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Assertiveness Skills Training Based on the Process Model of Social Skills

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Title: Assertiveness Skills Training Based on the Process Model of Social Skills
Language: English
Authors: Asami Watanabe
Source: Psychology in the Schools. 2025 62(9):3184-3194.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 11
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Assertiveness, Interpersonal Competence, Training, Foreign Countries, Females, Womens Education, Single Sex Colleges, College Students, Instructional Effectiveness
Geographic Terms: Japan
DOI: 10.1002/pits.23534
ISSN: 0033-3085
1520-6807
Abstract: This study provided an assertiveness skills training program based on the process model of social skills and investigated the effect of assertiveness skills training on students at a women's university in Japan. It was a quasi-experimental study conducted in a pre- and post-survey design with nonequivalent groups. The training program included cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components. Students were divided into two groups: a group that received weekly 14 training sessions and a no training group. Effectiveness was measured in in terms of three functional effects: objectives effectiveness, relationship effectiveness, and self-respect effectiveness. Participants completed the assertion scale for adolescents and sense of authenticity scale pre- and post-training. Mann-Whitney U tests were conducted to compare the means of the pre and post differences between the two groups on persuasion negotiations (objectives effectiveness), relationship formation (relationship effectiveness), and sense of authenticity (self-respect effectiveness). Analysis results revealed increased behaviors in the training group related to objectives effectiveness through assertiveness compared to the no-training group, p = 0.05. There were no significant differences between the two groups in the amount of change in relationship effectiveness, p = 0.77, and self-respect effectiveness, p = 0.88. In the future, assertiveness skills training should include sessions that allow participants to integrate cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects, and effectiveness measurement should be more multidimensional.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1480098
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0187257409;pis01sep.25;2025Aug14.01:14;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0187257409-1">Assertiveness Skills Training Based on the Process Model of Social Skills </title> <p>This study provided an assertiveness skills training program based on the process model of social skills and investigated the effect of assertiveness skills training on students at a women's university in Japan. It was a quasi‐experimental study conducted in a pre‐ and post‐survey design with nonequivalent groups. The training program included cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components. Students were divided into two groups: a group that received weekly 14 training sessions and a no training group. Effectiveness was measured in in terms of three functional effects: objectives effectiveness, relationship effectiveness, and self‐respect effectiveness. Participants completed the assertion scale for adolescents and sense of authenticity scale pre‐ and post‐training. Mann−Whitney U tests were conducted to compare the means of the pre and post differences between the two groups on persuasion negotiations (objectives effectiveness), relationship formation (relationship effectiveness), and sense of authenticity (self‐respect effectiveness). Analysis results revealed increased behaviors in the training group related to objectives effectiveness through assertiveness compared to the no‐training group, p = 0.05. There were no significant differences between the two groups in the amount of change in relationship effectiveness, p = 0.77, and self‐respect effectiveness, p = 0.88. In the future, assertiveness skills training should include sessions that allow participants to integrate cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects, and effectiveness measurement should be more multidimensional.</p> <p>Summary: By grounded the process model of social skills, assertiveness skills training can include three perspectives: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral.The assertiveness training based on the process model of social skills on female Japanese undergraduate students improved assertive behavior for objectives effectiveness, but had not shown significant effect on relationship or self‐respect effectiveness.It was recommended to conduct training sessions integrating cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components and to evaluate whether the training could improve assertive cognition and emotional control.</p> <p>Keywords: assertiveness; assertiveness training; cognitive model; social information processing</p> <p>Assertiveness is the ability to express personal opinions, needs and wishes while considering and respecting those of others (Rakos [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref1">35</reflink>]; Vagos and Pereira [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref2">50</reflink>]). It includes two main types of response skills: negative assertions, such as making reasonable requests or refusing unwanted requests, and positive assertions, such as expressing positive feelings or giving compliments (Hargie [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref3">13</reflink>]).</p> <p>Assertive behavior leads not only to the protection of individual rights and the maintenance of better interpersonal relationships but also to improved psychological health. Assertive behaviors associate psychological well‐being and self‐esteem (Sarkova et al.[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref4">40</reflink>]). Beyond psychological effects, lack of assertiveness may also lead to low academic performance (Lu et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref5">23</reflink>]). In other words, assertiveness is a skill that allows individuals to benefit in a variety of ways in their social lives.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-2">Assertiveness for Japanese Female Students</hd> <p>Japanese women are less likely to behave assertively owing to cultural and gender differences. Japanese students and workers are less assertive in their behavior and attitudes than people in other countries (Singhal and Nagao [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref6">44</reflink>]; Niikura [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref7">29</reflink>]). Cultural factors make it difficult for Japanese people to behave assertively (Omura et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref8">31</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref9">32</reflink>]). This is because values such as following group norms, adhering to unspoken rules of behavior, maintaining group harmony, and having intuition on what is being said, even if it is indirect communication, inhibit assertiveness (Omura et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref10">31</reflink>]).