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Promoting Culturally Engaging Campus Environments for Undocumented Students: The Role of Institutional Agents

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Title: Promoting Culturally Engaging Campus Environments for Undocumented Students: The Role of Institutional Agents
Language: English
Authors: Cinthya Salazar (ORCID 0000-0002-2584-3376), Cristina Nader, Juan David Velasco Zuñiga, Andrea Romero Viruel
Source: Innovative Higher Education. 2025 50(4):1247-1280.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 34
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Undocumented Immigrants, College Environment, Sense of Belonging, Cultural Relevance, Public Colleges, College Faculty, Teacher Role, Inclusion, School Personnel
Geographic Terms: California, Texas
DOI: 10.1007/s10755-024-09775-9
ISSN: 0742-5627
1573-1758
Abstract: Existing research clearly shows that the experiences of undocumented students are highly dependent on the campus environment and their interactions within the setting (Cisneros et al., 2022 "Journal of Diversity in Higher Education", 15(5), 607-616; Shelton, 2019 "Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice", 56(1), 92-104). It is common for undocumented students to feel ostracized and experience a campus setting that is unwelcoming despite attending college in states that offer them access to in-state resident tuition (ISRT) rates and state financial aid (Negrón-Gonzales, 2017 "Journal of Hispanic Higher Education", 16(2), 105-122; Salazar et al., 2023 "Journal of Hispanic Higher Education", 22(2), 161-174). In this study, we used Museus' (2014) Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) model to examine institutional agents' role in promoting a culturally engaging campus environment for undocumented college students. We used a participatory action research approach and a multiple qualitative case study research design to analyze data from 35 undocumented students attending public universities in California and Texas. The data revealed incongruencies in how faculty affected participants' sense of inclusion via curricula and one-on-one interactions. Furthermore, findings showed how personnel working at undocumented student resource centers promoted equity through culturally responsive practices. Grounded in our findings, we discuss innovative implications for higher education research, policy, and practice, such as including immigration content in the classroom across majors to increase culturally relevant opportunities and facilitate positive student-faculty interactions for undocumented students.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1480386
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0187381767;ihe01aug.25;2025Aug20.02:30;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0187381767-1">Promoting Culturally Engaging Campus Environments for Undocumented Students: The Role of Institutional Agents </title> <p>Existing research clearly shows that the experiences of undocumented students are highly dependent on the campus environment and their interactions within the setting (Cisneros et al., 2022Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 15(<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref1">5</reflink>), 607–616; Shelton, 2019Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 56(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref2">1</reflink>), 92–104). It is common for undocumented students to feel ostracized and experience a campus setting that is unwelcoming despite attending college in states that offer them access to in-state resident tuition (ISRT) rates and state financial aid (Negrón-Gonzales, 2017Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 16(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref3">2</reflink>), 105–122; Salazar et al., 2023Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 22(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref4">2</reflink>), 161–174). In this study, we used Museus' (2014) Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) model to examine institutional agents' role in promoting a culturally engaging campus environment for undocumented college students. We used a participatory action research approach and a multiple qualitative case study research design to analyze data from 35 undocumented students attending public universities in California and Texas. The data revealed incongruencies in how faculty affected participants' sense of inclusion via curricula and one-on-one interactions. Furthermore, findings showed how personnel working at undocumented student resource centers promoted equity through culturally responsive practices. Grounded in our findings, we discuss innovative implications for higher education research, policy, and practice, such as including immigration content in the classroom across majors to increase culturally relevant opportunities and facilitate positive student-faculty interactions for undocumented students.</p> <p>Keywords: Undocumented college students; Campus environments; Institutional agents; Qualitative case study; Participatory action research; CECE model; Education Specialist Studies In Education Studies in Human Society Sociology</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <p>College students across the United States are more diverse racially, ethnically, and culturally than ever before (de Brey et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref5">8</reflink>]), and their needs and experiences in their campus environments vary greatly based on their multiple social identities and cultural backgrounds (Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref6">24</reflink>]). Undocumented college students are a diverse group of learners that has gradually been in the public eye. This group encompasses students who are Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) beneficiaries and those who are not. About 408,000 undocumented students are now enrolled in higher education across the United States (Higher Ed Immigration Portal [HEIP], [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref7">12</reflink>]). Most of them are not protected by DACA, an executive action that offers two main benefits: (a) a two-year renewable work permit and (b) safeguards against deportation (United States Citizenship and Immigration Services [USCIS], [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref8">44</reflink>]).[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref9">1</reflink>] Nationwide, undocumented students are ineligible for federal forms of financial assistance (HEIP, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref10">13</reflink>]), establishing a fundamental barrier to access and success in higher education for them. Half of the states do not allow undocumented students to pay in-state resident tuition (ISRT) rates, and only 17 states grant them access to apply for state financial aid. Most undocumented students attend public institutions in states like California and Texas because state policies expand their access to postsecondary educational opportunities (HEIP, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref11">13</reflink>]).</p> <p>Existing research clearly shows that the experiences of undocumented students are highly dependent on the campus environment and the interactions they have within the setting (Cisneros et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref12">6</reflink>]; Muñoz & Maldonado, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref13">19</reflink>]; Pérez Huber, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref14">30</reflink>]; Shelton, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref15">39</reflink>]). Oftentimes, undocumented students experience nativist and racist microaggressions as early as the college admission process and continue to encounter them as they navigate college toward graduation (Gonzales, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref16">10</reflink>]; Muñoz & Vigil, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref17">20</reflink>]; Pérez Huber, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref18">30</reflink>]). Sadly, it is common for undocumented students to feel ostracized at their institutions and experience a campus setting that is unwelcoming despite attending college in states that offer them access to ISRT rates and/or state financial aid (Negrón-Gonzales, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref19">25</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref20">35</reflink>]), highlighting the multifaceted nature of the challenges these students face. Unfriendly campus experiences contribute to the mental health stressors they already have to navigate as a result of their immigration status (Cadenas & Nienhusser, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref21">1</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref22">36</reflink>]).</p> <p>Institutional agents[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref23">2</reflink>] like faculty and higher education administrators typically occupy positions of authority at an institution, impacting the experiences of students from historically marginalized backgrounds, including undocumented students (Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref24">34</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref25">40</reflink>]). They can shape the campus environment, including its culture, by creating or suppressing learning and belonging opportunities for all students, including undocumented students, via their attitudes, relationships, programs, and services (Museus & Neville, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref26">22</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref27">34</reflink>]). Students who feel like they matter to institutional agents and others on campus are more likely to form positive perceptions of their college experiences and persist compared to students who do not feel important to others (Rendón, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref28">31</reflink>]). It is well documented in the literature that positive interactions with institutional agents can promote student retention and academic success, which is particularly essential among racially, ethnically, and culturally diverse students (Museus & Neville, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref29">22</reflink>]; Park et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref30">29</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref31">34</reflink>]). Furthermore, when marginalized students, such as undocumented students, have access to encouraging institutional agents, they may attain the social capital often valued in educational environments (Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref32">34</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref33">40</reflink>]).</p> <p>Only a handful of studies have directly illuminated the influence of institutional agents on the experiences of undocumented students; this literature mostly reveals the role they play as policy implementers, either facilitating or inhibiting college access through bureaucratic procedures (Nienhusser & Espino, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref34">27</reflink>]; Nienhusser et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref35">28</reflink>]; Vega et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref36">45</reflink>]). However, once enrolled in college, in what ways, if any, are institutional agents promoting campus environments that are relevant and responsive to the cultural backgrounds of students as undocumented immigrants? In this manuscript, using Museus' ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref37">24</reflink>]) Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) model, we aim to answer this research question by examining the role institutional agents play in promoting a culturally engaging campus environment, if any, for undocumented students from an asset-based lens. We used a participatory action research approach and a multiple qualitative case study research design to compare the campus environments of two public universities, one in California and one in Texas. Undocumented students are present on college campuses nationwide; thus, we find it critical to understand the extent to which interactions with institutional agents in the campus environment promote their cultural engagement and, as a result, their inclusion and student success. Through this research, we strive to inform higher education practices with the goal of enhancing the experiences of undocumented college students across the United States.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-2">Review of Relevant Literature</hd> <p>In this section, we provide a review of relevant research conducted within the last 10 years because research centering the experiences of undocumented students was sparse prior to 2014. The relevant research is focused on the experiences of undocumented students in their campus environments, as well as their interactions with institutional agents who play a significant role in shaping campus culture, as these two areas are the intersection that our research covers.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-3">Undocumented College Students and the Campus Environments They Navigate</hd> <p>Undocumented college students often encounter campus environments that lack the resources they need to successfully navigate higher education, such as financial support and institutional agents who are knowledgeable of their lived realities (Negrón-Gonzales, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref38">25</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref39">36</reflink>]; Teranishi et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref40">43</reflink>]). It is common for undocumented students to face challenges securing institutional scholarships when experiencing financial stress (Chen & Rhoads, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref41">4</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref42">36</reflink>]; Teranishi et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref43">43</reflink>]). This is particularly hindering given that undocumented students are not eligible for federal forms of financial aid and that few states offer them eligibility for state financial assistance (HEIP, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref44">13</reflink>]). Also, while undocumented students want access to paid internships for which they qualify, they often encounter companies partaking in campus career fairs that are ignorant of the process of hiring DACA recipients because career centers are not advocating adequately for them (Teranishi et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref45">43</reflink>]). These routine experiences add to the marginalization of undocumented students within their campus settings, adding risks to their student success.