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First Principles of Instruction Approach to Developing a Collaborative Knowledge Organizer-Based Digital Game of Biology Learning

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Title: First Principles of Instruction Approach to Developing a Collaborative Knowledge Organizer-Based Digital Game of Biology Learning
Language: English
Authors: Jia-Hua Zhao (ORCID 0000-0002-3287-4015), Shu-Tao Shangguan, Guo Long, Qi-Fan Yang (ORCID 0000-0003-1791-985X)
Source: Journal of Science Education and Technology. 2025 34(4):704-718.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 15
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Educational Principles, Teaching Methods, Science Instruction, Cooperative Learning, Computer Games, Educational Games, Science Activities, Science Education, Biology, Game Based Learning, Student Centered Learning, Concept Mapping, Science Achievement, Cognitive Processes, Difficulty Level, Learning Strategies
DOI: 10.1007/s10956-025-10205-4
ISSN: 1059-0145
1573-1839
Abstract: Digital game-based learning is a student-centered learning environment that influences learning success and learning motivation. Whereas, a poorly designed instructional game will impair learning. Through extensive knowledge construction and high engagement, collaborative concept mapping strategies have the potential to address above problems. Simultaneously, the first principles of instruction could further enhance the effectiveness of collaborative concept mapping. Therefore, a collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game utilizing the first principles of instruction approach was proposed for Chinese eighth graders in biology courses. This study adopted a quasi-experimental design with three groups of 92 students: a collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game (CKO-DG) group (N = 33), a knowledge organizer-based digital game (KO-DG) group (N = 31), and a collaborative digital game (CDG) group (N = 28). The findings demonstrated that the CKO-DG students achieved the best biological achievement and motivation. However, the KO-DG students lacked peer support, resulting in a higher cognitive load; the CDG students lacked a proper strategy to organize their knowledge, resulting in low learning outcomes.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1477772
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0186780449;4n601aug.25;2025Jul23.05:04;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0186780449-1">First Principles of Instruction Approach to Developing a Collaborative Knowledge Organizer-Based Digital Game of Biology Learning </title> <p>Digital game-based learning is a student-centered learning environment that influences learning success and learning motivation. Whereas, a poorly designed instructional game will impair learning. Through extensive knowledge construction and high engagement, collaborative concept mapping strategies have the potential to address above problems. Simultaneously, the first principles of instruction could further enhance the effectiveness of collaborative concept mapping. Therefore, a collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game utilizing the first principles of instruction approach was proposed for Chinese eighth graders in biology courses. This study adopted a quasi-experimental design with three groups of 92 students: a collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game (CKO-DG) group (N = 33), a knowledge organizer-based digital game (KO-DG) group (N = 31), and a collaborative digital game (CDG) group (N = 28). The findings demonstrated that the CKO-DG students achieved the best biological achievement and motivation. However, the KO-DG students lacked peer support, resulting in a higher cognitive load; the CDG students lacked a proper strategy to organize their knowledge, resulting in low learning outcomes.</p> <p>Keywords: Technology-enhanced learning; Instructional design; Collaborative learning; Concept map; Science education; Education Curriculum and Pedagogy Specialist Studies In Education Psychology and Cognitive Sciences Psychology</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-2">Motivation and Background</hd> <p>Understanding biological concepts is the key to learning biology (Monkovic et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref1">42</reflink>]). However, in traditional biology classrooms, the teaching activities are often limited to memorizing biological facts, preventing students from summarizing, generalizing, and applying knowledge (Lazarowitz & Penso, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref2">36</reflink>]; Monkovic et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref3">42</reflink>]). Consequently, students' biological understanding cannot form a comprehensive system that is both differentiated and interconnected (Caño & Ormazabal, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref4">2</reflink>]; Kinchin, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref5">33</reflink>]). Moreover, in this traditional teacher-centered biology classrooms, students are less engaged (Jones et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref6">30</reflink>]), leading to a significant negative impact on their learning motivation and effectiveness (Çimer, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref7">11</reflink>]). Therefore, new learning techniques are needed to address the aforementioned problems in current biology classrooms (Liang et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref8">38</reflink>]).</p> <p>Recent studies have shown that digital game-based learning is a student-centered approach that encourages active participation (Demirkiran & Tansu Hocanin, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref9">14</reflink>]; Hwang et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref10">26</reflink>]; Wang & Zheng, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref11">58</reflink>]); hence, it is effective in improving student's learning motivation and achievement (Hsu & Cheng, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref12">21</reflink>]; Yang & Lu, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref13">59</reflink>]; Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref14">60</reflink>]). For example, Hwang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref15">25</reflink>]) developed a multi-dimensional repertory grid-based educational game (MDRG game) in geography courses. Findings stated that students who learned with the MDRG game had better learning achievement, and learning motivation. On the other hand, some studies pointed out that digital games are not cure-all (Kao, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref16">31</reflink>]; Ke, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref17">32</reflink>]; Kuo, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref18">35</reflink>]). Although games are a medium of affordance, Clark et al. ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref19">12</reflink>]) suggested that the quality of a medium for learning depends on its design. In particular, poorly designed instructional games may result in increased cognitive load (Wang, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref20">56</reflink>]) and make learning less effective compared to traditional teaching methods (Hitchens & Tulloch, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref21">20</reflink>]). Therefore, digital games must be combined with appropriate learning strategies to ensure the effective integration of education and gameplay (Charsky & Mims, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref22">5</reflink>]; Chen & Hsu, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref23">7</reflink>]; Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref24">60</reflink>]).