Shinbun Online [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref21">65</reflink>]).</p> <p>In response to this news report, Kyodo News (Ichikawa [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref22">19</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref23">20</reflink>]) conducted a survey of organisations affiliated with the Japan Group Home Association. The results showed that while 33.8% of group homes indicated that it was either "possible" or "somewhat possible" for married couples to live together, only 17.6% of group homes provided support for marriage, childbirth, and parenting. The lack of sufficient support for parents with intellectual disabilities and their children can be attributed to several factors, including a shortage of personnel, the attitudes of local communities, the unavailability of suitable living environments, and financial constraints. Note that the survey did not include important questions regarding workers' knowledge on how to support parents with intellectual disabilities and evidence‐based interventions for these families.</p> <p>A survey conducted by the MHLW (PwC Consulting LLC [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref24">41</reflink>]) of 2600 group home operators across Japan revealed that 15% of them provide consultation support, 14% provide information and advice on sexuality, and 9% provide support for social and economic independence. A mere 3% of the respondents indicated that they had provided support for childbirth and parenting over the previous two years.</p> <p>However, signs of change have finally arrived. On July 3, 2024, the Supreme Court of Japan ruled that the Eugenic Protection Law contravened the Constitution. The government was held responsible for enacting the law, legalising sterilisation, and failing to provide adequate compensation to the victims, even after the law was revised. In this legal proceeding, the plaintiffs, who were individuals with disabilities, were victorious in their entirety. On October 8, 2024, the "Law Concerning Payment of Compensation, etc. to Persons who have undergone Eugenic Surgery under the Former Eugenic Protection Law" was enacted, authorising the disbursement of 15 million yen (about USD97,000) to the person who underwent eugenic surgery and 5 million yen (about USD32,000) to their spouses (Children and Families Agency [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref25">6</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-7">Current State of Knowledge Regarding Supports for Parents With Intellectual Disabilities in J...</hd> <p>Sugimoto and Suemitsu ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref26">42</reflink>]) conducted a literature review of support systems for families of persons with intellectual disabilities in Japan regarding the difficulties they encounter in marriage and parenting, utilising Japanese academic search engines CiNii Articles and Ichushi. Their searches, using the terms "people with intellectual disabilities" and "marriage," and "intellectual disability" and "childcare" returned 28 results.</p> <p>For this paper, we also conducted a literature survey in accordance with the method of Sugimoto and Suemitsu ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref27">42</reflink>]). As a result of searching for literature using CiNii, 92 cases were found for "intellectual disability" and "childcare," and 28 cases were found for "intellectually disabled persons" and "childcare." Ichushi Web yielded 18 results using the search formula "person with intellectual disability," "parent," "parenting," "childcare," and "parents with intellectual disability." We excluded papers related to children with intellectual disability and support for the parenting of children with intellectual disabilities. Other exclusions included duplicates, overseas inspection reports, symposium reports, and literature reviews. We were unable to find any research combining the terms "intellectual disability," "parenting," and "program" on CiNii, except for Tanaka ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref28">52</reflink>]). A total of 48 papers were ultimately used in the literature review.</p> <p>As a feature of these papers, 16 were based on quantitative surveys of facilities across the country. In some cases, multiple papers analysed the same data, resulting in a total of eight surveys. Additionally, 18 interviews and case studies were conducted, though the facilities covered by these studies exhibited some overlap, limiting the number of facilities surveyed. In other words, there are very few places that provide support for marriage and parenting for people with intellectual disabilities that respond to surveys. The following sections summarise the findings of the current literature review and those of Sugimoto and Suemitsu ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref29">42</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-8">The Situation of Couples With Intellectual Disabilities</hd> <p>According to the surveys of Kido and Hayashi ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref30">23</reflink>]) and Tanaka ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref31">53</reflink>]), typical couples with intellectual disabilities had mild to moderate disabilities, resided in rented accommodation, did not utilise childcare support services, and were responsible for raising one child in a rural area. Nobuhara and Nagawa ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref32">38</reflink>]) found that a significant proportion of mothers with intellectual disabilities who were currently utilising services for individuals with disabilities had not utilised such services during their upbringing. Instead, they had married individuals without disabilities and only initiated the use of welfare services for individuals with disabilities after becoming parents and recognising the necessity for such assistance.</p> <p>These women seldom utilised general childcare support services. However, they were able to adequately parent with the support of their spouses and other family members; in a limited number of cases, they received disability support services (Nunokawa and Kase [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref33">39</reflink>]; Katoda [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref34">21</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref35">22</reflink>]; Suzuki et al. [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref36">48</reflink>]; Tanaka [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref37">50</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref38">51</reflink>]).