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Motivation to Change Predicts College Students' Utilization of Self-Help Resources

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Title: Motivation to Change Predicts College Students' Utilization of Self-Help Resources
Language: English
Authors: Alyson Kaufman, Robin Nemeroff
Source: Journal of American College Health. 2025 73(6):2711-2719.
Availability: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 9
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Stress Management, Stress Variables, Student Motivation, Self Efficacy, Predictor Variables, Change, Help Seeking, Self Help Programs, Intervention, Undergraduate Students, Gender Differences, Racial Differences, Ethnicity, Age Differences
DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2024.2334082
ISSN: 0744-8481
1940-3208
Abstract: Background: Stress and mental health difficulties are common burdens on college students. College counseling centers have been overrun by demand. Thus, self-help interventions may offer a promising alternative to traditional college counseling services. Methods: The current study examined the influence of perceived stress, motivation to change, and self-efficacy beliefs on college students' use of self-help resources, to determine whether these factors would predict follow-up with self-help recommendations. Results: Results of stepwise linear regression models suggest that perceived stress and self-efficacy did not predict self-help resource utilization. Different types of self-help recommendations did not predict different levels of follow-up. However, motivation to change was a significant predictor college students' self-help resource use, and this variable was particularly important when self-help recommendations were less structured. Conclusions: These findings can help to predict which college students are likely to make use of self-help resources, and inform targeted individual treatment.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1479637
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0187189412;acl01jul.25;2025Aug11.02:23;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0187189412-1">Motivation to change predicts college students' utilization of self-help resources </title> <p>Background: Stress and mental health difficulties are common burdens on college students. College counseling centers have been overrun by demand. Thus, self-help interventions may offer a promising alternative to traditional college counseling services. Methods: The current study examined the influence of perceived stress, motivation to change, and self-efficacy beliefs on college students' use of self-help resources, to determine whether these factors would predict follow-up with self-help recommendations. Results: Results of stepwise linear regression models suggest that perceived stress and self-efficacy did not predict self-help resource utilization. Different types of self-help recommendations did not predict different levels of follow-up. However, motivation to change was a significant predictor college students' self-help resource use, and this variable was particularly important when self-help recommendations were less structured. Conclusions: These findings can help to predict which college students are likely to make use of self-help resources, and inform targeted individual treatment.</p> <p>Keywords: Self-help; college students; motivation to change</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-2">Introduction</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187189412-3">Stress, mental health, and help-seeking among college students</hd> <p>College can be an incredibly stressful time for young adults,[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] and many college students report feeling overwhelmed with responsibilities and stressors related to their personal and academic life.[[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref3">4</reflink>]] These increased levels of stress, even for students reporting as few as one to two stressful events in the past 12 months, are strongly associated with various mental health disorders.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref4">1</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref5">3</reflink>] In addition, college students suffering from such difficulties (psychological distress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms) often present with lower self-esteem, limited optimism, and a low sense of self-efficacy.[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref6">5</reflink>] The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in loneliness (emotionally and socially) among college students, increasing the risk of mental illness or exacerbating prior symptoms.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref7">6</reflink>]</p> <p>Although as many as 75% of college students report "moderate" or "high" levels of stress, it is estimated that only 30% of college students seek psychological services each year.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref8">7</reflink>] Barriers to college students seeking mental health services include stigma, denial or perceived lack of need for treatment, concerns about confidentiality, access, cost, time, and lack of insight or understanding of their current symptoms.[[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref9">8</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>]] An additional barrier during COVID-19 for college students was difficulty accessing services.[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref11">12</reflink>] Many college students also report wanting to handle their difficulties on their own, or plan to talk to their friends or relatives instead of a mental health professional.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref12">13</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-4">The feasibility and effectiveness of self-help interventions</hd> <p>Due to the multitude of barriers limiting the use of traditional counseling, there is a need for alternative interventions such as self-help resources, and evidence-based self-help techniques have grown in availability and popularity. As college counseling centers are seeing a steep increase in the number of students requiring services, 37.2% of centers have implemented a 'stepped care approach,' offering a range of services with various levels of frequency and intensity.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref13">14</reflink>] Implementation of the stepped care approach has helped to expand college students' access to treatment through various techniques, including self-help, wellness coaching, mindfulness classes, mobile apps, and online resources.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>]</p> <p>Self-help interventions may offer many benefits. In addition to decreasing demands on college counseling centers and saving clinicians' time, self-help interventions are easy to access, are cost-effective, and decrease stigma. They also allow the individual to work according to their preferred schedule and pace.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>] As such, college students report being quite satisfied with the use of self-help resources and have found them to be relatively easy to use.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref16">16</reflink>]</p> <p>Research has found that students may prefer self-help resources to remote therapy modalities such as telemental health services or anonymous online chats,[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>] and some college students in distress already use self-help resources instead of professional health supports.