</p> <p>Previous studies have utilized a variety of learning strategies into games, such as peer assessment (Hananto & Panjaburee, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref25">19</reflink>]), cognitive level (Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref26">60</reflink>]), and concept mapping (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref27">37</reflink>]). Among these, concept mapping is the knowledge organizer to help students summarize knowledge by organizing relationships between concepts (Novak, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref28">43</reflink>]; Novak & Gowin, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref29">44</reflink>]), facilitating the integration of new and existing knowledge, and promoting meaningful learning (Eshuis et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref30">15</reflink>]; Hwang et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref31">25</reflink>]). However, adding concept mapping directly to games without using other strategic interventions may divert students' attention and lower learning quality (Charsky & Ressler, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref32">6</reflink>]). It also would be difficult for students with less basic knowledge to engage in the concept mapping-based context (García et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref33">18</reflink>]), leading to high cognitive load. According to the collaborative learning theory, when students work in small groups together, it may maximize their learning abilities and reduce cognitive load (Johnson et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref34">29</reflink>]). Hence, under a collaborative concept mapping environment, learners could compare and rethink their concepts with peers to construct new knowledge (Liu et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref35">39</reflink>]; Pan et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref36">47</reflink>]).</p> <p>Nevertheless, due to the fact that most conversations in collaborative concept mapping are focused on the passive completion of tasks rather than the discussion of conceptual relationships (Gao et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref37">17</reflink>]), this pedagogical approach does not always significantly reach the expected results (Cecilia, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref38">3</reflink>]; Gao et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref39">17</reflink>]; Riahi & Pourdana, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref40">49</reflink>]; Sebi̇t & Yildiz, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref41">54</reflink>]). As a successful strategy for promoting active learning (Badali et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref42">1</reflink>]), the first principle of instruction (FPI) proposed by Merrill ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref43">41</reflink>]) may bring some turnarounds. By integrating several active learning strategies and encouraging students to apply what they have learned into their lives, FPI is effective for learning biology (Zarei et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref44">62</reflink>]). Therefore, this study proposed a collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game under the guidance of the FPI design theory to promote middle school students' learning achievement, motivation, and awareness in biology courses. Hence, to test the effectiveness of this proposed learning method in middle school biology classes, the following research questions were given:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Do students using the collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game(CKO-DG) have higher learning achievement than those using the knowledge organizer-based digital game (KO-DG) and the collaborative digital game (CDG)?</item> <p></p> <item> Do students using the CKO-DG have a lower cognitive load than those using the KO-DG and the CDG?</item> <p></p> <item> Do students using the CKO-DG have higher learning motivation in biology courses than those using the KO-DG and the CDG?</item> <p></p> <item> Do students using the CKO-DG have higher collaborative awareness than those using the CDG?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0186780449-3">The Development of a Collaborative Knowledge Organizer-Based Digital Game</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186780449-4">Structure of Collaborative Knowledge Organizer-Based Digital Game</hd> <p>The development software used in this study is RPG Maker MV from Enterbrain Incorporation. The structure of the collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game system is shown in Fig. 1, which consists of a task module, a concept map module, and a learning process module.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 The structure of the collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game system</p> <p>The task module focuses on presenting individual learning tasks and group collaborative learning tasks. The game contains four challenge levels, and each group of four students needs to complete one challenge independently to get the password, as shown in Fig. 2.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2 The game interface</p> <p>The learning process module mainly supports students' learning process. For example, when students enter the game for the first time, the system gives the game's storyline, and students need to follow the storyline to explore and learn. This module also records students' learning behaviors data and learning results, which can be used to assess and analyze how well students are meeting their training goals.</p> <p>Learning content in this game is about fungi, such as yeast, molds, and mushrooms. Students could systematically learn the different forms, structures, nutrition, and reproduction methods of different bacteria. Since low-learning achievement in biology is brought on students' tendency to confuse past and new concepts, when they have misconceptions about the prior learning experiences (Caño & Ormazabal, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref45">2</reflink>]; Kinchin, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref46">33</reflink>]). Therefore, concept mapping is used in this system to clarify new concepts and connect the prior and new knowledge following how they relate to one another, ensuring that students can remove any confusion and fully understand the new information.</p> <p>The concept mapping module was divided into four categories based on the level of students' self-construction: expert concept map, fill-in-the-blank concept map, semi-free concept map, and free concept map (Chiu & Hsiao, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref47">10</reflink>]; Ruiz-Primo et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref48">50</reflink>]; Yin et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref49">61</reflink>]), as shown in Fig. 3.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 3 The four presentations of concept maps in the game</p> <p>Regarding the expert concept map, it would present the entire task structure and key points to guide students' learning. Also, it serves as a knowledge organization tool to help students make connections between prior and new knowledge as they read the learning materials.