</p> <p>In addition, undocumented students frequently confront campus environments that perpetuate racist nativist ideologies through a lack of campus services that help them persist and graduate, as well as the absence of supportive faculty, causing them a feeling of unsuitability and inferiority (Muñoz & Vigil, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref46">20</reflink>]; Pérez Huber, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref47">30</reflink>]). Consequently, they experience added mental health stressors, but few services are available to help them cope with their distress (Cadenas & Nienhusser, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref48">1</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref49">36</reflink>]). The invisibility undocumented students experience as a result of hostile campus environments is further exacerbated among Black and Asian undocumented communities because if resources exist, they are oftentimes unobservable or perceived as unavailable to them (Dao, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref50">7</reflink>]; Hall, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref51">11</reflink>]; Russell & Reyna Rivarola, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref52">33</reflink>]). This demonstrates the need to recognize how services on college campuses must consider the multiple and intersecting identities of undocumented students.</p> <p>Some campus environments have been conceptualized as undocufriendly because of the programs and services they offer to undocumented students (Suárez-Orozco et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref53">41</reflink>]). These may include formal support structures like undocumented student resource centers (USRCs) or other conditions that theoretically foster an inclusive campus environment (Canedo Sanchez & So, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref54">2</reflink>]; Hernández et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref55">14</reflink>]; Tapia-Fuselier, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref56">42</reflink>]). Perceptions of being an undocufriendly campus can positively sway college choice among undocumented students and their experiences after enrollment (Suárez-Orozco et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref57">41</reflink>]). However, recent research has demonstrated that having an undocufriendly reputation does not always translate into meeting the needs of undocumented students (Muñoz et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref58">21</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref59">36</reflink>]); thus, it is necessary to go beyond friendliness and become "undocuserving institutions" (Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref60">36</reflink>], p. 11). Whereas undocufriendly institutions provide a welcoming environment for undocumented students, undocuserving institutions actively provide institutional resources and personnel to advocate for and serve undocumented students' specific needs, emphasizing a depth of support ensuring that undocumented students can thrive.</p> <p>Because many undocumented students do not find the necessary support structures on their campuses, they self-advocate and engage in student activism to create the spaces they need (Canedo Sanchez & So, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref61">2</reflink>]; Chen & Rhoads, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref62">4</reflink>]; Cisneros & Valdivia, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref63">5</reflink>]; Santa-Ramirez, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref64">37</reflink>]). Cisneros and Valdivia ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref65">5</reflink>]) studied the process of developing USRCs and found that without undocumented students' advocacy efforts, in many cases as alumni, such spaces would not have materialized. Around 56 USRCs exist nationwide, offering much-needed programs and services to undocumented students (Cisneros & Valdivia, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref66">5</reflink>]). Comparatively, in a study examining how engaging in a research collective designed with and for, and comprised of current and former undocumented scholars, Salazar et al. ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref67">35</reflink>]) found that such opportunities served as counterspaces from alienation and stigma felt at school. Undocumented students tend to care about social issues and engage civically; therefore, they commonly advocate for individuals in their community (Dao, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref68">7</reflink>]; Santa-Ramirez, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref69">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>While campus spaces where undocumented students feel included vary across institutional types and geographic landscapes, when available, they make a difference and positively influence their postsecondary experiences (Cisneros et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref70">6</reflink>]; Enriquez et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref71">9</reflink>]; Suárez-Orozco et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref72">41</reflink>]). Formal student organizations centering immigrant rights can especially benefit undocumented students (Chen & Rhoads, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref73">4</reflink>]; Suárez-Orozco et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref74">41</reflink>]). Connecting with peers who share their background helps alleviate the isolation they feel within the larger campus environment and allows them to exchange valuable information like legal and academic advice (Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref75">35</reflink>]; Santa-Ramirez & Hall, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref76">38</reflink>]). Offering tailored services and resources makes undocumented students feel valued; thus, they perceive their institutions as caring for their success (Enriquez et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref77">9</reflink>]). However, because a small percentage of college campuses nationwide provide a designated community space or USRCs with dedicated staff for undocumented students, their experiences highly depend on the competency and willingness of institutional agents to support them across campus (Nienhusser & Espino, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref78">27</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-4">Interactions Between Undocumented College Students and Institutional Agents</hd> <p>Within college campuses, institutional agents often include faculty and higher education administrators in student-facing positions, playing an essential role in shaping the campus culture and, thus, the educational trajectories of all students, including undocumented learners (Museus et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref79">23</reflink>]; Nienhusser & Espino, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref80">27</reflink>]; Nienhusser et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref81">28</reflink>]). For example, at the time of admissions, undocumented students can feel motivated or discouraged by interactions with institutional agents who can either enhance or diminish the campus reputation by their competency of state and federal policies affecting this population of students (Museus et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref82">23</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref83">36</reflink>]; Vega et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref84">45</reflink>]). Unfortunately, it is most common to be misinformed about procedures when seeking admission as an undocumented student (Castrellón, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref85">3</reflink>]); during this time, they also feel intolerance by institutional agents in financial aid units who are supposed to help them with ISRT classification processes (Nienhusser & Espino, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref86">27</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref87">36</reflink>]). Sadly, Suárez-Orozco et al. ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref88">41</reflink>]) found that over half of undocumented students responding to a survey reported experiencing discrimination on campus because of their immigration status, most often coming from peers and institutional agents in financial aid units. This alarming reality further contributes to a negative campus culture for undocumented students since most need financial resources and information to enroll and persist in college (Enriquez et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref89">9</reflink>]; Negrón-Gonzales, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref90">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>Moreover, undocumented college students often encounter institutional agents who are not helpful because they are ignorant of their needs and circumstances and lack creative problem-solving skills (Castrellón, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref91">3</reflink>]; Hernández et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref92">14</reflink>]; Muñoz et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref93">21</reflink>]; Nichols & Guzmán, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref94">26</reflink>]; Nienhusser & Espino, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref95">27</reflink>]). It is also common for them to receive incorrect information from institutional agents even when they reveal their status, further promoting a negative campus culture resistant to change (Enriquez et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref96">9</reflink>]; Negrón-Gonzales, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref97">25</reflink>]; Vega et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref98">45</reflink>]). Sometimes, undocumented students must find alternatives to course requirements for which they are ineligible due to their immigration status but feel helpless because professors, in particular, cannot assist them, adding to their sense of marginalization (Nichols & Guzmán, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref99">26</reflink>]). These experiences add to the mental health stressors undocumented students often encounter. Unfortunately, undocumented students not only lack essential academic support from institutional agents, but they also lack mental health assistance, exacerbating an already unsupportive campus culture (Cadenas & Nienhusser, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref100">1</reflink>]; Enriquez et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref101">9</reflink>]; Suárez-Orozco et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref102">41</reflink>]).</p> <p>Research has overwhelmingly emphasized negative and invalidating interactions between institutional agents and undocumented college students that promote a negative campus culture (e.g., Castrellón, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref103">3</reflink>]; Nichols & Guzmán, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref104">26</reflink>]; Vega et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref105">45</reflink>]). Only a handful of studies have shed light on positive relationships and the actions institutional agents can take to make undocumented students feel included on their campuses, influencing a positive campus culture (e.g., Cisneros et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref106">6</reflink>]; Enriquez et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref107">9</reflink>]; Muñoz & Espino, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref108">18</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref109">35</reflink>]). From this work, it is clear that when fostered, strong connections with institutional agents who have the information, training, and resources they need to support undocumented students increase the sense of belonging of these students, helping to create a transformative campus environment (Enriquez et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref110">9</reflink>]; Muñoz & Espino, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref111">18</reflink>]). Positive interactions with institutional agents can also help undocumented students persist toward graduation and cope with the mental health stressors they face because of their immigration status, nurturing a culturally responsive campus environment (Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref112">36</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref113">35</reflink>]). As the undocumented student population continues to grow on U.S. college campuses, particularly at public institutions in states like California and Texas, additional research is needed to further understand the role institutional agents, as people contributing to a larger campus culture, play in promoting a culturally engaging campus environment where undocumented students can feel included and succeed.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-5">Theoretical Framework</hd> <p>In this study, we used Museus' ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref114">24</reflink>]) Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) model as the theoretical framework to examine the role that institutional agents play in promoting a culturally engaging campus environment for undocumented students. Museus developed the CECE model to assess the conditions that promote the success of all racially, ethnically, and culturally diverse student populations, including white students. The CECE model places the responsibility of creating a campus environment where all students can thrive on institutions and their agents, like faculty and higher education administrators, and moves away from solely holding students accountable for their engagement, persistence, and success.