[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref18">18</reflink>] Thus, students may be more likely to seek out self-help resources over professional support,[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref19">18</reflink>] and self-help recommendations may allow students who otherwise may not seek treatment to get help.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref20">19</reflink>]</p> <p>In addition, to offering a feasible and acceptable alternative to professional treatment or a meaningful first step toward use of psychological services in the future, self-help interventions have also been found to be effective alternatives to traditional therapeutic services.[[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref21">20</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref22">22</reflink>]] Recent studies have found guided self-help interventions to be as efficacious as therapist-administered treatment,[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref23">23</reflink>] and they have considerable impact on reducing stress.[[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref25">26</reflink>]]</p> <p>Overall, self-help interventions have risen in popularity and are shown to help reduce mental health struggles (e.g., anxiety, depression, and perceived stress) and improve well-being.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref26">26</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref27">28</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref28">30</reflink>]] Specifically, mindfulness and other stress management interventions have grown in popularity and efficacy, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref29">32</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref30">33</reflink>] As college students experience high levels of stress, offering a range of self-help interventions can be an effective way to assist them in managing their emotional responses to stressors on their own.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-5">Hypothesized predictors of self-help utilization</hd> <p>Although self-help interventions are effective and readily available, there is limited research regarding which college students make use of these resources. Perceived stress, motivation to change, and self-efficacy beliefs all have been found to be important psychological factors related to treatment adherence and success in various contexts (i.e., health psychology, mental health treatment).[[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref31">34</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref32">36</reflink>]] As such, it was hypothesized that each of these factors might also predict self-help resource utilization. Clinically, if we can determine who will make use of self-help techniques, we can better target treatment recommendations to students who are most likely to make use of them.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-6">Stress</hd> <p>Research has found a significant relationship between perceived stress and the use of traditional counseling services.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref33">8</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref34">35</reflink>] Although stress may also be a potential predictor of self-help resource utilization, there is scant research on this topic and findings are mixed. Some research has found that college students with higher levels of stress are more likely to have used self-help resources in the past and be interested in them currently.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref35">17</reflink>] However, other research concludes that perceived stress does not predict participants' adherence to self-help programming,[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref36">37</reflink>] and lower levels of stress may actually predict greater treatment adherence to self-help programs.[[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref37">38</reflink>]] Thus, the limited research in this area is inconclusive and warrants additional study.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-7">Motivation to change</hd> <p>Motivation to change refers to an individual's willingness to implement a change, and Prochaska and DiClemente's transtheoretical model[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref38">40</reflink>] highlights various stages of motivation to change, including precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance.[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref39">40</reflink>]<emph>Precontemplation</emph> refers to individuals who have no immediate plans to change their negative behavior (within the next 6 months).[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref40">41</reflink>] Individuals in the <emph>contemplation</emph> stage intend to make changes during the next 6 months. <emph>Preparation</emph> involves an individual's intention to act and make changes in their behavior in the next 30 days.[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref41">41</reflink>] During the <emph>action</emph> and <emph>maintenance</emph> phases, individuals have already changed their overt behavior and are motivated to sustain these changes.[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref42">41</reflink>] Thus, those in the precontemplation and contemplation are less motivated to pursue change than those in the action and maintenance stages.</p> <p>The concept of motivation to change has become increasingly popular in the health psychology field and is often used to target risky health behaviors (i.e., substance use and eating).[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref43">41</reflink>] Numerous studies implicate the influence of the stages of change model on positive behavior, and readiness (motivation) to change has gained recent attention in predicting treatment outcomes.[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref44">42</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref45">43</reflink>]</p> <p>Despite the growing use of the motivation to change model with treatment outcome research, less is known regarding the relationship between the motivation to change and the use of treatment recommendations. Prochaska and colleagues suggest that individuals in the precontemplation stage may be more likely to explore self-help materials,[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref46">41</reflink>] and there are emerging data establishing a relationship between the stages of change model and adherence to recommendations in health psychology and among patients with acute mental illness.[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref47">36</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref48">44</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref49">45</reflink>] However, there are gaps in the literature regarding the association between motivation to change and self-help utilization. Since motivation to change appears to be an essential personal characteristic linked to treatment adherence and outcome, the current study hypothesized that motivation to change might also be a significant predictor of self-help utilization.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-8">Self-efficacy</hd> <p>Albert Bandura's self-efficacy theory suggests that individuals with high self-efficacy beliefs approach complex tasks and situations as challenges that they can successfully master.