</p> <p>In addition, it has been repeatedly reported that it is difficult for women to be assertive (Hargie [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref11">13</reflink>]). Ames et al. ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref12">5</reflink>]) noted that women face the dilemma that when they act assertively in pursuing their own interests, they are often viewed as violating prescriptive gender role norms. Matsumura ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref13">24</reflink>]) found that low assertiveness is a common trait among Japanese men and women. Gender differences also exist, with Japanese men using direct expressions toward those of lower social status than themselves, and Japanese women using politeness strategies to express their disagreement regardless of their partner's status (Matsumura [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref14">24</reflink>]). Japanese women are less likely to engage in assertive behavior than Japanese men and reap the benefits that these behaviors provide.</p> <p>Psychoeducational programs for higher education students are effective as preventive mental health interventions, and skills training, especially those involving supervised practice, can reduce psychological distress and improve social‐emotional skills and academic achievement (Conley et al. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref15">7</reflink>]). Conley et al. ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref16">7</reflink>]) recommended that higher education institutions should incorporate psychoeducational programs on stress management and mental health skills into their core curriculum. Anant ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref17">6</reflink>]) argued that higher education institutions can introduce assertiveness training to provide students with opportunities to develop real‐world problem‐solving skills, leading to a positive self‐concept. Japan has the largest number of women's universities in the world, and although the number is declining, it still accounts for about 9% of the country's 4‐year higher education institutions (Kakuchi [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref18">19</reflink>]). Assertiveness training as part of the coursework at a women's higher education institution would provide its students with the optimal opportunity to acquire skills that would benefit them not only during their university life, but also after graduation.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-3">Development of Assertiveness Skills</hd> <p>Assertiveness training began as an approach to behavioral therapy (Salter [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref19">39</reflink>]; Wolpe [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref20">53</reflink>]). Cognitive methods were later incorporated, as behavioral therapy shifted to cognitive‐behavioral therapy (Rakos [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref21">35</reflink>]; Speed et al. [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref22">45</reflink>]). Treatment outcome research indicates that targeting assertiveness through behavioral (e.g., behavior rehearsal) and/or cognitive means (e.g., cognitive restructuring) increases assertive behavior, decreases symptoms of depression and anxiety, and improves self‐esteem and relationship satisfaction, supporting the utility of assertiveness training (Speed et al. [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref23">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>In Japan, assertiveness training has been offered to a diverse population, including elementary school children (Yamada et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref24">54</reflink>]), junior high school students (Hirooka and Hirooka [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref25">14</reflink>]), high school students (Terada and Okouchi [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref26">48</reflink>]), university students (Hotta [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref27">15</reflink>]; Adachi and Adachi [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref28">1</reflink>]), and adults (Itoh [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref29">18</reflink>]; Nakano [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref30">27</reflink>]). Nurses and nursing students are the most common targets of assertiveness training research in Japan (Shimizu et al. [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref31">43</reflink>]; Shimizu et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref32">42</reflink>]; Nakamura et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref33">26</reflink>]; Yoshinaga et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref34">55</reflink>]; Omura et al. [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref35">30</reflink>]). These studies have shown that the effects of training include increased assertive behavior (Nakamura et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref36">26</reflink>]; Yoshinaga et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref37">55</reflink>]; Adachi and Adachi [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref38">1</reflink>]), confidence in self‐management and building relationships with others (Nakano [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref39">27</reflink>]), and improved self‐efficacy or self‐esteem (Yamada et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref40">54</reflink>]; Shimizu et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref41">42</reflink>]).</p> <p>Within these practical studies, some have shown that training is more effective when cognitive techniques or contents are introduced into the training. Itoh ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref42">18</reflink>]) conducted assertiveness training with Japanese middle‐aged women, emphasizing beliefs and attitudes about assertiveness rather than behavioral skills; she suggested that changes in beliefs and attitudes were more stable than changes in behavioral skills. Yamada et al. ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref43">54</reflink>]) practiced training with Japanese early adolescents and showed that incorporating cognitive development and the affective formation into the teaching‐learning process is effective in developing assertive communication skills. Nakamura et al. ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref44">26</reflink>]) and Yoshinaga et al. ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref45">55</reflink>]) conducted assertiveness training for participants (more than 70% of whom were women) and confirmed that programs applying cognitive restructuring techniques consistently improved assertive behaviors on the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule (RAS; Rathus [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref46">37</reflink>]). These cognitive techniques and contents, however, were only incorporated in a few sessions and were not introduced systematically throughout the overall training.