</p> <p>Regarding the fill-in-the-blank concept map, it would act as the assessment tool in the game. After students entered the game, the system would guide them to review linking words of prior knowledge in the form of fill-in-the-blank questions.</p> <p>Regarding the semi-free concept maps, it would also be the assessment tool at the end of the exploration section. Students were given few hints to test their mastery of the connections between prior and new knowledge.</p> <p>Regarding the free concept maps, as a communication and collaboration tool, students would work in groups or individually to draw free concept maps to summarize their knowledge of fungi.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-5">Application of Merrill's First Principles of Instruction in the Collaborative Knowledge Organ...</hd> <p>After synthesizing various instructional design theories and models, Merrill ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref50">41</reflink>]) identified the following five principles that form the core foundation of FPI: problem-centered, activation, demonstration, application, and integration, as shown in Fig. 4. The FPI has also undergone some expansion (Collis & Margaryan, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref51">13</reflink>]), such as collaborative connections, knowledge sharing, and learning from others.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 4 Five principles of the FPI</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-6">Problem-Centered</hd> <p>The game scenario involved three locations: the market, the forest, and the home. Each scenario contains real-life learning tasks, such as use yeast to make bread at home, gather edible mushrooms in the forest, and purchase fresh oranges at the market, as shown in Fig. 5.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 5 Three game scenarios and related tasks</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-7">Activation</hd> <p>As illustrated in Fig. 6, before students begin to explore each scenario, the concept mapping module presents a fill-in-the-blank concept map of the previous concept. This phase was to activate prior knowledge, and students must recall and apply previous concepts to complete the missing concept maps.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 6 Activating prior knowledge through fill-in-the-blank concept maps</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-8">Demonstration</hd> <p>The learning content were primarily offered as videos, audio, photos, and models. In addition, expert concept maps were utilized as teaching guidance (Ruiz-Primo & Shavelson, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref52">51</reflink>]) to provide the entire task structure and key knowledge, as shown in Fig. 7. This would aid students in making connections between prior knowledge and new knowledge.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 7 The expert concept maps in the digital game)</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-9">Application</hd> <p>The game displayed a semi-free concept map at the end of the scenario investigation, as seen in Fig. 8, to assess how well students understand the concepts covered in this phase. To demonstrate their comprehension of the interconnections between concepts, students must fill out the semi-free concept map. After finishing the exercise, they are given quick feedback on the results to clarify their learning outcomes. For instance, while answering a question correctly, students receive gold coins; when answering incorrectly, they lose coins and have three choices: asking a peer for help, viewing the explanation, or declining aid. In contrast, concept maps are not provided to students participating in the collaborative digital game; instead, they are given general fill-in-the-blank questions to answer.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 8 The semi-free-form concept map in the digital game</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-10">Integration</hd> <p>To fulfill the principle of integration, students are instructed to share the knowledge gained with their peers and illustrate how it has been integrated into their daily lives. Additionally, in line with the expansion of the first principles of instruction emphasizing collaborative learning, students are urged to assist one another and actively engage in the learning process to enhance academic discussion; as a result, a collaborative mechanism is set up in this game. A free concept map is utilized as a communication and cooperation tool in the game, and students are guided to negotiate in groups to jointly write a free concept map to summarize the knowledge of fungus jointly. To create a collaborative group concept map, each student is invited to offer information and ideas, explain those concepts, and develop a group consensus through comparison and discussion. Students learning with the knowledge organizer-based digital game were required to work alone drawing the free concept mapping. The collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game, on the other hand, requires a collaborative group approach to concept mapping.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-11">Experiment Design</hd> <p>To evaluate the effectiveness of the collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game with the first principles of instruction, a quasi-experimental study was conducted with grade eight students in biology courses. There was a total of three groups in this experiment. The pre-test and post-test of biology learning achievement, questionnaires on cognitive load, and learning motivation were measured. Finally, a semi-structured interview was conducted to get more in-depth comments from them.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-12">Participants</hd> <p>The experimental participants in this study were eighth-grade students in a middle school in Fujian Province, China, with an average age of about 14 years old. A total of 92 students in three classes were involved in this experiment. The students in experimental group 1, with a total of 33 students, learned with the collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game (EG1: CKO-DG); the students in experimental group 2, with 31 students, learned with the knowledge organizer-based digital game (EG2: KO-DG), without the integration of collaborative learning. A total of 28 students in the control group learned with the collaborative digital game (CG: CDG), excluding the support from concept mapping. All students were informed that they could withdraw from the experiment at any time and that this would not harm their learning before the experiment started. To protect the privacy of all participants, all data were presented anonymously. Also, three classes were taught by the same biology teacher.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-13">Instruments</hd> <p>The paper–pencil test to measure students' biology learning achievement was designed by experienced biology teachers and researchers. The pre-test was developed to assess that students had the same prior knowledge of biology before the research started. The question format of the test was adapted from the school final exam with 10 multiple-choice questions, 5 judgment questions, and 6 fill-in-the-blank questions out of 100 points. The post-test was developed to assess students' learning effects after taking different learning method, with the same question types and scores as the pre-test, and Cronbach's alpha value was 0.72.