[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref50">46</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref51">47</reflink>] While individuals with high self-efficacy are confident in their ability to cope and overcome stressors and difficult events, those with low self-efficacy appraise challenges and difficulties as unmanageable and believe they do not have the skills to overcome them.[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref52">46</reflink>]</p> <p>The relationship between self-efficacy and treatment utilization for physical health issues has been well-studied. Research has shown that individuals with high levels of self-efficacy are more likely to adhere to medication and medical recommendations for health issues such as diabetes, weight loss, and hypertension.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref53">34</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref54">48</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref55">49</reflink>] Although the relationship between self-efficacy and mental health treatment adherence has been explored less frequently, some evidence highlights the importance of this relationship. High levels of self-efficacy have been associated with greater treatment adherence in psychological interventions for insomnia and anxiety disorders.[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref56">50</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref57">51</reflink>] As self-efficacy appears to predict treatment adherence to both health and psychological interventions, it was hypothesized that self-efficacy also might predict the use of self-help resources.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-9">Current study</hd> <p>The current study explored the impact of perceived stress, motivation to change, and self-efficacy beliefs on college students' use of self-help resources. Broadly speaking, the study aimed to determine which of the variables of interest (stress, motivation to change, and self-efficacy) were associated with follow-up on self-help treatment recommendations. It was hypothesized that higher levels of perceived stress, motivation to change, and self-efficacy among college students would predict a greater frequency of self-help resource use. We offered students a variety of stress-reduction resources (i.e., structured, online mindfulness training program, a handout with a recommended list of evidence-based, stress-reduction techniques for students to choose from, or a combination of the online mindfulness program and handout) in order to determine whether certain evidence-based strategies would be more widely adopted than others.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-10">Material and methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187189412-11">Participants</hd> <p>Undergraduate college students at a regional state university were recruited for participation in this research study using flyers, emails, and an online listing of research studies that met students' experiential learning requirements for psychology course credit. Recruitment materials asked if students were feeling stressed and offered them the opportunity to participate in the "Stress Reduction Study," which would offer them self-help, stress reduction resources free of charge.</p> <p>A total of 313 college students expressed interest in participating in the study; however, only 274 responded and completed the initial questionnaire. Those who completed the initial questionnaire were not included in final data analyses if they did not complete the follow-up questionnaire (<emph>n</emph> = 111), inconsistently responded to questions (<emph>n</emph> = 9; demonstrated by answering questions with reverse scores in an incongruent manner), or if they began new stress reduction practices outside of the provided materials during the course of the study (<emph>n</emph> = 26). Three additional students (two graduate students and one recent alumna) were also removed from the sample since they were not undergraduates (<emph>n</emph> = 3). Therefore, all analyses were conducted on a total of 125 participants. See Table 1 for completion rates within each treatment group.</p> <p>Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion of participants by group.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Participants</td><td>Website</td><td>Handout</td><td>Both</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Assigned to Groups (<italic>n</italic> = 274)</td><td char=".">92</td><td char=".">92</td><td char=".">90</td></tr><tr><td>Non-Completers (<italic>n</italic> = 111)</td><td char=".">36</td><td char=".">33</td><td char=".">42</td></tr><tr><td>Inconsistent Responders (<italic>n</italic> = 9)</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">1</td></tr><tr><td>Adopted Stress-Reduction Techniques Outside of Recommended Materials (<italic>n</italic> = 26)</td><td char=".">16</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">8</td></tr><tr><td>Graduate Students (<italic>n</italic> = 3)</td><td char=".">0</td><td char=".">0</td><td char=".">3</td></tr><tr><td>Total Participants (<italic>N</italic> = 125)</td><td char=".">37</td><td char=".">52</td><td char=".">36</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note</emph>. Although a total of 313 students were interested in the study, 274 were randomly assigned to each of the treatment groups. Total participants refers to students included in research analyses for the current study.</p> <p>Most participants (78.4%) were women, and ages ranged from 16-55 years old (<emph>Mdn</emph> = 20 years). The sample was ethnically diverse with representation from many groups. Table 2 contains detailed demographic information about the sample (each group had similar characteristics).</p> <p>Table 2. Participant demographic characteristics.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>Total (<italic>N</italic> = 125)</td><td>Mindfulness (<italic>n</italic> = 37)</td><td>Handout (<italic>n</italic> = 52)</td><td>Combined (<italic>n</italic> = 36)</td></tr><tr><td>Characteristic</td><td><italic>n</italic> (%)</td><td><italic>n</italic> (%)</td><td><italic>n</italic> (%)</td><td><italic>n (</italic>%)</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Gender</td><td>χ<sup>2</sup> = 8.78, <italic>p</italic> =.19</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Men</td><td char=".">22 (17.6)</td><td char=".">9 (24.3)</td><td char=".">10 (19.2)</td><td char=".">3 (8.3)</td></tr><tr><td> Women</td><td char=".">98 (78.4)</td><td char=".">27 (73.0)</td><td char=".">40 (76.9)</td><td char=".">31 (86.1)</td></tr><tr><td> Other</td><td char=".">2 (1.6)</td><td char=".">0 (0.0)</td><td char=".">2 (3.8)</td><td char=".">0 (0.0)</td></tr><tr><td> Did Not Disclose</td><td char=".">3 (2.4)</td><td char=".">1 (2.7)</td><td char=".">0 (0.0)</td><td char=".">2 (5.6)</td></tr><tr><td>Race</td><td>χ<sup>2</sup> = 8.77, <italic>p</italic> =.72</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> White</td><td char=".">50 (40.0)</td><td char=".">15 (40.5)</td><td char=".">22 (42.3)</td><td char=".">13 (36.1)</td></tr><tr><td> Hispanic</td><td char=".">31 (24.8)</td><td char=".">10 (27.0)</td><td char=".">11 (21.2)</td><td char=".">10 (27.8)</td></tr><tr><td> African American</td><td char=".">20 (16.0)</td><td char=".">6 (16.2)</td><td char=".">8 (15.4)</td><td char=".">6 (16.7)</td></tr><tr><td> Asian</td><td char=".">10 (8.0)</td><td char=".">3 (8.1)</td><td char=".">5 (9.6)</td><td char=".">2 (5.6)</td></tr><tr><td> Mixed</td><td char=".">6 (4.8)</td><td char=".">1 (2.7)</td><td char=".">1 (1.9)</td><td char=".">4 (11.1)</td></tr><tr><td> Other</td><td char=".">5 (4.0)</td><td char=".">2 (5.4)</td><td char=".">3 (5.8)</td><td char=".">0 (0.0)</td></tr><tr><td> Did Not Disclose</td><td char=".">3 (2.4)</td><td char=".">0 (0.0)</td><td char=".">2 (3.8)</td><td char=".">1 (2.8)</td></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td>χ<sup>2</sup> = 4.40, <italic>p</italic> =.36</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> 16-17</td><td char=".">4 (3.2)</td><td char=".">3 (8.1)</td><td char=".">1 (1.9)</td><td char=".">0 (0.0)</td></tr><tr><td> 18-24</td><td char=".">103 (82.4)</td><td char=".">29 (78.4)</td><td char=".">43 (82.7)</td><td char=".">31 (86.1)</td></tr><tr><td> ≥25</td><td char=".">18 (14.4)</td><td char=".">5 (13.5)</td><td char=".">8 (15.4)</td><td char=".">5 (13.9)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0187189412-12">Procedure</hd> <p>A northeastern university provided IRB approval for the current study and those who volunteered to participate completed informed consent. IRB approval was obtained for all William Paterson University (WPU) students, with no age limits or restrictions. Data was collected across three semesters (Spring 2021 – Fall 2021). Noteably, data collection occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic. All participants completed a baseline questionnaire via Qualtrics, an online questionnaire platform. Although the questionnaire asked about demographic information, stress, various mood states (i.e., anxiety, irritability, fatigue), worry, rumination, attention, self-efficacy, and motivation to change, the current study only examined responses to the measures of stress, self-efficacy, and motivation to change (current study's predictor variables). Once the baseline questionnaires were completed, each participant was randomly assigned to receive one of three types of self-help recommendations − 1) a link to a free mindfulness website with a structured two-week mindfulness-based stress reduction training program; 2) a stress reduction handout with a list of recommended evidence-based, stress reduction techniques students could use flexibly, on their own schedule; and 3) both a link to the mindfulness website and the stress reduction handout.</p> <p>Those in the mindfulness website group were provided detailed instructions about how to access the mindfulness website (mindfulnessexercises.com), which included prerecorded, daily mindfulness exercises delivered through guided meditation videos. Once on the website, participants were asked to go to the free course, "Mindfulness Made Easy" found under the "Intro to Mindfulness" tab. The mindfulness website offered a structured, daily mindfulness practice for 14-days. Each day, the video included on average a two-minute introduction followed by a 10- to 15-minute meditation practice.</p> <p>Students in the stress-reduction handout condition were provided a PDF file with a recommended list of evidence-based stress-reduction techniques. The handout included a brief description of each technique such as "deep breathing twice a day for five minutes," or "progressive muscle relaxation can be used to tighten your muscles, hold them tight for 10 s, and then slowly release." Participants were provided a total of 13 recommended self-help techniques. Notably, the handout did not provide specific instructions on how frequently or when to use the resources, and this was left entirely up to the participants themselves.</p> <p>Lastly, participants in the combined condition received both the link to the mindfulness website and the electronic stress-reduction handout. Although these were the same resources as those in the above groups, participants in the combined condition were provided the materials two weeks after their enrollment in the study since this was initially designed as a comparison condition as part of a larger study.</p> <p>All participants were asked to complete a follow-up assessment with self-help resource usage questions two weeks after they received the recommended materials. At the endpoint, the data were explored to determine whether the hypothesized predictor variables (stress, motivation to change, self-efficacy beliefs) were associated with the frequency of self-help resource use.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-13">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187189412-14">Baseline questionnaire</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187189412-15">Perceived stress scale 52</hd> <p>The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) is a 10-item self-report measure used to assess individuals' stress levels. High scores are obtained by individuals who appraise situations in their lives as more distressing. The scale was created for the use in a range of populations, and normed in a college sample (α =.89).[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref58">53</reflink>] Participants are asked to rate their experiences in the past month on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). A sample item includes: "In the past month, how often have you found that you could not cope with all the things that you had to do?" Internal consistency in the current study was comparable to previous research (α =.89). Scores can be interpreted using the following ranges: low (0-13), moderate (<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref59">14-26</reflink>), and high (<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref60">27-40</reflink>) perceived stress.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-16">Stages of change readiness and treatment eagerness scale- stress 54</hd> <p>The Stages of Change Readiness and Treatment Eagerness Scale (SOCRATES) was developed to assess motivation to change, paralleling Prochaska & DiClemente's stages of change model.[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref61">40</reflink>] The 19-item scale factors into three subscales: taking steps, recognition, and ambivalence (α =.60 −.85). Participants are presented a Likert scale (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref62">1-5</reflink>) to report how strongly they agree or disagree with each item.</p> <p>Since the original SOCRATES scale was designed to focus on problem drinking, the scale was adapted in the current study so that all references to drinking were substituted with a reference to stress. For example, the item "I have already started making some changes in my drinking" was changed to "I have already started making changes to reduce my stress." Since its original use, the SOCRATES scale has been modified by other researchers to assess issues such as obesity[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref63">55</reflink>] and anxiety.[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref64">42</reflink>] The modified scale used in the current study appeared to be a reliable measure of motivation, with high internal consistency (taking steps, α =.90). The analyses for the current study were conducted exclusively with the taking steps subscale (8 items), which measured one's motivation related to the stages of action and maintenance. High scores on the taking steps subscale of the SOCRATES represent individuals who are highly motivated to make behavioral changes. The authors omitted the recognition and ambivalence subscales, in an attempt to capture the behavioral component of change. Specifically. The recognition and ambivalence subscales focus on reflective cognitive processes and preparation for change, whereas the taking steps subscale assesses behavioral action to decrease the problem.