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-4">Cognition, Emotion, and Behavior in Assertiveness Training</hd> <p>Vagos and Pereira ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref47">49</reflink>]) suggested that when discussing assertiveness, it is necessary to focus not only on assertive behavior but also on cognitive and emotional aspects. Effective assertiveness (i.e., most likely to produce social gains) requires congruence of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions (Alberti and Emmons [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref48">4</reflink>]). Assertive cognitions influence emotions, which in turn promote assertive behavior (Vagos and Pereira [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref49">49</reflink>]), and models have demonstrated assertive schemas directly predict various types of assertive behavior (Vagos and Pereira [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref50">50</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref51">51</reflink>]).</p> <p>The integration of three dimensions is also significant in assertiveness training. Applying assertiveness training in combination with cognitive‐behavioral strategies that target cognitive, emotional, and behavioral inhibitors can optimize the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of assertiveness (Vagos and Pereira [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref52">49</reflink>]).</p> <p>A representative model of cognition and emotion underlying interpersonal behavior is Dodge ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref53">9</reflink>]) social‐information processing model (SIP). Although SIP has been used mainly to explain the processes by which aggressive behavior occurs, it could also be applied to explain positive reactions (Vagos and Pereira [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref54">49</reflink>]). Research has been conducted that has applied the model to psychoeducation in schools to improve mental health. Pössel et al. ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref55">33</reflink>]) developed LARS&LISA (<emph>Lust An Realistischer Sicht & Leichtigkeit Im Sozialen Alltag</emph>), a school‐based cognitive‐behavioral depression prevention program based on SIP. LARS&LISA showed positive effects on aggressive behavior and depressive symptoms in adolescents (Pössel et al. [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref56">34</reflink>]). Similarly, applying SIP to assertiveness training in university would enhance effectiveness in acquiring and generalizing assertive behavior.</p> <p>Introducing SIP into assertiveness training can help learn about the cognitive and emotional aspects of assertiveness and, in some case, the process of deciding whether to behave assertively. Few individuals are assertive across all contexts (Hargie [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref57">13</reflink>]). Assertive behavior is not always the most adequate, and whether it is effective depends on the situation (Mitamura [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref58">25</reflink>]; Rakos [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref59">36</reflink>]). "Standard assertion" that only expresses a right is more likely to improve short‐term outcomes but also carries a risk of social disapproval and being perceived as aggressive (Rakos [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref60">36</reflink>]). Especially in Japanese society, where the norm is to maintain a group harmony (Omura et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref61">31</reflink>]), there are many situations where "standard assertion" is inappropriate. Therefore, learning assertive behavior and the process that brings about (or does not bring about) such behavior is useful.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-5">Assertiveness From a Functional Perspective</hd> <p>Linehan ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref62">21</reflink>]) viewed assertiveness in functional terms and proposed a shift in training from teaching a topographically assertive repertoire to teaching skills that are effective in assertive situations. According to Linehan, there are three types of effectiveness: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref63">1</reflink>) effectiveness in achieving the objectives of the response (objectives effectiveness), (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref64">2</reflink>) effectiveness in maintaining or enhancing the relationship with the other person in the interaction (relationship effectiveness), and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref65">3</reflink>) effectiveness in maintaining the self‐esteem of the assertive person (self‐respect effectiveness). To make assertiveness training useful for numerous participants, the content should be designed to teach the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral skills needed to fulfill these three functions.</p> <p>Hotta ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref66">16</reflink>]) points out that studies of the effects of assertiveness training show a confusion between the effects of training on assertiveness acquisition and the spreading effects of acquired assertiveness. The acquisition of assertiveness itself is the acquisition or increase in assertive behaviors and cognitions. The effects of acquired assertiveness include improved self‐esteem and reduced depression and interpersonal anxiety. Measuring the effectiveness of assertiveness training in terms of the three effects would solve this confusion. Objectives and relationship effectiveness are considered to represent the acquisition of positive and negative assertion, in Hargie ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref67">13</reflink>]) words. Self‐respect effectiveness would represent the spreading effects of assertiveness acquisition.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-6">Current Study</hd> <p>The current study aimed to (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref68">1</reflink>) develop an assertiveness training program for female Japanese undergraduate students focusing not only on assertive behavior, but also on its cognitive and emotional dimensions, and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref69">2</reflink>) evaluate the program's efficacy in measuring to assertiveness acquisition itself and the spreading effects of assertiveness.</p> <p>To integrate the three dimensions of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral perspectives into the training, a process model of social skills (PMSS) (Aikawa [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref70">2</reflink>]) was employed in this study. In Japan, Aikawa et al. ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref71">3</reflink>]) proposed the PMSS based on Dodge's social information‐processing model (Crick and Dodge [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref72">8</reflink>])[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref73">1</reflink>]. The model describes the process by which social skills are executed in interpersonal situations. After two revisions, Aikawa ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref74">2</reflink>]) published a third version of the model. The PMSS version 3 represents a series of processes centered on social schema, decoding other people's responses, determining interpersonal goals, determining interpersonal reactions, controlling emotions, and implementing interpersonal reactions (Figure 1). Social schema, decoding other people's responses, determining interpersonal goals, and determining interpersonal reactions are the cognitive aspects of social skills; controlling emotions is the emotional aspect; and implementing interpersonal reactions is the behavioral aspect. On the ground of the PMSS, it is possible to view assertiveness in cognitive, emotional, and behavioral perspectives (Watanabe [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref75">52</reflink>]). If assertiveness training sessions are conducted on each step of the PMSS, these three perspectives would be systematically incorporated throughout the training.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01sep25/pits23534-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMMvl7ESepq84yOvsOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits23534-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 The process model of social skills, Version 3 (Aikawa [2])." /> </p> <p></p> <p>No training programs for female students in Japan have been developed based on Aikawa ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref76">2</reflink>]) model and whose effectiveness has been empirically examined. In this study, a program based on Aikawa ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref77">2</reflink>]) PMSS was created to provide assertiveness skills training incorporating cognitive, affective, and behavioral perspectives.</p> <p>This study measured assertiveness acquisition itself and the spreading effects of assertiveness acquisition to evaluate the effectiveness of assertiveness skills training. The assertiveness instruments corresponding to objectives and relationship effectiveness were used to measure the acquisition of negative and positive assertion. A self‐esteem scale was used to measure the self‐respect effectiveness, in other words, spreading effect of the acquisition of assertiveness.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-8">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187257409-9">Research Design</hd> <p>This study was a quasi‐experimental study employed a pre‐ and post‐survey experimental design to examine the effects of training. The independent variable was the presence of training; the dependent variables were the objectives, relationship, self‐respect effectiveness.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-10">Participants</hd> <p>The participants were undergraduate students at a women's college in the metropolitan area in Japan, who had registered in classes on interpersonal communication. The syllabus for the class stated that assertiveness training would be conducted as coursework. The survey for this study was conducted throughout the spring semester. The 23 students registered for the spring semester class were treated as the training group, and the 22 students registered for the fall semester class were treated as the non‐training group[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref78">2</reflink>]. The analysis included 17 members of the training group and 15 members of the no training group who responded to both the pre‐ and post‐surveys[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref79">3</reflink>]. The participants in the two groups were of similar age (training group: <emph>M</emph> = 20.41, SD = 0.62; no training group: <emph>M</emph> = 20.47, SD = 0.52).</p> <p>The participants in both groups were all Japanese women of similar ages. They belonged to the same department and had registered for the same courses in the identical curriculum. Thus, the internal validity of the study was enhanced because the training and non‐training groups had very similar attributes and the participants in this study were close to random assignment. In addition, the participants were students in the non‐clinical group, and the training sessions discussed below covered situations and assertive behaviors that university students might experience on a daily basis, so that the training sessions could be targeted to the general university population. These would have improved the external validity of this study.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-11">Ethical Considerations</hd> <p>Before recruiting participants, the research ethics review committee of Toyo Eiwa University confirmed that this study was in accordance with the ethical standard and gave approval for the study to be conducted. It was explained to participants that the training was part of the coursework and that completing the survey was voluntary. To indicate that they understood the explanation and agreed to participate in the study, the participants signed a consent form. The survey was conducted anonymously, and the survey data were securely stored.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-12">Data Collection Tool</hd> <p>The survey instrument was presented to the participants by the Real‐time Evaluation Assistance System (REAS); Shibasaki and Kondo [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref80">41</reflink>]). REAS is a web‐based survey system that uses the server of the Open University of Japan's Center for ICT Application and Distance Learning, which allows users to set up questionnaires freely. Response data can be downloaded in CSV format.</p> <p>Participants accessed the URL of a web‐based questionnaire sent to them by the research investigator via the class's learning management system. The pre‐survey was conducted during the 12 days leading up to the start of the first training session, and the post‐survey was conducted immediately after the last training session until 2 weeks later.</p> <p>Participants entered their own ID at the beginning of each survey response, which was a combination of their first name initials and the four digits of their birth date (e.g., e1106). This procedure was to correspond the pre and post data while preserving anonymity.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-13">Survey Instruments</hd> <p>The Assertion Scale for Adolescents (Tamase et al. [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref81">47</reflink>]), widely used with Japanese university students, was used to measure participants' assertive behaviors. The scale is based on Suganuma ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref82">46</reflink>]) Assertiveness Checklist and the Japanese versions of the College Self‐Expression Scale (CSES; Galassi et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref83">11</reflink>]) and Personal Relation Inventory (PRI; Lorr and More [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref84">22</reflink>]). The CSES and PRI were translated by Furuichi et al. ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref85">10</reflink>]). The scale includes 16 items and has two subscales with eight items each: Persuasion Negotiation (e.g., "If the product I bought is defective, I can have it replaced") and Relation Formation (e.g., "I show my affection and liking openly to those I like"). Participants responded to the items using a 5‐point Likert‐type scale, ranging from 1 (<emph>don't do so at all</emph>) to 5 (<emph>always do so</emph>). Item means were calculated for each subscale. Cronbach's alpha coefficient in Tamase et al. ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref86">47</reflink>]) were adequate in both subscales, 0.71 for persuasion negotiation and 0.80 for relation formation. The correlation coefficients with the Social Skills Rating Scale (SSRS; Gresham and Elliott [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref87">12</reflink>]) were 0.51 for persuasion negotiation and 0.62 for relation formation, confirming concurrent validity (Tamase et al. [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref88">47</reflink>]). In this study, the persuasion negotiation subscale was used to assess objectives effectiveness, while the relation formation subscale was used to assess relationship effectiveness. The averages of the items were calculated for each subscale and used as the scores. Cronbach's alpha coefficient in this study for persuasion negotiation were 0.62 in the pre‐survey and 0.72 in the post‐ survey, and for relation formation were 0.70 in the pre‐ survey and 0.75 in the post‐survey.</p> <p>Self‐esteem was measured using the Sense of Authenticity Scale (Ito and Kodama [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref89">17</reflink>]). The scale measures one's sense of being true to one's core self. According to Kernis ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref90">20</reflink>]), authenticity is important in explaining the adaptive aspects of optimal self‐esteem. The scale has seven items. Participants responded to the items using a 5‐point Likert‐type scale, ranging from 1 (<emph>do not apply</emph>) to 5 (<emph>apply</emph>). Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.79; the correlation coefficient between the two time points using test‐retest method was =0.70 (Ito and Kodama [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref91">17</reflink>]). Structural equation modeling confirmed the concurrent validity by correlation between Sense of Authenticity and Rosenberg ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref92">38</reflink>]) self‐esteem (0.73), as well as the factorial discrimination between Sense of Authenticity and self‐esteem (Ito and Kodama [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref93">17</reflink>]). This study used the Sense of Authenticity Scale to assess self‐respect effectiveness. The average of the seven items was calculated and used as the score. Cronbach's alpha coefficient in this study were 0.86 in the pre‐ survey and 0.88 in the post‐survey.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-14">Training Sessions</hd> <p>A series of training sessions were designed once a week for 14 weeks to fit in with the university classes in which the participants were enrolled. Each session lasted 90 min and consisted of a lecture by the trainer and group work among participants.</p> <p>The 14 sessions were aligned with the stages of Aikawa ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref94">2</reflink>]) PMSS. The first session included a lecture on overview of assertiveness skills and PMSS and discussion of non‐assertive, aggressive, indirect aggressive, and assertive reactions. The second session focused on social schemas. The participants learned about irrational beliefs and worked on replacing irrational beliefs with reasonable ideas. The third to fifth sessions focused on decoding the other person's response. In the third session, the participants learned about listening skills and worked on listening to each other's talk. In the fourth session, the participants learned to decode nonverbal symbols and practiced inferring emotions from each other's nonverbal elements. In the fifth session, the participants received a lecture on causal attribution and inferred the reason for the other's behavior through role‐playing. The sixth session focused on determining interpersonal goals. The participants learned about the effects of being aware of interpersonal goals and goal setting skills and discussed interpersonal goals using hypothetical situations. The seventh session focused on determining interpersonal reactions. There was a lecture on having variations of interpersonal reactions and their selection, and a work session on generating interpersonal reactions in hypothetical situations. The eighth to tenth sessions focused on controlling emotions. In the eighth session, participants learned about the impact and function of emotions and discussed the individual differences in emotions that occur and the affect of emotions using imaginary situations. In the ninth session, participants learned about the skills of controlling emotions when accepting criticism and compared and shared their emotional control methods with others. In the 10th session, the participants learned about the appropriate expression of emotions and worked on how to express emotions in a hypothetical situation and compared them with others. The 11th to 13th sessions focused on implementing interpersonal reactions. In 11th session, participants learned the assertive verbal elements and considered how to express their opinions assertively in hypothetical situations or situations they had experienced in the past. The 12th session was devoted to learning the use of assertive nonverbal elements and role‐plays were conducted in which participants expressed their opinions assertively using non‐verbal elements in hypothetical situations. The 13 h session consisted of learning assertion of rights and role‐playing assertively asserting rights in hypothetical situations. The 14th session was on overall PMSS, where participants learned about the concept of respect for self and others behind assertiveness, and discussed sessions which were impressive to them as they reflected on the training. Table 1 provides an overview of each session.</p> <p>1 Table Sessions of assertiveness skills training.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th>Session title</th><th>Method</th><th>Relevant Phase of the PMSS</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1</td><td>Guidance of assertiveness training</td><td>Lecture: Understanding assertiveness and PMSSGroup work: Discussing whether one's usual interpersonal reactions fall into the categories of non‐assertive, aggressive, indirect aggressive, or assertive</td><td>The entirety of the PMSS</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Beliefs about interpersonal relationships</td><td>Lecture: Understanding the influences of social schemas, especially irrational beliefs and the skills coping with irrational beliefsGroup work: Replacing typical irrational beliefs with reasonable ideas</td><td>Social schema</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Listening to the other person</td><td>Lecture: Understanding the importance of listening and listening skillsGroup work: Listening to each other's stories about events that made them happy, and providing feedback</td><td>Decoding the other person's response</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Decoding non‐verbal elements</td><td>Lecture: Understanding the function of nonverbal elements and the skill of decoding non‐verbal symbolsGroup work: Inferring from