</p> <p>As part of the CECE model, Museus ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref115">24</reflink>]) hypothesized nine indicators that promote a culturally engaging campus environment where students from all backgrounds, but mainly racially, ethnically, and culturally minoritized students, can succeed. The nine indicators are divided into two clusters: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref116">1</reflink>) cultural relevance and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref117">2</reflink>) cultural responsiveness (see Appendix 1 for a CECE model summary table). Within the cultural relevance cluster, the indicators include: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref118">1</reflink>) cultural familiarity, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref119">2</reflink>) culturally relevant knowledge, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref120">3</reflink>) cultural community service, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref121">4</reflink>) opportunities for meaningful cross-cultural engagement, and (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref122">5</reflink>) culturally validating environments (Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref123">24</reflink>]). Museus argued that these five indicators might be mainly promoted through an institution's academic curricula and co-curricular programming. Within the cultural responsiveness cluster, the indicators encompass: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref124">1</reflink>) collectivist cultural orientations, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref125">2</reflink>) humanized educational environments, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref126">3</reflink>) proactive philosophies, and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref127">4</reflink>) availability of holistic support (Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref128">24</reflink>]). The cultural responsiveness indicators can be mostly fostered through institutional agents' actions and efforts to meet the needs of diverse students. Museus proposed that by activating the nine indicators, institutions and their agents can positively influence students' sense of belonging, academic dispositions, and academic performance, ultimately leading to student success.</p> <p>Since the CECE model was introduced in 2014, numerous studies have used the framework to examine the experiences of college students of color (e.g., Kiyama et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref129">15</reflink>]; Museus et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref130">23</reflink>]), but few have used it to study the experiences of undocumented college students (e.g., Muñoz & Espino, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref131">18</reflink>]; Shelton, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref132">39</reflink>]). From this work, it is evident that undocumented students lack access to an overall culturally engaging campus environment. Specifically, Shelton ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref133">39</reflink>]) discovered three barriers to belonging for undocumented students in the Midwest, South, Southwest, and West Coast, including (a) experiencing racism and hostility from majoritized students, (b) limited visibility of other Latinx and/or undocumented students, and (c) blocked social opportunities. Comparatively, Muñoz and Espino ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref134">18</reflink>]) found that Freedom University, an educational initiative that provides a learning sanctuary for undocumented students founded in response to Georgia's exclusionary higher education policies, fulfilled various, but not all, elements of the CECE model. While this body of scholarship informed our understanding of the CECE model and helped frame our research, it left us questioning if undocumented students enrolled at public higher education institutions in states with similar policy contexts like California and Texas, where the majority of undocumented students are enrolled, had distinct opportunities to feel culturally engaged on their campuses via their interactions with institutional agents who possibly have more exposure to this group of diverse students. While we used the CECE model and its nine indicators to broadly frame and design our study, this paper focuses on the ways that institutional agents promote campus environments that are relevant and responsive to the cultural backgrounds of students as undocumented immigrants.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-6">Methodology</hd> <p>We used a participatory action research (PAR) approach and a multiple qualitative case study research design to examine the role that institutional agents play in cultivating a culturally engaging campus environment for undocumented college students. As a critical and collaborative research approach, PAR requires the participation of communities impacted by the issue under investigation in all aspects of the research process to advocate for social change (Rodríguez & Brown, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref135">32</reflink>]). Since PAR allows researchers to implement various research methodologies and methods, we used qualitative case study procedures to conduct our study. We engaged seven current and former members of the undocumented student community as co-researchers throughout the investigation, bringing our experiential knowledge as undocumented immigrants navigating higher education, as well as our positionalities as critical scholars, to the center of the study.[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref136">3</reflink>] Together, we became a research collective (RC) responsible for defining the phenomena to be studied, protocols' development, recruitment of participants, data collection, and data analysis procedures (see Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref137">35</reflink>], for more details on the RC and PAR approach). As an RC, we engaged in several discussions about potential problems and questions to investigate before ultimately deciding to focus on the role that institutional agents play in promoting a culturally engaging campus environment for undocumented students; the selection of this topic was informed by the existing literature and our lived experiences as current and former undocumented students. Three members of the RC are co-authors of this manuscript; the rest of the RC could not continue their engagement in the project after data collection ended due to graduation and, thus, a need to focus on the transition out of college and into individual endeavors. As a critical methodology, PAR facilitates the enactment of actions toward social justice based on the study findings (Rodríguez & Brown, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref138">32</reflink>]). To honor this principle, we met with institutional agents at our research sites and offered insights on how to promote undocumented students' cultural engagement and success. It was vital for us to embrace a PAR approach in our study as most scholarship about undocumented students is not produced by members of the community.</p> <p>Qualitative case studies allow researchers to account for contextual factors surrounding the unit or "case" under analysis and to incorporate two or more data sources, such as individual interviews and focus groups (Merriam & Tisdell, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref139">17</reflink>]). In this study, the unit of analysis is the campus environment itself. As a result of a purposeful selection process, we chose two public universities as the cases. Within each case, we compared the distinct experiences of undocumented students and examined the role institutional agents played in promoting a culturally engaging campus environment for them. After examining individual student experiences within each campus setting, we engaged in cross-case study comparisons to understand the differences and similarities between the two cases (Merriam & Tisdell, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref140">17</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-7">The Cases</hd> <p>This study was conducted at two public universities located in two different states with the highest number of undocumented students enrolled in higher education: (a) California and (b) Texas.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref141">4</reflink>] Since the higher education access of undocumented students depends on state policies, we purposefully selected two states that allowed undocumented students with and without DACA to pay ISRT rates and offered them access to state financial aid at the time of data collection (HEIP, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref142">13</reflink>]). Theoretically, conducting the study in California and Texas created a more uniform backdrop for the research because undocumented students in both states were eligible for ISRT and state financial aid. With these considerations, we could more openly examine if and how institutional agents promoted the cultural engagement of undocumented students. Selecting opposing state contexts, such as California and Georgia, for example, would not have allowed us to compare the cases in the same capacity.</p> <p>We also used a purposeful sampling technique to identify both institutions: (a) California Public University (CPU; pseudonym) and (b) Texas Public University (TPU; pseudonym). The goal of purposeful sampling is to obtain information-rich cases. Furthermore, each case must be carefully selected to compare results in relation to the theory guiding the study and corroborate similar or contrasting findings (Merriam & Tisdell, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref143">17</reflink>]). For this study, we selected two land-grant universities in agricultural areas within their respective states. Both campuses are considered selective, with very high research activity. Both sites are part of multi-campus state university systems. Students largely perceive them as being among the most conservative public institutions within their states, as observed in student newspapers, media articles, and student government campaigns. Despite these similarities, a key distinction between the two sites is that CPU has a USRC, but TPU does not offer such a resource to the student body. To protect the confidentiality of the participants, we do not provide more details on each of the cases; doing so may lead to identifying the research sites and, potentially, the students.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-8">Data Sources</hd> <p>Based on the RC lived experiences as current and former undocumented students, we decided to center the voices of undocumented students throughout the entire study and only generate data from students at each of the two institutions. We did not collect data from institutional agents or university archives because we were interested in understanding how undocumented students themselves experienced the campus environment via their relationships with institutional agents. We collected data from undocumented students via the following methods: (a) a demographics questionnaire, (b) individual interviews, (c) visual artifacts via the photovoice method, and (d) focus groups. To be part of the study, students at both sites had to meet the following criteria: (a) be currently enrolled at CPU or TPU, (b) have completed at least 15 credits on campus as a marker of semester-by-semester persistence and confirm that students had experienced campus culture for at least one semester, (c) be an undergraduate undocumented student with or without DACA, (d) be classified as an ISRT student, and (e) be at least 18 years old. The participant recruitment criteria did not center specific majors because we were interested in learning about undocumented students' experiences across disciplines; thus, we recruited participants by posting the recruitment flyers on various social media pages and student listservs associated with student organizations. We collected data from 17 participants at CPU and 18 at TPU (see Appendix 2 for a table of participants). At CPU, most participants identified as Latinx (n = 16), with the remaining identifying as Asian (n = 1). Most CPU participants were not DACA recipients (n = 11). Most participants' pronouns were she/her/hers (n = 12), followed by he/him/his (n = 4), and they/them/theirs (n = 1). Meanwhile, at TPU, all participants identified as Latinx. Contrary to CPU, most participants at TPU were DACA recipients (n = 12). At TPU, half of the participants' pronouns were she/her/her pronouns (n = 9), and the other half's pronouns were he/him/his (n = 9).</p> <p>Each participant was interviewed virtually once by a member of the research collective. Interviews lasted an average of 75 min and were audio recorded with the consent of participants. All interviews took place over a period of 6 months, from August 2021 to January 2022. During the interviews, we asked participants about their experiences on campus, particularly in connection to the nine CECE model indicators. For example, we asked: To what extent do you feel your campus is inclusive of undocumented students? In what ways, if any, have you had the opportunity to learn about undocumented communities or immigration-related issues through your time in college? To what extent have you been able to develop meaningful relationships on campus? How would you describe your relationships with faculty on campus? To what extent do you feel like you have gotten to know staff and administrators and that they have gotten to know you? Can you tell me about a time, if any, when a faculty or staff member made you feel seen or supported? We want to note that for many undocumented students, it can be difficult to directly state their immigration status when responding to intimate interview questions despite consenting into the study. This may lead them to avoid mentioning their status during interviews as they answer each question because it can be especially hard to keep repeating and saying out loud that they are undocumented. This is a particularly sensitive topic and identity to discuss openly, so we respected participants' way of discussing their immigration status and experiences and aimed to create a safe and comfortable research environment for them during the data collection phase.</p> <p>After all interviews were completed across both research sites, we asked participants to take and/or gather photos documenting and expressing their personal experiences and viewpoints on campus inclusion generally (Rodríguez & Brown, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref144">32</reflink>]). We then asked them to submit these visual artifacts via an online form in response to the following prompts: What are some visual manifestations, if any, of undocumented students' inclusion on campus? What is visually signaling to undocumented students that they are welcomed on campus, if at all? Submissions were anonymous and participants only had to indicate which campus they were attending. We kept the prompt questions broad to avoid leading participants in specific directions and allow them to express their experiences freely. We received between 9 and 12 images from participants at each site, which was less than expected. Some of the visual artifacts submitted by participants included flyers for specific events and images of spaces on campus. Following this process, we invited all participants to be part of at least one virtual focus group. We conducted two focus groups per site during March and April 2022. A total of 7 students from CPU and 5 students from TPU joined the focus groups, which were also audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. While we initially hoped more students would have participated, the small setting allowed participants to engage deeply and connect with one another. Prior to admitting students into the virtual focus groups, we asked them to change their screen names to match their pseudonyms and turn off their cameras to bolster anonymity. During the discussions, we showed the artifacts submitted online and asked them: What are these images saying about the campus environment for undocumented students? How do these images relate to undocumented students' feelings of inclusion and validation on campus? The photovoice method we used to promote conversations yielded rich participant data that complemented the perspectives shared during interviews (Rodríguez & Brown, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref145">32</reflink>]). Together, all sources of data helped us understand the phenomenon under study.