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-17">New general self-efficacy scale 56</hd> <p>The New General Self-Efficacy Scale (NGSE) is an 8-item self-report questionnaire measuring an individual's perceived confidence and ability to overcome challenging situations. The measure asks questions including "I will be able to successfully overcome many challenges," and "Even when things are tough, I can perform quite well." Participants are asked to respond with how strongly they agree with each statement (1- strongly disagree to 5- strongly agree). Psychometric properties of the scale in primary analyses were conducted using a sample of psychology undergraduate and graduate students (internal consistency- α =.85 −.87; test-retest reliability <emph>r</emph> =.62 −.66). The current study suggests excellent internal consistency similar to previous reports (α =.93).</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-18">Two-week follow-up questionnaire</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187189412-19">Self-help resource usage questions</hd> <p>Resource usage questions were asked to assess the frequency and duration with which participants used the recommended self-help materials (range of 8-14 items, dependent on conditional branching). A sample item assessing frequency of resource use was "On average over the past two weeks, how many times did you use the stress reduction techniques from the handout?" Duration of resource use was assessed with the question "On average, when using these stress reduction techniques, how much time did you spend using them?" Using the midpoint value of the range selected by each participant, an overall usage score was calculated by multiplying the frequency and duration of reported use of self-help techniques (e.g., mindfulness website; handout).</p> <p>In addition to quantitative questions, participants were asked a variety of qualitative questions regarding which techniques they used ("Please list the techniques that you have used"), and why they found them to be helpful ("What did you find most helpful about the stress-reduction techniques?"). If participants did not make use of the resources, they were asked to explain why, with the following question: "What was the main reason you did not use any of the stress reduction techniques listed on the handouts?" Qualitative questioning was also used to allow participants to openly describe any additional techniques they used outside of recommended materials ("Please describe"). Each of the questionnaires were worded to reflect materials from their corresponding treatment group.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-20">Results</hd> <p>The aim of the study was to investigate whether stress level, motivation to change, and self-efficacy beliefs would predict self-help utilization. Specifically, it was hypothesized that higher levels of stress, greater motivation to change, and high levels of self-efficacy beliefs would predict greater self-help utilization among college students. Correlational data are presented in Table 3.</p> <p>Table 3. Bivariate correlations among variables tested in the regression analysis.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1. Stress Level</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>2. Motivation to Change</td><td char=".">−.111</td><td>–</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>3. Self-efficacy</td><td char=".">−.427***</td><td char=".">.242***</td><td>–</td><td /></tr><tr><td>4. Usage</td><td char=".">−.077</td><td char=".">.114</td><td char=".">.012</td><td>–</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>2 <emph>Note.</emph> Stress level as measured by the Perceived Stress Scale. Motivation to change as measured by the SOCRATES, taking steps subscale. Self-efficacy as measured by the New General Self Efficacy Scale. The usage variable was coded as follows: <emph>0 = not at all; 1 = 1-2 times/week; 2 = 3-5 times/week; 3 = > 5 times/week.</emph> Pearson correlations were conducted between each of the predictor variables, whereas Kendall's tau was conducted for correlations between each of the predictor variables and the outcome variable (usage).</item> <item>3 ***<emph>p</emph> <.001.</item> </ulist> <p>The participants who did not complete follow-up questionnaires (non-completers; <emph>n</emph> = 111) were similar to those who continued to participate (completers; <emph>N</emph> = 125) in terms of demographic characteristics, stress, and motivation. However, these groups statistically differed in their level of self-efficacy, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib202" id="ref65">202</reflink>) = −2.30, <emph>p</emph> =.011. Specifically, completers had higher levels of self-efficacy than non-completers. These similarities and differences are presented in Table 4.</p> <p>Table 4. Differences between participants who did not complete follow up (non-completers) and those who continued to participate (completers).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>Non-completers (<italic>n</italic> = 111)</td><td>Completers (<italic>N</italic> = 125)</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Gender</td><td>χ<sup>2</sup> (3) = 1.97</td></tr><tr><td> Men</td><td char=".">23 (20.7)</td><td char=".">22 (17.6)</td></tr><tr><td> Women</td><td char=".">87 (78.4)</td><td char=".">98 (78.4)</td></tr><tr><td> Other</td><td char=".">0 (0.0)</td><td char=".">2 (1.6)</td></tr><tr><td> Did not Disclose</td><td char=".">1 (0.9)</td><td char=".">3 (2.4)</td></tr><tr><td>Race</td><td>χ<sup>2</sup> (6) = 7.91</td></tr><tr><td> White</td><td char=".">30 (27.0)</td><td char=".">50 (40.0)</td></tr><tr><td> Hispanic</td><td char=".">29 (26.1)</td><td char=".">31 (24.8)</td></tr><tr><td> African American</td><td char=".">28 (25.2)</td><td char=".">20 (16.0)</td></tr><tr><td> Asian</td><td char=".">7 (6.3)</td><td char=".">10 (8.0)</td></tr><tr><td> Mixed</td><td char=".">8 (7.2)</td><td char=".">6 (4.8)</td></tr><tr><td> Other</td><td char=".">3 (2.7)</td><td char=".">5 (4.0)</td></tr><tr><td> Did Not Disclose</td><td char=".">6 (5.4)</td><td char=".">3 (2.4)</td></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td>χ<sup>2</sup> (2) = 1.06</td></tr><tr><td> 16-17</td><td char=".">4 (3.6)</td><td char=".">4 (3.2)</td></tr><tr><td> 18-24</td><td char=".">95 (85.6)</td><td char=".">103 (82.4)</td></tr><tr><td> ≥ 25</td><td char=".">11 (9.9)</td><td char=".">18 (14.4)</td></tr><tr><td> Did Not Disclose</td><td char=".">1 (0.9)</td><td char=".">0 (0.0)</td></tr><tr><td>Stress <italic>M</italic>(SD)</td><td><italic>t</italic>(207) = 0.47</td></tr><tr><td /><td char=".">21.07 (6.36)</td><td char=".">20.60 (7.55)</td></tr><tr><td>Self-Efficacy <italic>M</italic>(SD)</td><td><italic>t</italic>(202) = −2.30*</td></tr><tr><td /><td char=".">3.72 (0.86)</td><td char=".">4.00 (0.81)</td></tr><tr><td>Motivation <italic>M</italic>(SD)</td><td><italic>t</italic>(202) = −0.47</td></tr><tr><td /><td char=".">25.46 (5.71)</td><td char=".">25.90 (7.14)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>4 *<emph>p</emph> <.05.