</p> <p>The questionnaire for measuring students' cognitive load was adapted from a measure designed by Hwang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref53">24</reflink>]). The questionnaire has eight items with seven-point Likert scale approach. For example, "The learning content in this activity is difficult for me." and "In this learning activity, the teaching style or the way the material is presented is difficult for me." The Cronbach's alpha values was 0.85.</p> <p>The questionnaire for measuring students' motivation was cited from Wang and Chen ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref54">57</reflink>]) adapted from the learning motivation measure designed by Pintrich et al. ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref55">48</reflink>]). The questionnaire has six items and uses the five-point Likert scale method. For example, "In this course, I prefer challenging material because I can learn new things that way.". The Cronbach's alpha value was 0.79.</p> <p>The questionnaire for measuring students' collaborative awareness was cited from Hwang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref56">23</reflink>]) with seven items, using a five-point Likert scale approach. For example, "I am willing to provide feedback to my classmates for their reference after reading their assignments or reports." and "I can provide a synthesis of everyone's opinions based on the ideas or knowledge of my classmates." The Cronbach's alpha value was 0.94.</p> <p>The interview outline was adapted from a semi-structured interview outline designed by Hwang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref57">22</reflink>]). The interview had seven open-ended questions, such as "How does the digital game-based teaching style differ from what you have experienced before?", "Would you recommend your classmates to use this system or this way of learning?" to get detailed insights on how students think.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-14">Experimental Procedure</hd> <p>The experimental procedure is shown in Fig. 9. Before starting the research, all students had learned the basic concepts of bacteria and fungi to lay down prior knowledge. In the first week of the experiment, the teacher introduced students to the way to operate the digital game for 10 min, and CKO-DG and KO-DG students learned how to draw free concept maps on the software for 15 min. Each of the three groups would spend 35 min completing pre-test questionnaires on cognitive load and motivation, and a pre-test on biology learning achievement. From week 2 to week 3, students in the CKO-DG group learned with the collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game, and students in the KO-DG group learned with the knowledge organizer-based digital game. While the students in the CDG group used a digital game with only collaborative learning strategies, and the group tasks were presented as task lists without concept mapping strategies. In the fourth week, the three groups of students were required to complete post-test questionnaires, as well as a post-test on biology learning achievement. Finally, nine students from each group were randomly selected for semi-structured interviews.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 9 The experimental procedure</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-15">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186780449-16">Analysis of Learning Achievement</hd> <p>The pre-test learning achievement served as the covariate, the groups as the independent variable, and the post-test learning achievement as the dependent variable. The homogeneity check of the regression coefficients for the pre-test scores was <emph>F</emph> = 3.068, <emph>p</emph> > 0.05, thus allowing for a one-way covariance analysis. To test the effectiveness of a collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game in the biology classroom, ANCOVA was conducted in this study.</p> <p>The ANCOVA analysis of the students' post-test results is shown in Table 1, which demonstrated significant learning achievement differences between the three groups (<emph>F</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref58">2</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref59">89</reflink>)</subs> = 3.13, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05). Post hoc analyses were also carried out to examine the specific variations in the three groups' academic achievement. The LSD test showed that the CKO-DG group had an adjusted score of 77.79 and an adjusted standard deviation of 3.53; the KO-DG group had an adjusted score of 67.59 and an adjusted standard deviation of 3.36, whereas the adjusted score for the CDG group was 64.93 and the adjusted standard deviation was 3.90. The results indicated that students learning in the collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game performed significantly better in biology than in the knowledge organizer-based and collaborative digital games.</p> <p>Table 1 Descriptive data and the ANCOVA result of the learning achievements post-test for the three groups</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Group</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>N</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Mean</p></th><th align="left"><p>S.D</p></th><th align="left"><p>Adjusted mean</p></th><th align="left"><p>Group</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>F</italic><sub>(2,89)</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p>Post hoc</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>(1) CKO-DG</p></td><td align="left"><p>33</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>77.79</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>23.32</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>74.58</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.53</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.13<sup>*</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>(1) > (2)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>(2) KO-DG</p></td><td align="left"><p>31</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>67.42</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>16.15</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>64.93</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.33</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left"><p>(1) > (3)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>(3) CDG</p></td><td align="left"><p>28</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>71.25</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>19.73</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>67.59</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.39</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>*<emph>p</emph><.05</sups> </p> <hd id="AN0186780449-17">Analysis of Cognitive Load</hd> <p>The three groups' cognitive load homogeneity test results were <emph>F</emph> = 2.398, <emph>p</emph> > 0.05, which permitted a one-way ANOVA.</p> <p>The one-way ANOVA results in Table 2 showed that there was a significant difference in cognitive load across the three groups (<emph>F</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref60">2</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref61">89</reflink>)</subs> = 5.90, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01). According to the results of the multiple comparisons, the mean values for the CKO-DG, KO-DG, and CDG groups were 2.13 with a standard deviation of 0.82, 2.89 with a standard deviation of 1.10, and 2.93 with a standard deviation of 1.20, respectively. The study suggested that students learned with a notably lower cognitive load in collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital games than those who did in knowledge organizer-based and collaborative digital games.