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-9">Data Analysis and Trustworthiness</hd> <p>Three of the authors engaged in the data analysis process from May to December 2022. We first developed a codebook with deductive codes derived from the nine CECE model indicators. For example, we created the code "ignorant campus administrators and faculty." We used it when participants talked about how institutional agents lacked the knowledge and competence to support them as undocumented students. Another deductive code we created was "feeling represented on campus," which we used when participants expressed that their identities/cultures were embodied on campus through people, curriculum, and programming; this included moments when participants talked about their undocumented status being recognized and portrayed on campus through speakers, services, and resources, among others. Then, we read all transcripts once to get closer to the data and identified inductive codes that needed to be added to the codebook (e.g., positive interactions with faculty, negative interactions with faculty, non-existent or neutral relationships with faculty). Our codebook had 104 codes connected to 15 categories that helped us organize and make sense of the data. We wrote clear descriptions for each code to boost consistency and enhance trustworthiness during the coding process.</p> <p>Upon finalizing the codebook, we coded each transcript line by line two times. On average, coding each transcript took us about 3 hours. Two different researchers coded the same transcript to compare personal interpretations of the data. After coding each transcript, we all submitted analytical memos, prompting us to draw stronger connections between the data, the CECE model, and the research question. Memoing throughout the coding and analysis process and peer debriefing during our weekly meetings increased the credibility of the findings. This systematic process led to the identification of emerging themes. For the purposes of this manuscript, we are centering the themes that emerged in connection to the role institutional agents played in promoting a culturally engaging campus environment for undocumented students at CPU and TPU. Thus, not all nine CECE model indicators are reflected and discussed in the findings section because they did not surface through the data analysis steps. Our dataset was rich and extensive because we embraced a comparative case study approach. However, discussing general themes resulting from data analysis that are not connected to our study purpose and research question is out of the scope of this article.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-10">Findings</hd> <p>In examining the ways that institutional agents promoted campus environments that are relevant and responsive to the cultural backgrounds of undocumented students at CPU and TPU, the data revealed two major themes. First, when comparing both cases, we found incongruencies in how faculty affected participants' cultural engagement as undocumented immigrants. In particular, academic curricula and one-on-one interactions between students and professors surfaced as crucial opportunities to either facilitate or impede participants' cultural engagement. Second, we found that for participants at CPU, personnel working at the USRC promoted cultural engagement by implementing culturally responsive practices that addressed their needs as undocumented students. Yet, these opportunities were seldom available for participants at TPU because the campus did not have a USRC. We expand on both themes in this section.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-11">Faculty Affecting Undocumented Students' Cultural Engagement Via Curricula and Interactions</hd> <p>The data showed clear differences in how CPU and TPU participants experienced cultural engagement at their institutions via the academic curriculum available and their relationships with faculty facilitating courses. The differences in available curricula are remarkable because both institutions geographically provide a similar context as both share a border with Mexico. In addition, both campuses are in states with ISRT and state financial aid policies that help promote college access for undocumented students. Most CPU participants spoke about how their campus offers core curriculum practices that champion the inclusion of undocumented students. Almost all students mentioned exposure to formal content about immigration and immigrants through their courses, embodying the culturally relevant knowledge indicator theorized by Museus ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref146">24</reflink>]). Exposure to these courses started early as students across majors at CPU are given the option to enroll in an immigration class as part of their required core curriculum. When talking about opportunities to learn about immigration-related information through their time in college, Alex, who was pursuing a Sociology major at CPU, said:I took a first-year seminar that focused on immigration and mental health. Not only did I learn how mental health and immigration connect but it was a great personal experience where I felt like as an undocumented student myself, I grew and found myself there. The professor I took it with went far and beyond supporting and was just an amazing professor.</p> <p>The academic curriculum provided Alex with opportunities to learn beyond immigration content. She had the chance to understand herself as an undocumented student and felt strongly supported by faculty early in her college years. Caleb, who was pursuing Clinical Nutrition at CPU, also shared how learning about historical issues affecting undocumented immigrants in class was enlightening. He said: "I took a Chicano studies class that helped me with all the background of Chicanos, the first undocumented people who got to the United States and their experience, it was really eye opening." In those classes, Caleb was exposed to students "who didn't know anything about Mexican people coming to the United States." He continued: "That was really eye opening to know how others, like, 'wow, you didn't know that.' And that's who I am!" For Caleb, the curriculum faculty created and offered at CPU helped him learn about his own story, as well as how others react to the past conditions affecting undocumented immigrants nowadays.</p> <p>Similarly, Cristina, who was pursuing a Design major at CPU, talked about how one of her art professors encouraged students to create projects about their lived experiences. Thus, she chose to center her undocumented immigrant experiences in her project. She said:His name was [name]... He introduced himself like, "I'm Mexican. I make art that focuses on my identity." When people are willing to open up themselves, especially professors and people leading classrooms, there's just an instant kind of connection that forms. With him, our projects, it would be revolving around the experiences that we've gone through, like what is meaningful to you, what's impactful to you. And that was different than my other design professors who were just kind of going by the book...</p> <p>Cristina believed that being transparent and vulnerable about one's identities as a professor helps students feel connected to the faculty member and the course content, even when faculty bring light to identities that may not be the same as students' most salient identities, but are somewhat related like being members of historically marginalized groups. Having the opportunity to develop class projects pertinent to her history as an undocumented student made Cristina feel respected and valued; this boosted her commitment to her major and overall education.</p> <p>Even when students were not learning about immigration or themselves as undocumented students through the curriculum, most students at CPU generally spoke more positively about their relationships with faculty on campus than participants at TPU. They realized that professors had the power to shape the curriculum regardless of the discipline and appreciated how CPU faculty intentionally developed culturally relevant lesson plans. Alexandra, who was pursuing a Computer Engineering major at CPU, talked about the importance of positive student-faculty interactions evolving from mandatory and general courses in her academic journey. She shared:A professor told us that we can come to their office at any time, and they'll be able to help each student there. You can also email if you want to schedule something. He would try to explain everything to me, and this is what made me feel seen and that they cared about my education.</p> <p>From Alexandra's perspective, when faculty make themselves available to help students beyond the classroom, even if not for immigration-related purposes, they care about student success. This demonstrates holistic support, a culturally responsive practice that can result in an increased sense of belonging, motivation, and academic performance (Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref147">24</reflink>]), which are essential to promote the success of undocumented students. In the case of Alexandra, she knew she could count on her engineering professor for academic support, and if needed, she had a trustworthy institutional agent she could rely on for personal support as an undocumented student. Also, showing that professors know about undocumented students and are "undocuallies" helps undocumented students feel holistically supported. For example, Winter, who was pursuing Food Science at CPU said: "I remember one of my physics professors, they had it [badge with word undocually and butterflies][<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref148">5</reflink>] and it made me feel like okay, they know that this community exists. So, that was one time when I felt supported." For Winter, seeing the undocually symbol on her professor's office door and email signature made her feel seen, despite not talking to them directly about her status. Winter's professor demonstrated cultural familiarity (Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref149">24</reflink>]) and made their office a culturally relevant space for Winter, which made a difference in how she felt on campus.</p> <p>Sadly, most participants at TPU had very different experiences within their campus environment. Students at TPU overwhelmingly spoke about lacking access to an academic curriculum that was inclusive of immigration topics and/or their lived experiences as undocumented people. They wished faculty would take the initiative and educate themselves and others on immigration. For example, Carlos, who was pursuing a Geology major, did not recall faculty bringing up the subject in his classes, not even in one lesson plan. He said:I was taking chemistry, biology, sociology, and direct studies for economics classes... And immigration was never brought up. It's one of those things where people are so uneducated. It's not their fault. It's just that it just never comes across their path.</p> <p>From Carlos' perspective, faculty do not need to bring up immigration issues as part of their syllabus because it does not personally affect them and/or perceive the topic as irrelevant to the course subject. This contributes to undocumented students' invisibility on campus and promotes ignorance among the larger university community.</p> <p>Other TPU participants were also unable to recall any instances of learning about immigration and/or undocumented people through their coursework, like JP, who was pursuing Civil Engineering, and Miguel, who was majoring in Business. This demonstrates how numerous professors at TPU, across various disciplines, did not facilitate culturally relevant experiences for undocumented students via the curricula they designed and offered. Only a couple of participants at TPU talked about taking one class where immigration came up. For instance, Sofi, who was pursuing Political Science, took a class her first semester called U.S. Policy and the curriculum included reading about the history of U.S. immigration laws. Sofi said: "It [class] helped me understand why it's not as easy for Congress [to] have all these laws to help immigrants. But as well, helped me see that I have hope to be able to be a citizen one day." While not common among TPU participants, having the opportunity to learn relevant immigration information via courses was helpful at an academic and personal level, as noted in Sofi's comments.</p> <p>In addition to lacking access to pertinent curricula, the majority of TPU participants talked about non-existing and even negative relationships with professors. Because TPU participants were not exposed to knowledgeable and aware faculty who embedded immigration and undocumented community content in their lesson plans, they perceived their professors as untrustworthy. When speaking about interactions with faculty, Elena A., whose major was Computer Engineering, recalled:I did not develop any kind of relationship with any of my professors. I felt humiliated during office hours that I just stopped going. It's not a concern for them [status], so I wouldn't want to waste their time telling them about my situation [being undocumented]. I feel like since there are many international students, my case would just be yet another problem for them.</p> <p>For Elena A., negative interactions with professors during office hours when facing academic challenges made her think that the faculty did not care about her success. She believed that telling professors about her status would burden them; thus, she resolved not to have any relationships with them. Similarly, Revy, who was pursuing Mechanical Engineering, spoke about absent connections with professors; she said: "When it comes to a faculty, I don't think I've had a meaningful relationship with any professor." Reflecting on this during the interview was striking for Revy as she was about to graduate from college. She felt disappointed not to have encountered any professors who got to know her and her lived experiences as an undocumented student. For most TPU students, lacking access to culturally relevant curricula resulted in distant relationships with faculty and a decreased sense of belonging.