</p> <p>The sample (<emph>N</emph> = 125) presented with moderate levels of stress (<emph>M</emph> = 20.60, <emph>SD</emph> = 7.55; ranging from 2 to 40), moderate motivation to change (<emph>M</emph> = 25.90, <emph>SD</emph> = 7.14; ranging from 10 to 40) and high self-efficacy (<emph>M</emph> = 4.00, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.81; ranging from 1.5 to 5). Frequency of self-help resource usage varied across the sample ranging from 0 to 360 min over the two-week study period (<emph>Mdn</emph> = 28, <emph>SD</emph> = 54.41). More than half of the participants (62; 52.1%) used the resources minimally (≤ 30 min over a two-week period), with 18.5% of those participants (<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref66">22</reflink>) reporting no usage at all. Qualitatively, the participants who did not use the techniques reported having no time (<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref67">11</reflink>), use of other techniques (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref68">3</reflink>), forgetting to use the techniques (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref69">3</reflink>), too many situational stressors (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref70">3</reflink>), being uninterested (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref71">1</reflink>), or unknown (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref72">1</reflink>). As such, majority (50%) discussed the difficulty of time management, primarily due to various responsibilities (i.e., "no time to read over it between work and school").</p> <p>A linear regression analysis was conducted to test the hypothesized relation between the three predictor variables, stress, motivation to change, self-efficacy, and the outcome variable, utilization of self-help resources. Although the overall model was not significant (<emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph>=.037, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref73">3</reflink>, 115) = 1.50, <emph>p</emph> =.220), motivation to change was positively associated with resource usage <emph>β</emph> =.19, <emph>p</emph> =.04. Due to this finding, a stepwise linear analysis was conducted, with step one including motivation to change as the only predictor variable and resource usage as the outcome variable. Results of this model with motivation to change as the single predictor of self-help resource utilization were significant (<emph>R<sups>2 </sups></emph>=.037, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref74">1</reflink>, 117) = 4.49, <emph>p</emph> =.04). Within step two, the remaining predictors (self-efficacy and stress) were entered into the model. With these additional predictors included in the model, step two was not significant <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph>=.037, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref75">3</reflink>, 115) = 1.50, <emph>p</emph> =.22. These findings suggest that motivation to change significantly predicted resource usage in this sample, with no additional variance explained by self-efficacy (<emph>β</emph> =.01, <emph>p</emph> =.96) and stress (<emph>β</emph> =.03, <emph>p</emph> =.81; see Table 5).</p> <p>Table 5. Stepwise linear regression to explore the predictive value of motivation to change (step 1), stress, and self efficacy (step 2) on self-help resource usage (outcome variable).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Step</td><td>Predictor</td><td><italic>R<sup>2</sup></italic></td><td><italic>b</italic></td><td><italic>ß</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Step 1</td><td>Motivation to Change</td><td char=".">.037</td><td char=".">1.4</td><td char=".">0.19</td><td char=".">.036*</td></tr><tr><td>Step 2</td><td>Stress</td><td char=".">.037</td><td char=".">0.18</td><td char=".">0.03</td><td char=".">.808</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Self-Efficacy</td><td char=".">0.40</td><td char=".">0.01</td><td char=".">.955</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>5 *<emph>p</emph> <.05.</p> <p>A stepwise linear regression analysis was conducted to rule out the influence of different types of self-help recommendations on resource usage. The type of self-help recommendation was entered into the first step of the regression and various group interactions (type of recommendation x predictor variables) were entered into step two of the model (see Table 6). None of the overall models, including group (<emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph>=.00, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref76">1</reflink>, 117) = 0.02, <emph>p</emph> =.88) and group interactions (<emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph>=.095, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref77">10</reflink>, 108) = 1.13, <emph>p</emph> =.35), were significant predictors of resource usage. However, the interaction between motivation to change and the handout group was significant, <emph>β</emph> =.701, <emph>p</emph> =.007. This interaction demonstrated that greater motivation to change was a significant predictor of increased self-help usage for individuals who received the handout with a list of evidence-based stress-reduction techniques they could use on their own schedule.</p> <p>Table 6. Stepwise linear regression to explore the predictive value of group (step 1), and interaction between predictors and group (step 2) on self-help resource usage (outcome variable).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Step</td><td>Predictor</td><td><italic>R<sup>2</sup></italic></td><td><italic>b</italic></td><td><italic>ß</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Step 1</td><td>Group</td><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">0.99</td><td char=".">0.01</td><td char=".">.882</td></tr><tr><td>Step 2</td><td>Interactions (Group x Predictor)</td><td char=".">.095</td><td char=".">43.76</td><td char=".">0.61</td><td char=".">.470</td></tr><tr><td>Mindfulness</td><td>Mindfulness (Motivation)</td><td /><td char=".">1.16</td><td char=".">0.25</td><td char=".">.393</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Mindfulness (Stress)</td><td /><td char=".">0.15</td><td char=".">0.03</td><td char=".">.922</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Mindfulness (Self-Efficacy)</td><td /><td char=".">10.32</td><td char=".">0.35</td><td char=".">.393</td></tr><tr><td> Handout</td><td>Handout (Motivation)</td><td /><td char=".">2.78</td><td char=".">0.70</td><td char=".">.007**</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Handout (Stress)</td><td /><td char=".">−0.31</td><td char=".">−0.07</td><td char=".">.737</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Handout (Self-Efficacy)</td><td /><td char=".">−5.70</td><td char=".">−0.22</td><td char=".">.522</td></tr><tr><td>Combined</td><td>Combined (Motivation)</td><td /><td char=".">−0.50</td><td char=".">−0.12</td><td char=".">.726</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Combined (Stress)</td><td /><td char=".">1.01</td><td char=".">0.17</td><td char=".">.480</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Combined (Self-Efficacy)</td><td /><td char=".">−3.81</td><td char=".">−0.14</td><td char=".">.791</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>6 **<emph>p</emph> <.01.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-21">Discussion</hd> <p>This study findings highlight the significance of students' motivation to change, as a predictor of college students' use of self-help techniques to manage stress. Students with higher levels of motivation to change were more likely to use self-help resources than those who were less motivated. This finding expands on previous research suggesting a positive relationship between motivation to change and adherence for health behaviors such as diabetes, cancer, hypertension and weight loss.