each other's nonverbal elements the emotions others are trying to express, and discussing which elements showed emotions</td><td>Decoding the other person's response</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Inferring the meaning of events</td><td>Lecture: Understanding causal attribution bias and the skill of inferring reasons for others' behaviorGroup work: Inferring reasons for others' behavior through role play and discussing one's impressions of the role play</td><td>Decoding the other person's response</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Setting interpersonal goals</td><td>Lecture: Understanding the effects of being aware of interpersonal goals and goal setting skillsGroup work: Identifying interpersonal goals in hypothetical situations and discussing whether they fall under the long‐, medium‐, or short‐term goals</td><td>Determining interpersonal goals</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Selecting interpersonal reaction</td><td>Lecture: Understanding the significance of having a variety of interpersonal reactions and the skill of selecting reactionsGroup work: Generating and choosing an interpersonal response in a hypothetical situation</td><td>Determining interpersonal reactions</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Being aware of the effects by emotions</td><td>Lecture: Understanding the impact and function of emotions in interpersonal situationsGroup work: Listing emotions that can occur in imaginary situations and looking for differences from emotions that occur in others, and discussing how these emotions affect interpersonal situations</td><td>Controlling emotions</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Controlling emotions</td><td>Lecture: Understanding emotional control skills and the skill of accepting blame and criticism from othersGroup work: Comparing and sharing with others how to control one's own emotions and receive blame and criticism</td><td>Controlling emotions</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Expressing emotions</td><td>Lecture: Understanding the skill of expressing emotions appropriatelyGroup work: Identifying how to express emotions in hypothetical situations, comparing them with the ways of others, and discussing how to express anger</td><td>Controlling emotions</td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>Communicate in a positive manner</td><td>Lecture: Understanding the skill of using assertive verbal elementsGroup work: Identifying how to assertively express one's opinion in a hypothetical situation and comparing it with the methods used by others, and identifying ways to express opinions assertively in situations that one has experienced in the past</td><td>Implementing interpersonal reactions</td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>Communicating with non‐verbal elements</td><td>Lecture: Understanding the skill of using assertive non‐verbal elementsGroup work: Conducting role‐plays in which participants express their opinions assertively using non‐verbal elements in hypothetical situations, and providing feedback to each other</td><td>Implementing interpersonal reactions</td></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>Communicating what is difficult to say</td><td>Lecture: Understanding the skill of assertively asserting one's rightsGroup work: Conducting role‐plays of assertively asserting one's rights in hypothetical situations, and providing feedback</td><td>Implementing interpersonal reactions</td></tr><tr><td>14</td><td>Communication premised on differences</td><td>Lecture: Understanding the concept of respect for self and others behind assertivenessGroup work: Reflecting on the training and discussing the most impressive sessions</td><td>The entirety of the PMSS</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0187257409-15">Data Analysis</hd> <p>Because of the small sample size and the non‐normal distribution of the data, Mann−Whitney <emph>U</emph> test was used to compare the amount of change in the pre‐ and post‐periods between groups.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-16">Results</hd> <p>In the current study, assertiveness training based on the PMSS was offered to female Japanese undergraduate students. The means and standard deviations for scores of persuasion negotiation, relation formation, and sense of authenticity in both groups pre‐ and post‐training are reported in Table 2.</p> <p>2 Table Descriptive statistics and differences in assertive behavior and sense of authenticity pre‐ and post‐training.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th>Pre</th><th>Post</th><th>Pre‐ and post‐differences</th><th>Mann−Whitney <italic>U</italic></th><th><italic>Z</italic></th><th><italic>p</italic></th></tr><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th>Training group</th><th>No‐training group</th><th>Training group</th><th>No‐training group</th><th>Training group</th><th>No‐training group</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Persuasion negotiation</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> M</td><td>2.92</td><td>3.06</td><td>3.20</td><td>3.05</td><td>0.28</td><td>‐0.01</td><td>75.00</td><td>−2.00</td><td>0.05</td></tr><tr><td> Med</td><td>2.88</td><td>3.00</td><td>3.25</td><td>3.25</td><td>0.25</td><td>0.00</td></tr><tr><td> SD</td><td>0.44</td><td>0.47</td><td>0.60</td><td>0.51</td><td>0.32</td><td>0.43</td></tr><tr><td> Min</td><td>2.00</td><td>2.25</td><td>1.75</td><td>2.00</td><td>−0.25</td><td>−0.63</td></tr><tr><td> Max</td><td>3.63</td><td>4.00</td><td>4.25</td><td>3.88</td><td>1.00</td><td>0.75</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Relation formation</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> M</td><td>3.38</td><td>3.30</td><td>3.45</td><td>3.43</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.13</td><td>136.00</td><td>0.32</td><td>0.77</td></tr><tr><td> Med</td><td>3.25</td><td>3.38</td><td>3.38</td><td>3.25</td><td>0.13</td><td>0.13</td></tr><tr><td> SD</td><td>0.54</td><td>0.65</td><td>0.64</td><td>0.61</td><td>0.27</td><td>0.35</td></tr><tr><td> Min</td><td>2.50</td><td>2.00</td><td>2.38</td><td>2.25</td><td>−0.50</td><td>−0.38</td></tr><tr><td> Max</td><td>4.38</td><td>4.25</td><td>4.50</td><td>4.63</td><td>0.50</td><td>0.88</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Sense of authenticity</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> M</td><td>2.90</td><td>3.09</td><td>2.96</td><td>3.14</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.06</td><td>131.50</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.88</td></tr><tr><td> Med</td><td>2.86</td><td>3.14</td><td>3.00</td><td>3.14</td><td>−0.14</td><td>0.00</td></tr><tr><td> SD</td><td>0.78</td><td>0.86</td><td>0.97</td><td>0.64</td><td>0.67</td><td>0.58</td></tr><tr><td> Min</td><td>1.57</td><td>1.14</td><td>1.29</td><td>1.86</td><td>−0.86</td><td>−0.57</td></tr><tr><td> Max</td><td>4.57</td><td>4.29</td><td>4.71</td><td>4.29</td><td>1.43</td><td>1.71</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>To evaluate the program in achieving three types of effects: objectives, relationship, and self‐respect effectiveness, the changes through the training in the scores of persuasion negotiation, relationship formation, and sense of authenticity were examined. Pre‐ and post‐survey differences were calculated for the three types of effects scores (Table 2).