</p> <p>Sugimoto and Suemitsu ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref39">42</reflink>]) identified "financial independence" and "meals" as significant issues in marriage and parenting involving persons with intellectual disabilities. Like in other countries, the annual disability allowance and other forms of government assistance are insufficient to cover the basic needs of a family (Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref40">33</reflink>]; Nobuhara and Nagawa [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref41">38</reflink>]; Sugimoto and Suemitsu [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref42">42</reflink>]; Tanaka [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref43">51</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref44">53</reflink>]). In particular, Japan's public spending on family policy is low compared to other developed countries, so families with children must bear a large proportion of the cost themselves. Sugimoto and Suemitsu ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref45">42</reflink>]) and Tanaka ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref46">55</reflink>]) pointed out that parents with intellectual disabilities struggle financially under societal pressure for parents to raise children without government support and, for example, to prepare healthy, homecooked meals.</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-9">Services and Support for Parents With Intellectual Disabilities</hd> <p>As previously stated, Japanese parents with intellectual disabilities did not utilise general childcare support services. As Nobuhara and Nagawa ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref47">38</reflink>]) observed, mothers with intellectual disabilities encounter significant challenges in balancing their daily lives, including housework, with childcare responsibilities. Consequently, they often seek assistance from welfare services for people with disabilities, such as home helpers. However, it is important to note that the role of home helpers in childcare is not as extensive as commonly assumed. According to a survey of public health nurses by Terakawa et al. ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref48">57</reflink>]), only 4% of home helpers provided childcare support for mothers with intellectual disabilities, even though since 1997, home helpers are able to provide childcare support (Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref49">32</reflink>]). Terakawa et al. ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref50">57</reflink>]) found a 4:1 ratio of family to other forms of social support, with the most common support source being the mother's husband, followed by the mother's mother, and then the child's daycare teacher or schoolteacher.</p> <p>In the context of disability welfare, there was a notable absence of structured support systems for key life domains such as sexuality education, marriage, and parenting (Tanaka [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref51">54</reflink>]). The provision of such support was largely contingent upon the individual initiative and commitment of supporters, which in turn shaped the scope and nature of the support offered by the organisation and the region (Tanaka [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref52">53</reflink>]). Indeed, Tanaka ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref53">51</reflink>]) observed that a social welfare corporation ceased to provide support for family marriage and parenting following the retirement of a highly enthusiastic supporter. As Katoda ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref54">22</reflink>]) and Tanaka ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref55">51</reflink>]) have noted, the support provided is significantly shaped by the ideas and values of the supporters. Sugimoto and Suemitsu ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref56">42</reflink>]) argue that the construction of a service system through the coordination and utilisation of existing social resources is required to support families with complex issues. They further contend that to realise community life that respects the self‐determination of people with intellectual disabilities, a society must be created where people can realise their hopes for marriage and parenting.</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-10">Contextual Adversity and the Movement Towards Its Resolution</hd> <p>As previously stated, the reality is that parents with intellectual disabilities are highly dependent on the support of their families. However, there are also times when the husband or other family members are unable or unwilling to provide support (Terakawa et al. [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref57">58</reflink>]). In some cases, the husband is also disabled, the mother is deserted by her husband, or the husband is violent towards the mother and/or children. In some instances, this results in divorce, while in others, the mother is unable to take the step of divorce due to the challenges involved. In other cases, the parents with intellectual disabilities are responsible for caring for their relatives, including financially. The role of the relatives can be a source of support or a barrier, depending on the circumstances (Tanaka [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref58">54</reflink>]).</p> <p>General parenting support services potentially may compensate for the lack of natural supports. However, general parenting support services may not be structured in a manner that is accessible to individuals with disabilities. For example, Makino ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref59">25</reflink>]) reports that a child of a couple with intellectual disabilities initially was denied admission to a daycare because of no system considering the intellectual disabilities of parents, although eventually the child was admitted after the negotiation. As mentioned above, the tendency for mothers with intellectual disabilities to eschew general childcare support services may be partly attributable to their perfunctory exclusion from the eligibility criteria for such services.