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref78">34</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref79">36</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref80">48</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref81">49</reflink>] Although there is extensive research on the impact of motivation to change and health behaviors, this is the first study to date highlighting the importance of motivation to change and its influence on treatment adherence for self-help recommendations. As such, the current study provides meaningful information regarding the use of self-help resources among college students.</p> <p>Interestingly, this study found that when self-help recommendations were less structured (i.e., a handout with suggested stress-reduction strategies vs a structured, guided medication training program), students' motivation to change became an even more salient predictor of follow through. That is, students with lower motivation to change required a more structured recommendation (e.g., a website with structured, daily meditation training) than those with higher levels of motivation. Clinically, this finding can guide clinicians in determining which students are more likely to succeed with a structured versus unstructured intervention recommendation, based on their level of motivation. Specifically, if a student has more motivation to change, they may require less structure than a student with less motivation. This is important information for college counseling centers to keep in mind, when individualizing recommendations for the use of self-help resources.</p> <p>Contrary to the priori hypotheses of this study, students' stress level and self-efficacy ratings were not predictive of self-help resource usage. This aligns with the mixed research findings reported in the research literature. However, within the college sample of participants in this study, it is noteworthy that self-efficacy was positively correlated with motivation to change. This suggests that students with higher levels of self-efficacy, who believed in their ability to effectively manage and cope with stress, were often more motivated to change. Self-efficacy was also higher in students who completed the study compared to those who did not (non-completers). Therefore, it is possible that self-efficacy may have an indirect bearing on students' follow-through with self-help recommendations.</p> <p>Findings of the current study are clinically relevant, as they provide meaningful parameters for college counselors to use in their treatment planning. Specifically, it highlights the importance of assessing college students' motivation to change when formulating a treatment plan in a stepped-care approach to service delivery (self-help vs. traditional therapy). Results of this study can also help to predict follow-through with self-help recommendations, allowing clinicians to provide research-driven, individualized recommendations for conventional treatment versus self-help resource use.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-22">Limitations</hd> <p>The results of this research should be interpreted with caution due to various limitations.</p> <p>As the current study sampled one university, the generalizability of the current findings is impacted. Specifically, the majority of the sample is women and data was not collected from various universities to assure the participants reflect the college population as a whole. Although the gender distribution of this sample is consistent with research demonstrating that women seek and use mental health services more frequently than men,[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref82">57</reflink>] the findings should be interpreted as preliminary. The data analyses for the current study yielded both clinically and statistically significant findings, however, replication of this study with a larger sample is warranted with data from various universities.</p> <p>Since the resourse usage questionnaire and the adapted version of the SOCRATES were designed for this study, the psychometric properties are not fully known. Although the SOCRATES is often used when refering to behavioral change, such as smoking cessation, it is unclear whether the motivation to change emotional states, such as stress level, can be fully captured by this model.[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref83">55</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref84">58</reflink>] In addition, results of the usage questionnaire were extrapolated by multiplying an average frequency of use each week by the duration of the study, which has some margin for error.</p> <p>As presented in Table 1, a number of participants were excluded from analyses due to drop out, adoption of new stress reduction techniques that were not recommended as part of the study, or responding inconsistently. It is noteworthy that dropout rate was higher in the combined group likely due to the fact that participants in this group were delayed by two weeks in receiving their stress reduction materials (as part of the study design). In addition, participants who received the mindfulness intervention adopted stress reduction strategies that were not explicitly recommended in the study materials more often than those who received the handout. Therefore, these exclusions resulted in unequal group sizes across groups for final study analyses.</p> <p>More than half of the college students that completed the study did not follow through with the self-help recommendations or used the resources minimally (< 30 min over the two-week study period), highlighting the low rate of self-help resource use within this sample. That said, low rates of follow-up are common across self-help programs,[<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref85">59</reflink>] and consistent with the fact that many college students struggle with mental health difficulties, but only a small portion seek help or follow through with treatment recommendations.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref86">7</reflink>]</p> <p>Qualitatively, students in the current study listed reasons for not following through with the self-help strategies such as not having time, struggling with competing demands, forgetting to save/use the resources, and experiencing too many current stressors. The low rate of self-help utilization points to barriers that warrant follow-up, and may also point to the importance of motivational interviewing or increasing motivation to change when offering self-help recommendations.[<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref87">60</reflink>] It may also suggest the importance of preferences in treatment planning or recommendations, allowing students to decide which self-help resources they would be interested in using.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-23">Future directions</hd> <p>Despite its limitations, the results of this study point to clear directions for future research, such as the replication of this study with a larger sample and investigation of other predictors of self-help resource utilization among college students. This would help to determine which self-help recommendations are most beneficial, as well as which students are most likely to follow through with them. In addition, since self-help resources often were not used within this sample, future research should seek to identify which self-help resources are perceived to be the most feasibile and acceptable to college students, in an effort to facilitate higher rates of follow-through. Overall, future research is warranted to futher explore factors that may impact college students' utilization of self-help resources.