</p> <p>Overall, without positive and strong relationships with faculty, TPU students felt less culturally engaged on campus than participants at CPU. Professors' course offerings and interactions at TPU did not promote a humanized educational environment for undocumented students. Participants at TPU felt they could not trust professors with information about their status, particularly as they experienced academic challenges, negatively affecting their academic dispositions. Rosa, who was pursuing Chemical Engineering, spoke strongly about this:I would never confide in them [professors], like I said, for the most part, because especially you're talking about a field that is mostly dominated by white men. Like it's not something that I would go into office hours and feel comfortable being like, oh, "I wasn't able to get my homework done today, because I have to work, because I have to pay my tuition by myself because I don't get any aid," from at least federal aid.</p> <p>For Rosa, her professors' identities as "white men" influenced her perceptions of them. She did not trust them and she assumed they would not understand her experiences as an undocumented student, so she never felt comfortable disclosing her status to them. If her professors had brought up relevant immigration content in their lesson plans, which can be possible even in engineering courses, Rosa might have felt a stronger sense of validation on campus. Similarly, for Eren, who was majoring in Civil Engineering, the lack of inclusive curricula restricted opportunities to interact with faculty at a closer level. Eren's relationships with professors were strictly transactional, focusing on class-related matters. He said: "When I talk to them about a problem, we'll talk about it, they won't get personal with me. And I like it that way too, I don't like to get personal with them either." While Eren preferred to keep business-like relationships with faculty, his lack of personal relationships with professors tainted his ability to distinguish whether they could support him as an undocumented student. He said:I don't want to bring it up [status] if I don't have to, just because you don't know how they'll [faculty] react to it. That's just meeting somebody new, you don't know how they were raised or what they've been through, what they lean on politically, you just don't know anything about them that you don't know if you can set them off, you don't know that's going to give a bad first impression for them. Because, there are people out there that as soon as they know you're undocumented, they automatically don't like you, but do I think those are my professors? Absolutely not, but at the same time, you never know.</p> <p>For Eren, it was risky to bring up his status in conversations with faculty during office hours. He was unsure how his professors would react because they had not made concerted efforts to engage in culturally responsive practices. Thus, Eren chose to conceal his experiences as an undocumented student.</p> <p>While not all TPU participants lacked exposure to culturally relevant knowledge via the curriculum facilitated by faculty, the data clearly showed vast differences between the two sites. At CPU, few participants were unable to articulate exposure to immigration-related course content or talk about at least one meaningful connection with a professor who promoted their sense of inclusion, regardless of faculty composition and discipline. The presence of a USRC with devoted personnel at CPU also influenced the extent to which undocumented students felt culturally engaged within the campus environment.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-12">Undocumented Students Resource Center's Personnel Facilitating Culturally Engaging Campus Spa...</hd> <p>A critical difference between the two research sites was the existence of a USRC at CPU where full-time personnel worked in various higher education administration roles. The center was founded to serve undocumented students specifically and was housed in a community building that served multiple minoritized student groups at CPU, such as LGBTQ + students and Chicanx students. Our analysis of the data showed that having access to a physical space, like the USRC, with experienced personnel working at the center full-time, made CPU students feel culturally engaged on campus. For CPU participants, USRC personnel promoted their inclusion by helping them feel welcomed during critical moments, such as the admissions and transfer process. Numerous CPU participants emphasized that one of their main reasons for applying to CPU was the campus's reputation for supporting undocumented students, even when the institution was perceived as the most conservative within the university system. For participants, this support was demonstrated by having a location to gather and access personnel familiar with their unique needs. When speaking about how the campus engaged undocumented students culturally, Ann, who was pursuing a Sociology major at CPU, said:The campus is inclusive of undocumented students. One of the things that played a considerable role when I applied and in the decision-making process, was seeing how much support was given to undocumented students. When I was searching, I thought the location was good and I focused on the support the campus would give undocumented students. And something that caught my eye from [CPU] was just the physical center that they have for undocumented students and the resources that its staff provide.</p> <p>During Ann's college search process, the tangible manifestation of support for undocumented students on campus via the USRC and its personnel was influential. Not only did Ann feel that institutional agents would support her by providing relevant resources, but the center embodied a culturally responsive environment (Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref150">24</reflink>]) that generally accounted for her experiences as an undocumented student. She felt holistically supported at CPU through her connections to the USRC personnel, which contributed to her sense of belonging and success on campus.</p> <p>In parallel, Mateo, who was also majoring in Sociology at CPU, spoke about how his college choice process was influenced by the concrete presence of a USRC on campus with dedicated institutional agents. He said: "The main reason I applied was because there was an undocumented student center and I thought that alone would make me feel safe on campus. Going into my fourth year such perception of inclusivity has remained constant if not better." While numerous campuses in California have USRCs with full-time personnel (Cisneros & Valdivia, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref151">5</reflink>]), many still do not, even when it is the state with the largest number of undocumented students enrolled in higher education (HEIP, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref152">13</reflink>]). Mateo felt included at CPU since his arrival on campus because he was able to connect with institutional agents and peers who supported him as an undocumented student via the USRC. While Mateo struggled to disclose his immigration status prior to college, with time, he felt he could share his experiences with people at the center. He continued:I think at first, I definitely thought that I would struggle to be able to talk about my status openly, but after a few years being there, I think that it's... much easier for me to express those sort of concerns with other people.</p> <p>For Mateo, a physical center filled with people who understood his background helped him feel "safe" and empowered him to share his life experiences within the campus environment. Not worrying about the perceptions of others related to his immigration status and counting on the USRC's personnel support promoted Mateo's identity development and learning.</p> <p>The holistic support offered by institutional agents at the USRC was also critical for undocumented students' persistence once in college. Participants at CPU knew they were not alone, and someone on campus was familiar with and knowledgeable about their challenges. When speaking about their needs, Sol, who was pursuing a Plant Science major at CPU said:When seeking help with filling out financial aid documents, going to the USRC with such a specific question, which is exclusive to people with such status, is effective. As opposed to going to like a general student advising center where they might not necessarily know how to answer your questions. Before coming to the CPU in high school I had to figure everything on my own, now I know that if I need help, the center is there, and they can give me direct answers. I will not have to be stressed nor all independently alone when it comes to figuring college questions.</p> <p>For Sol, having access to experienced personnel at CPU via the USRC relieved stress while navigating college and allowed her to feel like she had a shoulder to lean on when she had questions. Similarly, Winter shared comparable perceptions: "I have been able to get all the information I need through the center. There is an assistant director and a director, and they are very friendly people who will talk to you about anything, not just about your status." Winter felt like the institutional agents working at the center helped her stay informed about everything she needed to be successful in college. The USRC embraced a proactive philosophy (Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref153">24</reflink>]), helping undocumented students feel supported in various aspects of their lives.</p> <p>Contrary to the culturally engaging experiences of CPU participants promoted by personnel working at the campus USRC, participants at TPU could not easily identify specific micro-campus environments and/or people available to support them. Because TPU does not have a USRC composed of trained institutional agents, participants felt that their cultural needs as undocumented immigrants were overlooked. When speaking about who they can ask for help on campus, Roberto, a Public Health major at TPU, said: "You can speak to the office for International Students or the Financial Aid office, I forgot what some of these offices are called." From Roberto's perspective, personnel at these offices could help answer some questions related to undocumented students. However, it is essential to note that institutional agents at these TPU offices primarily serve students with active visas and authorized immigration statuses. Elena A. from TPU commented on the extent to which she received relevant information from institutional agents as an undocumented student by simply saying: "Not a lot or any at all." Elena A. attributed the lack of resources to the fact that undocumented students were not a large group on campus relative to the overall student population. She explained: "Because there's not, I feel like there's not a lot of undocumented students, they [institutional agents] don't bother with it. We're just on the side. We're not the biggest problem to them." Elena A. felt ignored and marginalized by personnel on campus who did not demonstrate a commitment to her student success. She thought the university could make greater efforts to make students like her feel supported; she continued:If they [institutional agents] know we're undocumented, they can make a separate mailing list for undocumented students like, "Hey, our school is now offering this for undocumented students." Just like they send all these emails for different organizations and departments, they can do a separate department for undocumented students where they inform us of it. So, yeah. I guess putting banners around campus, sending us emails, and then putting it on their websites, too.</p> <p>Elena A. knew the school kept records of who was undocumented on campus for tuition classification purposes, so she did not understand how institutional agents were not actively seeking to offer them resources. She wished that faculty and administrators would create a designated unit, like CPU's USRC, that would be responsible for disseminating information to undocumented students on campus. Sadly, despite selecting two cases (institutions) in two states with comparable state policies (California and Texas), our data showed that TPU students lacked greater access to a culturally engaging campus environment than CPU participants.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-13">Discussion</hd> <p>Our findings provide insight into the extent to which institutional agents promote campus environments that are relevant and responsive to students' cultural backgrounds as undocumented immigrants. Unfortunately, our data demonstrated that despite similar state policies that provide access to ISRT rates and state financial aid, undocumented students at TPU did not experience a culturally engaging campus environment in comparison to CPU participants. When considering the indicators within the cultural relevance cluster in particular, it is evident that TPU participants lacked access to culturally relevant knowledge and validation because immigration topics were seldom discussed via the formal curricula by institutional agents on campus (Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref154">24</reflink>]). At CPU, faculty provided participants with access to learning about their cultural communities even when their majors were less likely to include such content (e.g., Clinical Nutrition), helping them feel culturally validated, as demonstrated by the experiences of Alex and Caleb. For example, and representative of the broader course offerings at CPU, as a part of their core curriculum, all CPU students have an option to take a course that centers immigration. In this course, faculty facilitate student engagement in a social and demographic analysis of immigration and, in general, a detailed study of immigration into the United States. This culturally relevant knowledge and validation helped CPU participants' sense of self and belonging as undocumented students and promoted stronger relationships with professors, providing a humanized environment and holistic support, both indicators in the CECE model cultural responsiveness cluster (Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref155">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>The campus environment is highly influenced by the people who make up the institution and the resources they make available (Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref156">24</reflink>]). In the case of undocumented students, it is undeniable that state contexts also influence campus environments and the structures of support accessible within institutions (Nienhusser & Espino, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref157">27</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref158">36</reflink>]). Still, institutional agents across various campus units are the ones who can hinder or foster undocumented students' cultural engagement daily via their one-on-one interactions (Canedo Sanchez & So, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref159">2</reflink>]; Castrellón, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref160">3</reflink>]; Suárez-Orozco