</p> <p>In the absence of familial support and the inability to utilise childcare services, women with intellectual disabilities are effectively precluded from residing in the community with their children. Consequently, they are compelled to place their children in infant homes or children's homes (Funaki [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref60">16</reflink>]). Alternatively, they may be pressured to utilise a mother and child living support facility, where the requisite consideration for their disability is not always guaranteed due to the mother's disability being relatively minor and often unnoticed (Yamazaki [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref61">63</reflink>]; Yamazaki et al. [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref62">64</reflink>]).</p> <p>Sugiura and Fujisawa ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref63">43</reflink>]) identified the necessity to educate medical professionals who support parents with intellectual disabilities during the perinatal period. They published a "Handbook for health care and social care workers on pregnant women with Intellectual disabilities," which addresses the challenges faced by medical professionals when supporting mothers with intellectual disabilities and includes information on how to interact with mothers with intellectual disabilities and the services that are available to them.</p> <p>Sugiura and Fujisawa ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref64">45</reflink>]) published pamphlets on family planning and contraception, and followed up with guides to aspects of parenting such as breastfeeding and baby crying (Sugiura and Fujisawa [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref65">46</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref66">47</reflink>]). These guides were evaluated as accessible to parents with intellectual disabilities (Fujisawa and Sugiura [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref67">15</reflink>]; Sugiura and Fujisawa [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref68">44</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-11">Implications for Japan From Previous Research on Parents With Intellectual Disabilities</hd> <p>As parenting skills can be enhanced through contextually informed behavioural parenting education (Feldman and Tahir [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref69">13</reflink>]; Wade et al. [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref70">60</reflink>]; Zijlstra et al. [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref71">67</reflink>]), it is crucial to offer evidence‐based parent support programs. However, in Japan, the dissemination of basic parent support programs for the general population is just starting. Programs designed specifically for parents with intellectual disabilities have not yet been introduced, despite Tanaka's ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref72">52</reflink>]) Japanese translation of the Australian Parenting Young Children (PYC) program and her attempts to introduce it in Japan. Japan may benefit from previous studies in western countries that provide evidence for a contextual approach in supporting parents with intellectual disabilities.</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-12">Contextual Approach</hd> <p>A contextual approach towards child development and family life focuses on the influence and interactions of a myriad of proximal (e.g., family members, home environment); medial (e.g., neighbourhood, school, health services); and distal (e.g., government policies; societal expectations) experiences surrounding the family (Bronfenbrenner and Ceci [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref73">5</reflink>]; Feldman [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref74">8</reflink>]). For families headed by parents with intellectual disabilities, key contextual factors include societal and worker prejudice towards disabled parents, parental history (especially of trauma), parental physical and mental health, socioeconomic factors, life stressors, social support, availability of services, family and child characteristics, among other contextual variables (Feldman [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref75">8</reflink>]; McConnell et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref76">28</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref77">29</reflink>]; Wade et al. [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref78">61</reflink>]; Zeitlin and Augsberger [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref79">66</reflink>]). These experiences can create barriers to or provide support for successful parenting that lead to positive child and family lives.</p> <p>Children of parents with intellectual and related disabilities are at much higher risk of being taken into child protection care than children of non‐disabled parents (McConnell et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref80">28</reflink>]; Zeitlin and Augsberger [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref81">66</reflink>]). Apprehension decisions often are based on the unwarranted assumption that these parents are not capable of raising children (McConnell et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref82">29</reflink>]). Despite prevailing misconceptions, it is now apparent that parent intelligence or an intellectual disability label is not a strong predictor of parenting abilities and child outcomes, and contextual factors noted above play a more important role (Feldman et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref83">11</reflink>]). Increasing evidence, particularly from large national, state, and administrative databases from several countries (e.g., Australia, Canada, Sweden, UK, US), shows that when certain contextual variables are controlled (e.g., economic adversity), differences in parent, child, and family outcomes between families with and without parents with intellectual disabilities are eliminated or greatly diminished (Feldman and Aunos [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref84">9</reflink>]; Zeitlin and Augsberger [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref85">66</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-13">Current Interventions and Supports for Parents With Intellectual Disabilities</hd> <p>When parents are identified as having intellectual disabilities or related cognitive disabilities, the main concern is that they will neglect their children due to a lack of parenting skills (McConnell et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref86">28</reflink>]). Further, child welfare and other workers report not having adequate knowledge and skills to support parents with intellectual disabilities (Laliberte [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref87">24</reflink>]; Pacheco et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref88">40</reflink>]). Most of the intervention literature over the past 40 years has focused on identifying effective strategies to build parenting skills in parents with intellectual disabilities (see reviews by Feldman and Aunos [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref89">9</reflink>]; Zijlstra et al. [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref90">67</reflink>]). Reflecting the four decades of research, Zijlstra et al. ([<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref91">67</reflink>], 3) described six "key elements" of effective parenting interventions for parents with intellectual disabilities who have children up to 2.5 years old. These elements are: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref92">1</reflink>) consideration of contextual factors (Feldman [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref93">8</reflink>]); (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref94">2</reflink>) early intervention starting in pregnancy (Dodge [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref95">7</reflink>]); (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref96">3</reflink>) promoting a "working alliance" between professionals and parents (Meppelder et al. [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref97">30</reflink>]); (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref98">4</reflink>) professionals having knowledge of UN Conventions on the Rights of Children (to be safe) and Persons with Disabilities (right to parent), as well as government policies to support parents with intellectual disabilities; (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref99">5</reflink>) behavioural, skill‐focused interventions (Feldman and Tahir [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref100">13</reflink>]); and (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref101">6</reflink>) home‐based and long‐term as needed Feldman and Aunos [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref102">9</reflink>]). This intervention approach, as exemplified by the Step‐by‐Step Parenting Program (Feldman and the Surrey Place Parenting Enhancement Program [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref103">14</reflink>]) and similar programs, not only quickly increases parenting skills but also results in long‐term maintenance of skills, corresponding benefits to the children's health and development, decreases in parenting stress, and substantial reductions in child removal rates (Augsberger et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref104">3</reflink>]; Feldman et al. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref105">10</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref106">12</reflink>]; Hodes et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref107">17</reflink>]). The latter finding provided strong social validity for this parent training model and suggests that child protection authorities independently recognised the training improvements in parenting skills such that the children were no longer seen in need of protection.</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-14">Recommendations for Future Research, Policy, and Practice Directions for Japan</hd> <p>Considering the historical context, current state of affairs, and limited information in Japan, coupled with the wealth of international research and expertise regarding parenting by persons with intellectual disabilities, we humbly make the following recommendations:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Government and agency discriminatory policies that violate the rights of persons with disabilities to marry and Raise Children Should Be Banned</item> <p></p> <item> Japan should implement policies consistent with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities with respect to supporting the rights of persons with disabilities to get married and raise a family.</item> <p></p> <item> The Government of Japan should conduct a large‐scale census‐like survey with the objective of obtaining a more comprehensive understanding of the actual living conditions and roles of people with intellectual disabilities in their communities, including parenting. This recommendation has been submitted to the United Nations.</item> <p></p> <item> There is a need for policies and funding that address the lack of appropriate supports for parents with intellectual disabilities in Japan</item> <p></p> <item> Support agencies should recognise and assist parents with intellectual disabilities who do not have intellectual disabilities certification, but who need additional accommodations to succeed in the parenting role.</item> <p></p> <item> Agencies supporting parents with intellectual disabilities should take a contextual view and use evidence‐based strategies to maximise the likelihood that the children may stay with their families and be raised in a nurturing, healthy, and safe environment.</item> <p></p> <item> Social and support workers, and medical professionals, should receive relevant education about parenting with intellectual disabilities, understanding that an intellectual disability, per se, is not the cause of inept or maladaptive parenting. Workers and professionals should reflect on their possible negative biases towards parents with intellectual disabilities in light of existing research on the contextual model and evidence‐based interventions, reviewed earlier. Supporters should receive hands‐on training on how best to assist families headed by parents with intellectual disabilities and teach parenting skills.</item> <p></p> <item> Research Funding Should Be Provided to Increase Knowledge and Evidence‐Based Practices to Support Parents With Intellectual Disabilities and Their Children in Japan</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0186163435-15">Conclusion</hd> <p>In Japan, the social and legislative context has historically made it implausible to envisage that individuals with intellectual disabilities could become parents. Furthermore, Japanese research on marriage and parenting by people with intellectual disabilities has not advanced to a sufficient degree. As demonstrated in this paper, individuals with intellectual disabilities who are married or parents face discrimination and significant obstacles to forming and maintaining a family.