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-24">Conclusion</hd> <p>Results from the current study demonstrated that college students with greater motivation to change are more likely than other students to make use self-help recommendations, when offered as a frontline alternative to traditional psychotherapy services. This information can help guide clinicians to target self-help recommendations to students who are most likely to follow through with them, and allow college counseling centers to more effectively implement an research-driven, stepped-care approach to treating their students. Adopting this approach can help college counseling centers to decrease demands on their clinicians and reduce students' need for traditional services, as they can recommend self-help resources as an initial treatment option for students who are motivated and willing to use them. Also, if students effectively use self-help resources they may become more resilient and improve their ability to cope with difficult challenges (e.g., unexpected life events, the COVID-19 pandemic).[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref88">6</reflink>]</p> <p>The current study adds to the research literature on predictors of follow-up for treatment recommendations. Specifically, the results of this study suggest that motivation to change is an important factor in predicting which college students will follow up on self-help recommendations. Students with high levels of motivation will be more likely and more willing to use self-help resources. In contrast, a student who is less motivated may be more appropriately connected to traditional psychotherapy or more prescriptive approaches. In addition, motivation may be a powerful predictor of the utilization of more open-ended self-help recommendations, with less motivated students requiring more structured self-help resources.</p> <p>Given the high demands on college counseling centers and the growing use of stepped-care approaches, it is important to begin to understand the psychological factors (i.e., motivation to change) that can predict which college students are more likely to adhere to self-help treatment recommendations as an initial alternative to traditional psychotherapy approaches. This can ultimately help clinicians to provide meaningful and individualized treatment recommendations, appropriately identifying who would benefit from a "stepped-care approach," to treatment, with self-help recommendations serving as an initial treatment intervention before moving on to traditional psychotherapy.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-25">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>This paper was dedicated to Beverly Syslo, Alyson's late grandmother. We would also like to thank Dr. David Freestone and Dr. Aileen Torres, for their wisdom and consultation on this project.</p> <hd id="AN0187189412-26">Conflict of interest disclosure</hd> <p>The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. 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  Data: Motivation to Change Predicts College Students' Utilization of Self-Help Resources
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– Name: Author
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Alyson+Kaufman%22">Alyson Kaufman</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Robin+Nemeroff%22">Robin Nemeroff</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+American+College+Health%22"><i>Journal of American College Health</i></searchLink>. 2025 73(6):2711-2719.
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  Data: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: 9
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Management%22">Stress Management</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Variables%22">Stress Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Motivation%22">Student Motivation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Predictor+Variables%22">Predictor Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Change%22">Change</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Help+Seeking%22">Help Seeking</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Help+Programs%22">Self Help Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intervention%22">Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Undergraduate+Students%22">Undergraduate Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Differences%22">Racial Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ethnicity%22">Ethnicity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Age+Differences%22">Age Differences</searchLink>
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  Label: DOI
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  Data: 10.1080/07448481.2024.2334082
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  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0744-8481<br />1940-3208
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Background: Stress and mental health difficulties are common burdens on college students. College counseling centers have been overrun by demand. Thus, self-help interventions may offer a promising alternative to traditional college counseling services. Methods: The current study examined the influence of perceived stress, motivation to change, and self-efficacy beliefs on college students' use of self-help resources, to determine whether these factors would predict follow-up with self-help recommendations. Results: Results of stepwise linear regression models suggest that perceived stress and self-efficacy did not predict self-help resource utilization. Different types of self-help recommendations did not predict different levels of follow-up. However, motivation to change was a significant predictor college students' self-help resource use, and this variable was particularly important when self-help recommendations were less structured. Conclusions: These findings can help to predict which college students are likely to make use of self-help resources, and inform targeted individual treatment.
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: EJ1479637
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        Value: 10.1080/07448481.2024.2334082
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 9
        StartPage: 2711
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Stress Management
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Stress Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Motivation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Efficacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Predictor Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Change
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Help Seeking
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Help Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intervention
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Undergraduate Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Ethnicity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Age Differences
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Motivation to Change Predicts College Students' Utilization of Self-Help Resources
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Alyson Kaufman
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            NameFull: Robin Nemeroff
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      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0744-8481
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1940-3208
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 73
            – Type: issue
              Value: 6
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of American College Health
              Type: main
ResultId 1