</p> <p>Table 2 The ANOVA result of the cognitive load post-questionnaire for the three groups</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Group</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>N</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Mean</p></th><th align="left"><p>S.D</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>F</italic><sub>(2,89)</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>p</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Post hoc</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>(1) CKO-DG</p></td><td align="left"><p>33</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.82</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>5.90**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.004</p></td><td align="left"><p>(1) < (2)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>(2) KO-DG</p></td><td align="left"><p>31</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.89</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.10</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left"><p>(1) < (3)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>(3) CDG</p></td><td align="left"><p>28</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.93</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.20</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>**<emph>p</emph><.01</sups> </p> <hd id="AN0186780449-18">Analysis of Learning Motivation</hd> <p>The regression coefficient homogeneity check for pre-learning motivation was <emph>F</emph> = 1.575, <emph>p</emph> > 0.05, so the conditions for one-way ANCOVA were met.</p> <p>Table 3 displays the findings of the ANCOVA analysis of the students' post-learning motivation, which revealed significant differences between the three groups (<emph>F</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref62">2</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref63">89</reflink>)</subs> = 4.07, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05). Post hoc analyses were also carried out to investigate specific differences. The CKO-DG, KO-DG, and CDG groups received an adjusted score and adjusted standard deviation on the LSD test (<emph>p</emph> < 0.05) as 4.08 and 0.14, 3.97 and 0.11, and 3.65 and 0.11, respectively. That is, the students who received the collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game and knowledge organizer-based digital game presented a markedly higher level of biology learning motivation than those who received the collaborative digital game.</p> <p>Table 3 The ANCOVA result of the learning motivation post-questionnaire for the three groups</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Group</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>N</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Mean</p></th><th align="left"><p>S.D</p></th><th align="left"><p>Adjusted mean</p></th><th align="left"><p>Group</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>F</italic><sub>(2,89<italic>)</italic></sub></p></th><th align="left"><p>Post hoc</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>(1) CKO-DG</p></td><td align="left"><p>33</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.60</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.14</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.07*</p></td><td align="left"><p>(1) > (3)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>(2) KO-DG</p></td><td align="left"><p>31</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.03</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.55</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.97</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.11</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left"><p>(2) > (3)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>(3) CDG</p></td><td align="left"><p>28</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.69</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.53</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.65</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.11</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>*<emph>p</emph><.05</sups> </p> <hd id="AN0186780449-19">Analysis of Collaborative Awareness</hd> <p>Likewise, pre and post-collaborative awareness in the CKO-DG and CDG groups was conducted. The regression coefficient homogeneity check for pre-collaborative awareness was <emph>F</emph> = 1.253, <emph>p</emph> > 0.05. Thus, using a one-way covariate analysis was appropriate. The pre-questionnaires on collaborative awareness served as the covariate, the groups as the independent variable, and the post-questionnaires on collaborative awareness as the dependent variable.</p> <p>The collaborative awareness ANCOVA results are shown in Table 4, with a significant difference between the CKO-DG group and the CDG group (F<subs>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref64">2</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref65">89</reflink>)</subs> = 3.15, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05). The results of the LSD test revealed that the CDG group had an adjusted score of 3.66 and an adjusted standard deviation of 11. In contrast, the CKO-DG group had an adjusted score of 3.99 and an adjusted standard deviation of 0.10. The results indicated that the collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game learning students had significantly higher collaborative awareness than those in collaborative digital game learning.</p> <p>Table 4 The ANCOVA result of the collaborative awareness post-questionnaire for the two groups</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Group</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>N</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Mean</p></th><th align="left"><p>S.D</p></th><th align="left"><p>Adjusted mean</p></th><th align="left"><p>Group</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>F</italic><sub>(2,89)</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p>Post hoc</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>CKO-DG</p></td><td align="left"><p>33</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.97</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.49</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.99</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.70*</p></td><td align="left"><p>(1) > (3)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>(3) CDG</p></td><td align="left"><p>28</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.68</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.57</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.66</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.11</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>*<emph>p</emph><.05</sups> </p> <hd id="AN0186780449-20">Analysis of Interview</hd> <p>By referring to (Chang & Hwang, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref66">4</reflink>]) analysis of interview coding, the results of the interviews in this study are shown in Table 5. It was found that most students believed that collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital games could increase their learning motivation and help them improve learning outcomes. In addition to this, students also made some suggestions for digital games.