</p> <p>The Mann−Whitney U tests conducted between the training and no‐training group on the pre‐ and post‐differences. There was a significantly difference between the training and no‐training group in persuasion negotiation, <emph>p</emph> = 0.05. There were no significant differences between groups in relation formation, <emph>p</emph> = 0.77, or sense of authenticity, <emph>p</emph> = 0.88.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-17">Discussion</hd> <p>Assertiveness training, based on Aikawa ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref95">2</reflink>]) PMSS, was implemented with female Japanese undergraduate students and evaluated for its effectiveness in three areas: objectives, relationship, and self‐respect effectiveness. When comparing the pre‐ and post‐difference for persuasion negotiation (objectives effectiveness), relation formation (relationship effectiveness), and sense of authenticity (self‐respect effectiveness) between the training and no‐training groups, only persuasion negotiation showed a significant difference.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-18">Objectives Effectiveness</hd> <p>The training improved only persuasion negotiation, which indicates the acquisition of negative assertiveness (Hargie [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref96">13</reflink>]). The training included many sessions encouraging participants to assert their willingness. For example, replacing irrational beliefs with rational beliefs in Session 2 encouraged participants to accept the actions they asserted. In Session 10, participants learned how to appropriately express negative emotions, which are often easily suppressed. In Session 13, participants learned how to communicate difficult refusals, requests, and differing opinions to others in an appropriate manner. As such, the training was designed to develop behaviors that would achieve objectives effectiveness.</p> <p>For Japanese women who take a politeness strategy regardless of their partner (Matsumura [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref97">24</reflink>]), learning that they could choose negative assertion was considered a novel proposition. Nakamura et al. ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref98">26</reflink>]) and Yoshinaga et al. ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref99">55</reflink>]), in which more than 70% of the participants were women, also showed that RAS scores increased when cognitive technology was introduced into the training; RAS items are content corresponding to persuasion negotiation. If assertiveness training is provided to Japanese women, who are less likely to make negative assertions, it is likely to increase improvements in those behaviors.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-19">Relationship Effectiveness</hd> <p>The training did not improve relationship formation, which indicates the acquisition of positive assertiveness (Hargie [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref100">13</reflink>]). The reason why no effect on relationship effectiveness was found is assumed to be due to cultural characteristics regarding assertiveness that the participants had before the training. Since the participants were born and raised in Japan, they had already learned the skills to form relationships in harmony with others (Omura et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref101">31</reflink>]). The pre‐survey relationship formation scores for both groups of participants were higher than the persuasion negotiation scores. Given that relationship formation skills had already been acquired, it is likely that the training experience did not significantly improve this.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-20">Self‐Respect Effectiveness</hd> <p>The change in sense of authenticity, a spreading effect of assertiveness acquisition, was not observed. A possible reason for the absence of a significant change in sense of authenticity is the timing of the survey. Assertiveness behavior can have effects not only in immediately after, but also later (Linehan [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref102">21</reflink>]). It is presumed that self‐esteem does not improve immediately after one is able to behave assertively; rather, it gradually increases as one is able to perform the assertive behaviors required by the situation. Therefore, a long‐term measurement of effectiveness is required to examine the improvement in self‐esteem.</p> <p>The lack of relational effectiveness may also have influenced the self‐respect effectiveness. In Japan, where people are expected to conform to group norms (Omura et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref103">31</reflink>]), the skills to make assertions of relationship formation are expected to have a spillover effect on psychological well‐being. It is possible that a sense of authenticity would have been enhanced if training had increased relational formation.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-21">Recommendations</hd> <p>Based on this study, the first recommendation is to organize sessions that integrate cognitive, affective, and behavioral components in training. According to Vagos and Pereira ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref104">49</reflink>]), assertive cognitions influence emotions and promote assertive behavior. The training in this study did not significantly affect the relationship and self‐respect effectiveness due to the lack of integration of the three dimensions: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral. This study included cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components in each training session. Cognitive components were included in sessions two through seven, emotional components in sessions eight through 10, and behavioral components in sessions 11 through 13. In the training for this study, session 14 was an opportunity to reflect on the training, but the content did not integrate the three elements. Each stage of PSMM (Aikawa [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref105">2</reflink>]) does not proceed in one direction only, but provides feedback to each other. It would be desirable to set up sessions that integrate the three elements or add to each session an opportunity to learn how its content relates to the other sessions.</p> <p>The second suggestion is to extend the scope of the measurement. The training outcomes can be examined more multidimensionally by confirming whether assertive cognition and emotional control have also improved. Assertive cognition directly predicted lower distress and more frequent assertive behavior; also, cognition indirectly predicted assertive behavior through distress (Vagos and Pereira [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref106">50</reflink>]). It is also necessary to examine whether those cognitions and emotions generalize assertive behavior to various situations. It is recommended to evaluate whether trainings could improve assertive cognition and emotional control, and whether these improvement led to increased assertive behavior.