et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref161">41</reflink>]; Tapia-Fuselier, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref162">42</reflink>]). General research on the influence of student-faculty connections and student-practitioner interactions on college student experiences shows that trusting, validating, and caring bonds can promote student success among minoritized communities (Rendón, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref163">31</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref164">34</reflink>]). Our findings add to this body of scholarship by highlighting how relationships with institutional agents are crucial to undocumented students' experiences once enrolled in college. Our data suggest that faculty and higher education administrators can positively influence the experiences of undocumented students and support their success through intentional actions like having an undocually symbol or including the topic of undocumented immigrants in the curricula, as faculty at CPU did. These simple actions, as evidenced in Winter's, Cristina's, and Sofi's experiences, for example, promote a campus environment that is relevant and responsive to undocumented students' cultural backgrounds. In particular, these actions represent the humanized environment and holistic support indicators of the CECE model (Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref165">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>Additionally, our data clearly showed that personnel working at CPU's USRC promoted undocumented students' cultural engagement via their genuine interactions as well as their programs and services. The USRC at CPU embodied numerous CECE model indicators from both clusters (cultural relevance and cultural responsiveness) proposed by Museus ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref166">24</reflink>]), such as cultural familiarity, cultural validation, humanized educational environments, proactive philosophies, and holistic support. By embracing these culturally engaging campus characteristics, USRC personnel helped undocumented students manage some of the belonging barriers they often encounter, such as experiencing racism and hostility from majoritized students and blocked social opportunities (Shelton, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref167">39</reflink>]). Consequently, USRC personnel helped diminish some of the mental health stressors undocumented students often navigate on college campuses. These findings add to the important research centering institutional agents working at USRCs (Cisneros & Valdivia, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref168">5</reflink>]; Cisneros et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref169">6</reflink>]; Tapia-Fuselier, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref170">42</reflink>]). Our work offers a complementary perspective, highlighting student perceptions of such spaces and illuminating the influence of USRC's institutional agents on student experiences. However, because our sample did not include any Black undocumented students and only included one Asian participant despite the open participation criteria, we were unable to understand if the USRC personnel may have also facilitated the cultural engagement of undocuBlack and undocuAsian students at CPU. Considering how existing scholarship on undocuBlack and undocuAsian college students emphasizes their invisibility and lack of sense of belonging in higher education spaces (Dao, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref171">7</reflink>]; Hall, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref172">11</reflink>]; Russell & Reyna Rivarola, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref173">33</reflink>]), we suppose such experiences may have been reflected in the USRC space and affected students' ability to feel culturally engaged.</p> <p>Our findings also contribute to scholarship on the role of institutional agents as facilitators of traditionally valued social capital in educational spaces (e.g., Hernández et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref174">14</reflink>]; Nienhusser & Espino, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref175">27</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref176">35</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref177">40</reflink>]) by emphasizing how personnel at USRCs can directly influence undocumented students' college choice process and promote student success once enrolled on campus. It is clear through our findings that USRC personnel are making a difference in undocumented student experiences; without this group of institutional agents, undocumented students at CPU like Ann and Mateo would not have felt included. On the other hand, as our data showed, lacking access to USRCs and associated institutional agents exacerbates the sense of isolation undocumented students feel within the campus environment, leaving them without viable sources of information and support. Similar to existing research (e.g., Castrellón, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref178">3</reflink>]; Muñoz et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref179">21</reflink>]; Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref180">36</reflink>]), our findings show that without dedicated paid personnel, undocumented students are left without access to helpful institutional agents who can facilitate their student success. What is striking about our findings is that this occurs even in states with large numbers of undocumented students and accessible higher education policies like Texas. This shows the limitations of simply expanding access to ISRT rates and state financial aid to undocumented students and further highlights the need to move beyond undocufriendly frameworks (Salazar et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref181">36</reflink>]).</p> <p>Lastly, as we examined the role institutional agents played in cultivating a culturally engaging campus environment for undocumented students from an asset-based lens, it became evident that faculty and administrators at both research sites missed opportunities to create key culturally engaging experiences for participants. Our data collection process aimed to gather data related to all nine indicators conceptualized by Museus ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref182">24</reflink>]) as part of the CECE model, and our analysis revealed how institutional agents at both campuses rarely exposed participants to opportunities to give back to their home communities as undocumented immigrants, for example. Cultural community service is an essential CECE model indicator that promotes positive student outcomes (Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref183">24</reflink>]). Sadly, we found no evidence in our data that institutional agents were actively creating such experiences for participants. This is noteworthy because undocumented students often aim to engage civically and advocate for social justice (Chen & Rhoads, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref184">4</reflink>]; Santa-Ramirez, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref185">37</reflink>]); thus, we found it particularly surprising that CPU's USRC personnel did not offer community service opportunities to them. At the same time, knowing that USRCs oftentimes have little resources and staffing (Cisneros & Valdivia, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref186">5</reflink>]; Cisneros et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref187">6</reflink>]), we understand their limitations in providing this culturally relevant experience to students. Hence, our findings illuminate an opportunity to adapt the CECE model for undocumented students with the premise that CPU undocumented students had a USRC where they could connect with members of their community and serve each other on campus. While undocumented students at CPU could benefit from more profound and broader opportunities for cultural community service, their basic need for this opportunity was built into their everyday lives.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-14">Implications</hd> <p>Our findings have several implications for research, policy, and practice that will affect institutional agents' influence on undocumented college students' experiences. Because the two cases selected for this study were public institutions in states with accessible state laws, future researchers should study the role institutional agents play in cultivating a culturally engaging campus environment for undocumented students across diverse state and institutional contexts. While most undocumented college students in the United States are enrolled at public institutions in California and Texas (HEIP, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref188">13</reflink>]), it is important to understand if faculty and administrators can cultivate culturally responsive and relevant opportunities for this student group at private universities, for example, or in states with restrictive ISRT policies like North Carolina. Furthermore, researchers can conduct comparative qualitative case studies within the same state to account for state cultures beyond laws that similarly affect undocumented students. Our study design did not facilitate this kind of analysis; thus, further research on this topic is needed as undocumented students continue seeking higher education opportunities nationwide.</p> <p>Scholars can also seek to study the role institutional agents play in cultivating a culturally engaging campus environment for undocuBlack and undocuAsian students. Despite the open participation criteria, our recruitment efforts yielded a majority Latinx sample. This hindered our ability to understand if and how faculty and administrators promote campus environments that are relevant and responsive to students' cultural backgrounds as undocuBlack and undocuAsian immigrants, which are growing groups in U.S. colleges and universities (HEIP, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref189">12</reflink>]). Considering the intersectional experiences of undocumented students based on race and ethnicity and other identities like sexual orientation can be vital to identifying campus environment conditions that promote student success among diverse groups.</p> <p>As one of the few studies to apply the CECE model to shed light on the experiences of undocumented students, our research adds to the empirical work informed by Museus ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref190">24</reflink>]). It shows the extent to which undocumented students have access to culturally engaging campus environments via their relationships with institutional agents like faculty and administrators. Future researchers could use the CECE model to study how student-led spaces like student organizations and peer relationships, promote campus environments that are relevant and responsive to the cultural backgrounds of undocumented students. They may also consider including field observations as data sources to gain new perspectives on the phenomenon. Likewise, researchers could also explore how the CECE model can be adapted to better serve undocumented students, examining the extent to which the model's nine indicators are malleable to undocumented students' immediate needs. Such research may yield insights into new indicators needed to promote a culturally engaging campus environment for undocumented students.</p> <p>Also, our findings support the need for campus policies that could encourage institutional agents' efforts to promote culturally engaging campus environments for undocumented students. Undocumented students must feel safe before engaging on campus and building relationships with faculty and administrators. To help them do so, institutional agents can develop and enforce a clear policy that campus police should not act as immigration agents. This can set a tone for institutional agents on campus to also provide safe spaces for undocumented students and avoid asking about students' immigration statuses. At the state level, higher education boards and public university systems should mandate training for student-facing personnel, similar to existing student privacy training, so that they can acquire basic knowledge about undocumented students' rights. Similarly, higher education boards and public university systems should mandate at least one campus representative to be a liaison for undocumented students. This person would be well-versed in the challenges undocumented students face so that they can help provide solutions to undocumented students in need and be a resource for faculty and staff on campus. This is particularly important in states with accessible state policies, like California and Texas, because undocumented students have greater access to higher education in those contexts. Such change can result in a greater sense of inclusion among undocumented students and stronger relationships with institutional agents. Legal counsel can help argue in support of these policy-oriented trainings by illuminating the liability risks associated with acts that can be perceived to discriminate against or violate the privacy of undocumented students.</p> <p>Further, our findings show the need to include immigration content in the classroom across majors to increase culturally relevant opportunities and to also facilitate positive student-faculty interactions for undocumented students. Professors create their syllabi and decide what content to include; they can build moments to discuss the topic of immigration. Opportunities for undocumented students to learn about their communities are essential to bolster their sense of belonging and academic dispositions (Muñoz & Espino, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref191">18</reflink>]; Museus, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref192">24</reflink>]). Faculty can help counter their experiences of racism and hostility in higher education (Pérez Huber, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref193">30</reflink>]; Shelton, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref194">39</reflink>]). Now more than ever, it is critical for professors to include these topics on their syllabi because co-curricular chances to learn about immigration will be further restricted by anti-diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) policies in states like Texas. Our findings demonstrate how professors across disciplines should identify possibilities to offer culturally relevant learning for undocumented students (Chen & Rhoads, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref195">4</reflink>]) because they will positively influence their experiences. As anti-DEI laws continue to emerge in the United States, restricting what student-facing administrators can offer to undocumented students, the role of faculty in fostering culturally engaging campus environments will become essential to promote student success.