</p> <p>Table 5 Coding items and their occurrences of the interview results</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Topic</p></th><th align="left"><p>Code</p></th><th align="left"><p>CKO-DG</p></th><th align="left"><p>KO-DG</p></th><th align="left"><p>CDG</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Improving learning motivation</p></td><td align="left"><p>Classes are fun and vivid with independent exploration</p></td><td align="left"><p>15</p></td><td align="left"><p>10</p></td><td align="left"><p>9</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Necessary to apply to other disciplines</p></td><td align="left"><p>8</p></td><td align="left"><p>8</p></td><td align="left"><p>6</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Recommended for classmates, friends, or teachers</p></td><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>11</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Improving learning achievement</p></td><td align="left"><p>Summarize knowledge to improve understanding and memorization</p></td><td align="left"><p>8</p></td><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>0</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Present systematic knowledge to guide learning</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>0</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Peer interaction fosters thinking</p></td><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>0</p></td><td align="left"><p>8</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Suggestions for improvement</p></td><td align="left"><p>Increase difficulty and challenges</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>0</p></td><td align="left"><p>2</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>The learning content should highlight the important and difficult parts</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>0</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>The grouping should be appropriate</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>0</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Regarding learning motivation, most respondents in the three classes stated that the digital game learning method was more engaging, creative, and autonomous than the conventional teacher-led classroom. For instance, student 1 in the CKO-DG group said, "It was more unique and exciting to learn biology through games, and it piqued my interest in the subject. There was a sense of passive learning transitioning into active learning when I was studying the concept maps in the game and then creating my concept map." "I enjoyed playing the game, and there were videos inside, so I could learn while playing, which was different and more attractive than the prior biology lessons," remarked student 2 of the CDG group.</p> <p>Regarding improving learning achievement, most students in both the CKO-DG and KO-DG groups agreed that by showing the connections between concepts in a more visual form, the concept mapping could help them organize, summarize, and retain knowledge. According to student 2 of the CKO-DG group, it could be pointed out that "Concept maps guided me to develop related knowledge from a central idea so that I could have an overall knowledge framework and help me to build a comprehensive picture in my mind to understand the connections between biological knowledge better." Student 1 of the KO-DG group added, "The concept maps made the knowledge clearer than the wordy description of the topic in the textbook."</p> <p>Regarding the drawbacks of digital games, some students urged that the game design should be more personalized to the needs of students at various levels. For instance, student 3 in the CKO-DG group stated, "The game was really simple to grasp. I wanted to make it harder because I already knew all of them. Additionally, the videos were excessively long; hopefully, we could change the speed on our own." Some students thought emphasizing the game's educational elements would be good. Student 3 in the KO-DG group, for example, stated, "I was confused by the gameplay in terms of which parts require the most focus and which may be skipped. Future games should more clearly illustrate the crucial points, challenging information, and simple ones."</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-21">Discussion</hd> <p>The current study developed a collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game for middle school biology classes. It investigated how three different learning methods (a collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game, a knowledge organizer-based digital game, and a collaborative digital game) affected students' biology learning achievement, cognitive load, learning motivation, and collaborative awareness. Data was gathered using pre-and post-tests, pre-and post-questionnaires, learning behaviors, and semi-structured interviews.</p> <p>In answering research question one, the results showed that students in CKO-DG group outperformed those in the CDG group. This could be because, concept mapping is an effective tool for visualizing the hierarchy of generalizations and expressing propositional relationships in an interconnected conceptual system (Pan et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref67">47</reflink>]). Therefore, it helps students organize, represent, and explain their knowledge effectively (Novak & Gowin, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref68">44</reflink>]). In this study, instead of having the knowledge fragmented, students are able to establish connections to what they are learning when they fill in the blanks on concept maps during the activation and application phases. For expert concept mapping, through the integration of fragmented knowledge, students' understanding of the old and new knowledge is strengthened, improving their cognitive abilities (Furtado et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref69">16</reflink>]; Hwang et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref70">25</reflink>]; Novak & Gowin, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref71">44</reflink>]). Many scholars have also proven that concept maps can help students diagnose learning problems and reveal contradictions in their cognitive knowledge, thereby helping them adjust their understanding of knowledge and form scientific concepts (Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref72">8</reflink>]; Chiou et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref73">9</reflink>]; Novak et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref74">45</reflink>]; Pan et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref75">47</reflink>]).</p> <p>Meanwhile, the CKO-DG group also had better learning achievement than the KO-DG group. This might because, collaborative learning strategies, in which learners negotiate and discuss together in groups to actively think and present their understanding for solving problems, can be effective in helping students cope with difficulties and acquire knowledge (García et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref76">18</reflink>]; Liang et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref77">38</reflink>]; Sánchez & Olivares, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref78">53</reflink>]). In this study, students in the CKO-DG group collaborated to build concept maps and shared knowledge. In contrast, students in the KO-DG group could only finish the free concept maps by themselves. García et al. ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref79">18</reflink>]) argued that concept mapping is not very useful for students who struggle to build knowledge independently. According to Ostwald ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref80">46</reflink>]), when learners collaborate to create a concept map, they automatically draw on their knowledge to connect with what others are presenting. For all participants, learning becomes more relevant when prior knowledge is activated and used to establish links with existing knowledge systems (Sánchez & Olivares, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref81">53</reflink>]). Hence, combining concept mapping with collaborative learning facilitates students' development of meaningful learning and improves learning outcomes (Liu et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref82">39</reflink>]; Pan et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref83">47</reflink>]; Sadita et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref84">52</reflink>]). This finding is consistent with the research of Hwang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref85">23</reflink>]), where a concept map-oriented mindtool for ubiquitous collaborative learning raised students' motivation to learn and enhanced their academic achievement.</p> <p>The response to research question 2 is that students in the CKO-DG group had a lower cognitive load than students in the either KO-DG group or CDG group. Stoyanova and Kommers ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref86">55</reflink>]) suggested that collaborative concept maps have great potential to help students reduce the cognitive load of individually constructed concept maps. Concept mapping tasks or individual concept mapping can make students feel too much pressure and reduce their interest (Charsky & Ressler, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref87">6</reflink>]). The free concept mapping task requires a high level of knowledge construction. As a result, students who lack peer support will have a higher cognitive load when faced with a concept-mapping task. While, students who rely solely on collaborative communication but do not have knowledge organization tools in the learning process will still struggle to understand and integrate their knowledge, thus resulting in an overload of learning (Sadita et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref88">52</reflink>]).</p> <p>Based on the results of learning motivation to answer research question 3, students in CKO-DG group and KO-DG group are more effective in increasing learning motivation than in CDG group. Students in the CKO-DG group and KO-DG group were guided by different concept maps in each of the four stages of the first principles of instruction. For example, during the demonstration phase, students in the CKO-DG group and KO-DG group were going through expert concept maps to understand the entire task structure and key knowledge. This helped students make connections between prior knowledge and new knowledge. However, the students in the CDG group were learning through text from the textbook. In contrast to traditional biology explanations, which are tedious and lengthy, concept maps illustrate biology concepts visually and pictorially, making the delivery of knowledge easier and may make students more willing to enjoy the learning process, thus increasing their learning motivation.</p> <p>In addition to addressing the above research questions, compared to KO-DG group, students in CKO-DG group generated better collaborative awareness. According to Johnson and Johnson ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref89">28</reflink>]), deep peer interaction and positive dependency are necessary for collaborative learning construction principles. In this study, The completion of the concept map by the CKO-DG group's students in their own groups during the integration phase offers a greater opportunity for peer-to-peer communication and collaboration. The collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game captured intense peer interaction, with group members expressing, debating, reflecting, and negotiating based on co-authored concept maps. Regarding positive dependency, all participants in the collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital gaming group must be actively involved in resolving the game's obstacles as playing in the group. Consequently, students are interdependent and cannot achieve success independently. Therefore, a collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game can improve students' sense of communication and collaborative learning. One participant in the CKO-DG group stated that his favorite activity throughout the session was participating in group projects. This is because he gains inspiration from his peers' talks, and peer sharing and collaboration turn the learning task into more of a mission. Working as a team to finish a task is a wonderful experience.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-22">Conclusions and Limitations</hd> <p>In summary, the experimental results showed that the collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game in middle school biology classrooms could improve students' biology learning achievement, learning motivation, communication awareness, and collaborative awareness and reduce cognitive load during learning. These findings further demonstrate the necessity and effectiveness of combining learning strategies and learning theories with game design.</p> <p>However, this study still has some limitations and suggestions for future research. First, to better align concept maps with students' present knowledge, this study divided them into four categories according to the students' level of knowledge construction. However, this also resulted in students being influenced not only by the concept maps but also by personalized factors in the learning process, which makes it difficult to determine whether the benefits of the digital game stemmed from the concept map strategy or personalized features (Komalawardhana et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref90">34</reflink>]; Marin & Mohan, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref91">40</reflink>]). Therefore, future research may consider separating these two dimensions more carefully in the experimental design to accurately understand the independent effects on student learning outcomes. Furthermore, some students mentioned in the interviews that the experimental period of this study was short and that the learning content was not personalized enough. In other words, future studies may extend the experimental period, allow students to experience the characteristics of digital game-based learning fully, and develop learning content that meets the different cognitive levels of students, thus making the learning process more adaptive and personalized. Lastly, Johnson and Johnson ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref92">27</reflink>]) mentioned that interaction is one of the important factors in ensuring the effectiveness of collaborative learning. Therefore, the collection and behavioral analysis of communicative discourse among students should adequately complement the research findings.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-23">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>The authors appreciate all the ART Lab members including Dada Yang who participated in the data collection and provided assistance during the research.