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-22">Limitations</hd> <p>This study has three limitations. First, it is not clear from this study whether the behavioral changes resulting from assertiveness training are maintained over time. To confirm whether the changes have been maintained, it is necessary to measure their effectiveness at least several months after the completion of training.</p> <p>Second, the results of improved objectives effectiveness seen in this study were obtained from a small number of female‐only participants from a specific university, where the participants enrolled in training classes on their own initiative; therefore, the sample for this study may be skewed toward students interested in interpersonal communication and social skills. The results of this study would be limited in applicability.</p> <p>Third, since the author served as a trainer, conducting a double‐blind approach to examine the training's effects was impossible. Increasing the number of participants and training a more diverse population by a different trainer would be necessary to confirm this finding.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-23">Conclusions</hd> <p>A training program based on PMSS was designed to integrate cognitive, behavioral, and emotional components into assertiveness training. This training program was given to female Japanese undergraduate students and effectively improved objectives effectiveness. In the future, assertiveness skills training should include sessions that allow participants to integrate cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects, and effectiveness measurement should be more multidimensional.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-24">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>The author would like to acknowledge Dr. Atsushi Aikawa for introducing me to his process model of social skills.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-25">Conflicts of Interest</hd> <p>The author declares no conflicts of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0187257409-26">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.</p> <ref id="AN0187257409-27"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref28" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Aikawa ([2]) referred to Dodge's model diagram translated into Japanese as described in Nakazawa ([28]).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref64" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> At the university where the participants belong, the academic year begins in April, with students registering for all spring and fall semester courses in April. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Assertiveness Skills Training Based on the Process Model of Social Skills
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  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Asami+Watanabe%22">Asami Watanabe</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Psychology+in+the+Schools%22"><i>Psychology in the Schools</i></searchLink>. 2025 62(9):3184-3194.
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  Label: Availability
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  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
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  Label: Peer Reviewed
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 11
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Assertiveness%22">Assertiveness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Competence%22">Interpersonal Competence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Training%22">Training</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Females%22">Females</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Womens+Education%22">Womens Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Single+Sex+Colleges%22">Single Sex Colleges</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Instructional+Effectiveness%22">Instructional Effectiveness</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Japan%22">Japan</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1002/pits.23534
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0033-3085<br />1520-6807
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study provided an assertiveness skills training program based on the process model of social skills and investigated the effect of assertiveness skills training on students at a women's university in Japan. It was a quasi-experimental study conducted in a pre- and post-survey design with nonequivalent groups. The training program included cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components. Students were divided into two groups: a group that received weekly 14 training sessions and a no training group. Effectiveness was measured in in terms of three functional effects: objectives effectiveness, relationship effectiveness, and self-respect effectiveness. Participants completed the assertion scale for adolescents and sense of authenticity scale pre- and post-training. Mann-Whitney U tests were conducted to compare the means of the pre and post differences between the two groups on persuasion negotiations (objectives effectiveness), relationship formation (relationship effectiveness), and sense of authenticity (self-respect effectiveness). Analysis results revealed increased behaviors in the training group related to objectives effectiveness through assertiveness compared to the no-training group, p = 0.05. There were no significant differences between the two groups in the amount of change in relationship effectiveness, p = 0.77, and self-respect effectiveness, p = 0.88. In the future, assertiveness skills training should include sessions that allow participants to integrate cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects, and effectiveness measurement should be more multidimensional.
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: EJ1480098
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        Value: 10.1002/pits.23534
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 11
        StartPage: 3184
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Assertiveness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Competence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Training
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Females
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Womens Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Single Sex Colleges
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Instructional Effectiveness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Japan
        Type: general
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      – TitleFull: Assertiveness Skills Training Based on the Process Model of Social Skills
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            NameFull: Asami Watanabe
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 09
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
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              Value: 62
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            – TitleFull: Psychology in the Schools
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