</p> <p>Lastly, our data showed tangible actions institutional agents could implement to promote culturally responsive and relevant campus environments for undocumented students. Concrete representations of inclusion, like undocually symbols, will let undocumented students know someone on campus is familiar with their cultural backgrounds. Consequently, they can feel culturally validated even when a USRC is not part of the campus environment. Such actions will make college campuses more culturally engaging to undocumented students and counteract their invisibility and experiences with racist nativism (Muñoz & Vigil, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref196">20</reflink>]; Pérez Huber, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref197">30</reflink>]; Shelton, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref198">39</reflink>]). Postsecondary institutions enrolling undocumented students, particularly in states with accessible policies, should prioritize establishing USRCs with full-time personnel or, at minimum, hiring designated institutional agents to serve students and help them feel included on campus. Beyond positively shaping student experiences, as demonstrated by our data, these institutional agents could conduct policy reviews across their institutions and identify procedures that exclude undocumented people from engaging in the campus environment. Administrators in these roles could also engage in state- and federal-level public policy-making efforts, advocating for undocumented communities via their testimony and expertise. The role institutional agents play in promoting a culturally engaging campus environment for undocumented students cannot be diminished. Even when the institution does not prioritize intentionally serving undocumented students, individual institutional agents can contribute to a more welcoming campus environment through subversive efforts. For example, they can form strategic alliances with people and organizations on and off campus to serve undocumented students in ways that the campus is not. It is critical for faculty and administrators to take further actions in support of undocumented students on their campuses.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-15">Conclusion</hd> <p>Institutional agents across the United States must advocate for undocumented students and implement culturally engaging practices and equitable policies to enhance undocumented student experiences on their college campuses. Although undocumented students are resilient and often navigate college barriers and stressors without much support, the current sociopolitical realities at the state and federal levels are affecting this student group all the more. It is essential that institutional agents realize their power in creating and promoting culturally relevant and responsive campus environments via their one-on-one interactions with students as well as the curricula, programs, and services they offer. As long as undocumented students are present on college campuses, institutional agents need to make concerted efforts to foster inclusive campus environments and promote their success within and beyond postsecondary settings.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-16">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>We would like to recognize Cindy Barahona, Bertha Palma, Karen Janeth Meza, and Reneé Moreno, who served as members of our research collective and supported the research design and data generation phases of this study. We truly value their contributions to this research project. We would also like to acknowledge the 35 participants who openly shared their experiences with us and spoke about the extent to which they felt included, validated, and supported as undocumented students on their campuses. We are thankful for their trust and participation.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-17">Author Contributions</hd> <p>Cinthya Salazar, Ph.D., Juan David Velasco Zuñiga, and Andrea Romero Viruel contributed to the study conception and design, material preparation, data collection, and analysis. All authors wrote the first draft of the manuscript, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. Cinthya Salazar, Ph.D. and Cristina Nader revised the manuscript and completed all final edits as part of the publication process. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-18">Funding</hd> <p>No funding was received to assist with the preparation of this manuscript.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-19">Data Availability</hd> <p>The data of this study is not publicly available because it contains information that could compromise the privacy of research participants.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-20">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187381767-21">Ethics Approval</hd> <p>Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Texas A&M University Institutional Review Board and the University of California Davis Institutional Review Board via a reliance agreement.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-22">Informed Consent</hd> <p>Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-23">Competing Interests</hd> <p>The authors have no competing interests to declare relevant to this article's content.</p> <hd id="AN0187381767-24">Appendix 1: Culturally engaging campus environments (CECE) tenet model (Museus, 2014)</hd> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="6"><p>Cultural Relevance Cluster</p></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>Five indicators focus on how campus environments engage and reflect diverse college students' cultural backgrounds, communities, and identities.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cultural Familiarity</p></td><td align="left"><p>Campus spaces for students to connect with faculty, staff, and peers familiar with their cultural backgrounds and experiences.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Culturally Relevant Knowledge</p></td><td align="left"><p>Opportunities for students to acquire and exchange knowledge about their cultural communities through culturally relevant curricular and co-curricular activities.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cultural Community Service</p></td><td align="left"><p>Opportunities for students to contribute and positively impact their cultural communities.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cross-Cultural Engagement</p></td><td align="left"><p>Programs and practices that provide educationally meaningful cross-cultural interactions among students that focus on solving real-life social and political issues.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Cultural Validation</p></td><td align="left"><p>Campus cultures that reflect the cultural backgrounds, knowledge, and identities of diverse students.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="5"><p>Cultural Responsiveness Cluster</p></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>Four indicators focus on how campus learning and support systems respond to diverse students' cultural norms and needs.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Collectivist Orientations</p></td><td align="left"><p>Campus cultures that emphasize a collectivist cultural orientation characterized by teamwork and the pursuit of mutual success.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Humanized Environments</p></td><td align="left"><p>Environments in which students can develop meaningful relationships with faculty and staff who are committed to student success.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Proactive Philosophies</p></td><td align="left"><p>Philosophies that lead faculty, administrators, and staff to actively inform students of important information, opportunities, and support services rather than waiting for students to inquire.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Holistic Support</p></td><td align="left"><p>Whether college students have access to at least one faculty or staff member they trust and are confident will provide the information or help they need.</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0187381767-25">Appendix 2: Table of participants</hd> <p>California Public University (CPU)</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>#</p></th><th align="left"><p>Pseudonym</p></th><th align="left"><p>Pronouns</p></th><th align="left"><p>Self-identified Race and Ethnicity</p></th><th align="left"><p>Age of Arrival</p></th><th align="left"><p>Age</p></th><th align="left"><p>DACA?</p></th><th align="left"><p>Major/Minor</p></th><th align="left"><p>Number of Credits Completed</p></th><th align="left"><p>Engagement in Study</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>Akira</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/Her/Hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Asian, Chinese</p></td><td align="left"><p>15</p></td><td align="left"><p>20</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Economics</p></td><td align="left"><p>30–45</p></td><td align="left"><p>Int. & Focus Group</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>Alex</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/Her/Hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic</p></td><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>20</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Sociology</p></td><td align="left"><p>105–120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Int. & Focus Group</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>Alexa</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/Her/Hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>6</p></td><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Sociology</p></td><td align="left"><p>45–60</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>Alexandra</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/Her/Hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>20</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Computer Engineering</p></td><td align="left"><p>Over 120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Int. & Focus Group</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5</p></td><td align="left"><p>Ana</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/Her/Hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Human Development/Minor in Spanish</p></td><td align="left"><p>45–60</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>6</p></td><td align="left"><p>Ann</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/Her/Hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Sociology and Chicanx Studies/Minors in Education and Gender, Sexuality, and Women's Studies</p></td><td align="left"><p>Over 120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>7</p></td><td align="left"><p>Caleb</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/Him/His</p></td><td align="left"><p>Latino, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>7 months</p></td><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Clinical Nutrition</p></td><td align="left"><p>75–90</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>8</p></td><td align="left"><p>Cristina</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/Her/Hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Latina, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Design</p></td><td align="left"><p>Over 120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>Dante</p></td><td align="left"><p>They/Them/Theirs</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mexican-Chicano</p></td><td align="left"><p>10</p></td><td align="left"><p>23</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Political Science and Public Service/Minor in Spanish</p></td><td align="left"><p>Over 120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Int. & Focus Group</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>10</p></td><td align="left"><p>JR</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/Him/His</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>20</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Sustainable Environmental Design</p></td><td align="left"><p>60–75</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>Juan</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/Him/His</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mestizo, Central American</p></td><td align="left"><p>12</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Neurobiology/Minor in Human Development</p></td><td align="left"><p>105–120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>12</p></td><td align="left"><p>Lola</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/Her/Hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>White, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Design/Minor in Communications</p></td><td align="left"><p>Over 120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Int. & Focus Group</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>13</p></td><td align="left"><p>Luna</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/Her/Hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>9 months</p></td><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Material Science and Engineering/Minors in Physics and Economics</p></td><td align="left"><p>Over 120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Int. & Focus Group</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>14</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mateo</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/Him/His</p></td><td align="left"><p>Brown, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>5</p></td><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Sociology/Minors in Public Health and Education</p></td><td align="left"><p>Over 120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>15</p></td><td align="left"><p>S.A.M</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/Her/Hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>11 months</p></td><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Science/Minor in Psychology</p></td><td align="left"><p>15–30</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>16</p></td><td align="left"><p>Sol</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/Her/Hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Latinx, Hispanic</p></td><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Plant Science</p></td><td align="left"><p>60–75</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>17</p></td><td align="left"><p>Winter</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/Her/Hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>5</p></td><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Food Science/Minor in Spanish</p></td><td align="left"><p>Over 120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Int. & Focus Group</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0187381767-26">Texas Public University (TPU)</hd> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>#</p></th><th align="left"><p>Pseudonym</p></th><th align="left"><p>Pronouns</p></th><th align="left"><p>Self-identified Race and Ethnicity</p></th><th align="left"><p>Age of Arrival</p></th><th align="left"><p>Age</p></th><th align="left"><p>DACA?