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-24">Author Contribution</hd> <p>Jia-Hua Zhao: software, conceptualization, formal analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing. Shu-Tao Shangguan: software, investigation, data curation, visualization, writing—review and editing. Guo Long: software, investigation, data curation, visualization. Qi-Fan Yang: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, formal analysis, validation, writing—review and editing.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-25">Funding</hd> <p>This study is supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant number 62107010] and Fujian Province Educational Science Planning [grant number FJWTZD21-07].</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-26">Data Availability</hd> <p>The data can be obtained by sending a request email to the corresponding author.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-27">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0186780449-28">Ethical Approval</hd> <p>Not applicable.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-29">Consent to Participate</hd> <p>Informed consent was obtained from the participants in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-30">Consent for Publication</hd> <p>The authors affirm that human research participants provided informed consent for publication of the study.</p> <hd id="AN0186780449-31">Informed Consent</hd> <p>To respect participants' rights, all of their personal information and individual achievement were concealed. 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  Data: First Principles of Instruction Approach to Developing a Collaborative Knowledge Organizer-Based Digital Game of Biology Learning
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  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jia-Hua+Zhao%22">Jia-Hua Zhao</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3287-4015">0000-0002-3287-4015</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Shu-Tao+Shangguan%22">Shu-Tao Shangguan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Guo+Long%22">Guo Long</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Qi-Fan+Yang%22">Qi-Fan Yang</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1791-985X">0000-0003-1791-985X</externalLink>)
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  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Science+Education+and+Technology%22"><i>Journal of Science Education and Technology</i></searchLink>. 2025 34(4):704-718.
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  Label: Availability
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 15
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Principles%22">Educational Principles</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Methods%22">Teaching Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Science+Instruction%22">Science Instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cooperative+Learning%22">Cooperative Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Games%22">Computer Games</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Games%22">Educational Games</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Science+Activities%22">Science Activities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Science+Education%22">Science Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Biology%22">Biology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Game+Based+Learning%22">Game Based Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Centered+Learning%22">Student Centered Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Concept+Mapping%22">Concept Mapping</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Science+Achievement%22">Science Achievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cognitive+Processes%22">Cognitive Processes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Difficulty+Level%22">Difficulty Level</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Learning+Strategies%22">Learning Strategies</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s10956-025-10205-4
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1059-0145<br />1573-1839
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Digital game-based learning is a student-centered learning environment that influences learning success and learning motivation. Whereas, a poorly designed instructional game will impair learning. Through extensive knowledge construction and high engagement, collaborative concept mapping strategies have the potential to address above problems. Simultaneously, the first principles of instruction could further enhance the effectiveness of collaborative concept mapping. Therefore, a collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game utilizing the first principles of instruction approach was proposed for Chinese eighth graders in biology courses. This study adopted a quasi-experimental design with three groups of 92 students: a collaborative knowledge organizer-based digital game (CKO-DG) group (N = 33), a knowledge organizer-based digital game (KO-DG) group (N = 31), and a collaborative digital game (CDG) group (N = 28). The findings demonstrated that the CKO-DG students achieved the best biological achievement and motivation. However, the KO-DG students lacked peer support, resulting in a higher cognitive load; the CDG students lacked a proper strategy to organize their knowledge, resulting in low learning outcomes.
– Name: AbstractInfo
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  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1477772
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1477772
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        Value: 10.1007/s10956-025-10205-4
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 15
        StartPage: 704
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Educational Principles
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teaching Methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Science Instruction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cooperative Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Computer Games
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Games
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Science Activities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Science Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Biology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Game Based Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Centered Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Concept Mapping
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Science Achievement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cognitive Processes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Difficulty Level
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Learning Strategies
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: First Principles of Instruction Approach to Developing a Collaborative Knowledge Organizer-Based Digital Game of Biology Learning
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            NameFull: Shu-Tao Shangguan
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Guo Long
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Qi-Fan Yang
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 08
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1059-0145
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1573-1839
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 34
            – Type: issue
              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Science Education and Technology
              Type: main
ResultId 1