</p> <p>In response to the 2024 Supreme Court decision and the recommendations set forth in the concluding observations of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, there are indications of a potential progressive shift in attitudes and supports. A practical implication of this paper is that it is imperative that a system be established to guarantee the rights of Japanese parents with intellectual disabilities to raise their children, based on the research and findings that have been promoted in Western countries and adapted for Japan.</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-16">Conflicts of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0186163435-17">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.</p> <ref id="AN0186163435-18"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref3" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0186163435-19"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Act on Support for Persons with Developmental Disabilities. 2016. https://laws.e‐gov.go.jp/law/416AC1000000167 (Original in Japanese; translated by first and second authors).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref6" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD). 2021. 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Feldman</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref77"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref78"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref83"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref97"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref103"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref105"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref106"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref107"></nolink>
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An: EJ1475268
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PubType: Academic Journal
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Challenges in Providing Parenting Support for Parents with Intellectual Disabilities in Japan
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Emiko+Tanaka%22">Emiko Tanaka</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kinuko+Sugiura%22">Kinuko Sugiura</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Marja+W%2E+Hodes%22">Marja W. Hodes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Maurice+A%2E+Feldman%22">Maurice A. Feldman</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Applied+Research+in+Intellectual+Disabilities%22"><i>Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities</i></searchLink>. 2025 38(3).
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 8
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Information Analyses
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parents+with+Disabilities%22">Parents with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intellectual+Disability%22">Intellectual Disability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Research%22">Research</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Misconceptions%22">Misconceptions</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Child+Rearing%22">Child Rearing</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Research+Needs%22">Research Needs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attitudes+toward+Disabilities%22">Attitudes toward Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Barriers%22">Barriers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Services%22">Services</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intervention%22">Intervention</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Japan%22">Japan</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1111/jar.70068
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1360-2322<br />1468-3148
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Background: While there is now considerable research on parenting by persons with intellectual disabilities, most of this research comes from Western countries. A dearth of information exists about families headed by parents with intellectual disabilities from other countries. This paper summarises the state of research and practice in Japan, related to existing knowledge in the field. Method: We conducted a review of Japanese research and media information about parents with intellectual disabilities, relating the situation in Japan to existing research from primarily Western countries. Results: Evidence obtained suggests that Japan is only recently making progress to dispel eugenics mythology about sexuality and parenting in persons with intellectual disabilities and recognising the need for specialised supports. Conclusions: We make eight recommendations for future research, policy, and practice in Japan, including ending discriminatory practices, funding needed supports, and educating and training workers and professionals in evidence-based supports.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1475268
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1475268
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1111/jar.70068
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 8
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parents with Disabilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intellectual Disability
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Research
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Misconceptions
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Child Rearing
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Research Needs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Attitudes toward Disabilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Barriers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Services
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intervention
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Japan
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Challenges in Providing Parenting Support for Parents with Intellectual Disabilities in Japan
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Emiko Tanaka
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Kinuko Sugiura
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Marja W. Hodes
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Maurice A. Feldman
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 05
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1360-2322
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1468-3148
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 38
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities
              Type: main
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