</p></th><th align="left"><p>Major/Minor</p></th><th align="left"><p>Number of Credits Completed</p></th><th align="left"><p>Engagement in Study</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>Aura</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/her/hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Brown, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Economics/Minor in Business</p></td><td align="left"><p>90–105</p></td><td align="left"><p>Int. & Focus Group</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>Blossom</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/her/hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>White, Hispanic</p></td><td align="left"><p>4 months</p></td><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Nursing</p></td><td align="left"><p>90–105</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>Carlos</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/him/his</p></td><td align="left"><p>Caucasian, Hispanic</p></td><td align="left"><p>5</p></td><td align="left"><p>31</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Geology</p></td><td align="left"><p>15–30</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>Elena A</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/her/hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>White possibly Native, Hispanic American</p></td><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Computer Engineering</p></td><td align="left"><p>Over 120 credits</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5</p></td><td align="left"><p>Eren</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/him/his</p></td><td align="left"><p>White, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Civil Engineering</p></td><td align="left"><p>60–75</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>6</p></td><td align="left"><p>Jesse</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/him/his</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>26</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Construction Science</p></td><td align="left"><p>90–105</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>7</p></td><td align="left"><p>Jesus</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/him/his</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic</p></td><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>35</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Civil Engineering</p></td><td align="left"><p>Over 120 credits</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>8</p></td><td align="left"><p>JP</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/him/his</p></td><td align="left"><p>Latino, Colombian</p></td><td align="left"><p>14</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Civil Engineering</p></td><td align="left"><p>105–120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>Miguel</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/him/his</p></td><td align="left"><p>White, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Business</p></td><td align="left"><p>60–75</p></td><td align="left"><p>Int. & Focus Group</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>10</p></td><td align="left"><p>Renata</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/her/hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>White, Hispanic, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>6</p></td><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Electronic Systems Engineering Technology with a minor in Cybersecurity</p></td><td align="left"><p>105–120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>Revy</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/her/hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mechanical Engineering/Minor in Math</p></td><td align="left"><p>Over 120 credits</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>12</p></td><td align="left"><p>Rivas</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/him/his</p></td><td align="left"><p>White, Colombian</p></td><td align="left"><p>15</p></td><td align="left"><p>23</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Sports Management</p></td><td align="left"><p>75–90</p></td><td align="left"><p>Int. & Focus Group</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>13</p></td><td align="left"><p>Roberto</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/him/his</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Public Health</p></td><td align="left"><p>15–30</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>14</p></td><td align="left"><p>Rosa</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/her/hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>White, Hispanic</p></td><td align="left"><p>5</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Chemical Engineering</p></td><td align="left"><p>90–105</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>15</p></td><td align="left"><p>Santiago</p></td><td align="left"><p>He/him/his</p></td><td align="left"><p>White, Native, Mexican</p></td><td align="left"><p>7</p></td><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering Technology</p></td><td align="left"><p>60–75</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>16</p></td><td align="left"><p>Sofi</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/her/hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic</p></td><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>19</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Political Science</p></td><td align="left"><p>30–45</p></td><td align="left"><p>Int. & Focus Group</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>17</p></td><td align="left"><p>Sofia</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/her/hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>White, Peruvian</p></td><td align="left"><p>3</p></td><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>Yes</p></td><td align="left"><p>Sociology/Minors in Philosophy and Latino/a Mexican–American Studies</p></td><td align="left"><p>90–105</p></td><td align="left"><p>Int. & Focus Group</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>18</p></td><td align="left"><p>Trixella</p></td><td align="left"><p>She/her/hers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hispanic, Honduran</p></td><td align="left"><p>13</p></td><td align="left"><p>23</p></td><td align="left"><p>No</p></td><td align="left"><p>Health/Minor in Spanish</p></td><td align="left"><p>105–120</p></td><td align="left"><p>Interview only</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0187381767-27">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref 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Consideration of Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA). https://<ulink href="http://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/consideration-of-deferredaction-">www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/consideration-of-deferredaction-</ulink> for-childhood-arrivals-daca</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Vega BE, Nienhusser HK, Carquin-Hamichand MS. "When I would hurt": Undocumented students' responses to obstacles faced during the college choice process. Education Forum. 2022; 86; 3: 237-252. 10.1080/00131725.2021.2020944</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0187381767-29"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> Since 2017, DACA has been undergoing judicial challenges, and the fate of the program is still uncertain. Only DACA renewals are being processed at this time; new applications are not being received. Being protected by DACA does not mean the recipient is no longer undocumented because DACA is not a status; it is a temporary protection. Depending on the state, DACA recipients may have access to additional benefits, such as access to a driver's license (HEIP, [13]; USCIS, [44]).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> An institutional agent is a person within an educational institution who has the capacity to play a crucial role in supporting and guiding students through their academic journey, helping them navigate the complexities of educational systems, and providing essential resources and support (Stanton-Salazar, [40]).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> To further protect all members of the RC, we do not provide more details on our positionality and backgrounds. However, we bring to the forefront how our study was informed by our critical perspectives and our lived experiences as current and former undocumented students.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Since data collection for this study occurred between 2021 and 2022, the SB17 bill, also known as anti-diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) legislation, had not passed yet and did not affect the study (LegiScan, [16]).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The undocually badge at CPU is given to campus community members after they attend an undocually training.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Cinthya Salazar; Cristina Nader; Juan David Velasco Zuñiga and Andrea Romero Viruel</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Cinthya Salazar, Ph.D. Cinthya Salazar (ella/she) is an Assistant Professor of Education at the University of California, Los Angeles. She examines the experiences of undocumented college students to, through, and beyond higher education settings using participatory action research to promote their student success and overall wellbeing.</p> <p>Cristina Nader Cristina Nader (ella/she) is a qualitative researcher exploring the experiences of marginalized college students using participatory research (PR) methods to ensure their voices are at the forefront. She is the proud daughter of immigrants.</p> <p>Juan David Velasco Zuñiga Juan David Velasco Zuñiga (él/he), is a J.D. Candidate (2027) at the University of California Law, San Francisco (formerly UC Hastings). He is an advocate for undocumented law students through LEOP and aspires to be a legal aid and voice for all types of immigrants within corporate backgrounds.</p> <p>Andrea Romero Viruel Andrea Romero Viruel (ella/she) is a graduate from Texas A&M University, College Station. She is an educator and an advocate for undocumented students through all stages of education ranging from K-12 to higher education.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref94"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref108"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref129"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref135"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref139"></nolink>
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  Data: Promoting Culturally Engaging Campus Environments for Undocumented Students: The Role of Institutional Agents
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  Data: English
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cinthya+Salazar%22">Cinthya Salazar</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2584-3376">0000-0002-2584-3376</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cristina+Nader%22">Cristina Nader</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Juan+David+Velasco+Zuñiga%22">Juan David Velasco Zuñiga</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Andrea+Romero+Viruel%22">Andrea Romero Viruel</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Innovative+Higher+Education%22"><i>Innovative Higher Education</i></searchLink>. 2025 50(4):1247-1280.
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Label: Peer Reviewed
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
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  Data: 34
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  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
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  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Undocumented+Immigrants%22">Undocumented Immigrants</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Environment%22">College Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Sense+of+Belonging%22">Sense of Belonging</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cultural+Relevance%22">Cultural Relevance</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Public+Colleges%22">Public Colleges</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Faculty%22">College Faculty</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Role%22">Teacher Role</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Inclusion%22">Inclusion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Personnel%22">School Personnel</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22California%22">California</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Texas%22">Texas</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s10755-024-09775-9
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  Label: ISSN
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  Data: 0742-5627<br />1573-1758
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Existing research clearly shows that the experiences of undocumented students are highly dependent on the campus environment and their interactions within the setting (Cisneros et al., 2022 "Journal of Diversity in Higher Education", 15(5), 607-616; Shelton, 2019 "Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice", 56(1), 92-104). It is common for undocumented students to feel ostracized and experience a campus setting that is unwelcoming despite attending college in states that offer them access to in-state resident tuition (ISRT) rates and state financial aid (Negrón-Gonzales, 2017 "Journal of Hispanic Higher Education", 16(2), 105-122; Salazar et al., 2023 "Journal of Hispanic Higher Education", 22(2), 161-174). In this study, we used Museus' (2014) Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) model to examine institutional agents' role in promoting a culturally engaging campus environment for undocumented college students. We used a participatory action research approach and a multiple qualitative case study research design to analyze data from 35 undocumented students attending public universities in California and Texas. The data revealed incongruencies in how faculty affected participants' sense of inclusion via curricula and one-on-one interactions. Furthermore, findings showed how personnel working at undocumented student resource centers promoted equity through culturally responsive practices. Grounded in our findings, we discuss innovative implications for higher education research, policy, and practice, such as including immigration content in the classroom across majors to increase culturally relevant opportunities and facilitate positive student-faculty interactions for undocumented students.
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: EJ1480386
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