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Investigating the Modality and Signalling Principles in Immersive Augmented Reality Learning Environments

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Title: Investigating the Modality and Signalling Principles in Immersive Augmented Reality Learning Environments
Language: English
Authors: Rabea Bödding (ORCID 0000-0003-1407-736X), Günter W. Maier
Source: Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 2026 42(1).
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 16
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Multimedia Instruction, Multimedia Materials, Simulated Environment, Cognitive Processes, Computer Simulation, Instructional Design, Affordances, Technology Uses in Education
DOI: 10.1002/jcal.70183
ISSN: 0266-4909
1365-2729
Abstract: Background: The potential of Augmented Reality (AR) for enhancing learning has long been discussed, however, existing research primarily relies on media comparisons that provide little basis for robust theoretical development. The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) proposes design principles for learning materials to support cognitive processes leading to learning, which have been shown to be effective in different media, though have very rarely been investigated in AR. Objectives: This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of two important learning principles, that is signalling and modality, on learning outcomes in AR, while examining the potential moderating impact that cognitive-affective factors caused by the technology may have. Methods: Eighty adults participated in this pre-registered 2 × 2 experimental study. To test the signalling and modality principles, the presence of virtual signals (absent/present) and the content modality (text/audio) was manipulated between-subjects during an AR learning session. Declarative and procedural knowledge were measured after the learning session and additionally, learners' motivation and the system usability were included as moderators in the analysis to account for AR-specific influences. Results and Conclusions: The findings revealed no significant main or interaction effects of the signalling and modality principles on either declarative or procedural knowledge, and motivation and system usability did not moderate these relationships. This indicates that the expected benefits of these design principles may not translate effectively to AR contexts, underscores the complexity of educational AR, and highlights the need for further research to better align instructional design with the unique affordances of immersive technologies.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1495708
Database: ERIC
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  Data: Investigating the Modality and Signalling Principles in Immersive Augmented Reality Learning Environments
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rabea+Bödding%22">Rabea Bödding</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1407-736X">0000-0003-1407-736X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Günter+W%2E+Maier%22">Günter W. Maier</searchLink>
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  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Multimedia+Instruction%22">Multimedia Instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Multimedia+Materials%22">Multimedia Materials</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Simulated+Environment%22">Simulated Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cognitive+Processes%22">Cognitive Processes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Simulation%22">Computer Simulation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Instructional+Design%22">Instructional Design</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Affordances%22">Affordances</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Technology+Uses+in+Education%22">Technology Uses in Education</searchLink>
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  Data: Background: The potential of Augmented Reality (AR) for enhancing learning has long been discussed, however, existing research primarily relies on media comparisons that provide little basis for robust theoretical development. The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) proposes design principles for learning materials to support cognitive processes leading to learning, which have been shown to be effective in different media, though have very rarely been investigated in AR. Objectives: This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of two important learning principles, that is signalling and modality, on learning outcomes in AR, while examining the potential moderating impact that cognitive-affective factors caused by the technology may have. Methods: Eighty adults participated in this pre-registered 2 × 2 experimental study. To test the signalling and modality principles, the presence of virtual signals (absent/present) and the content modality (text/audio) was manipulated between-subjects during an AR learning session. Declarative and procedural knowledge were measured after the learning session and additionally, learners' motivation and the system usability were included as moderators in the analysis to account for AR-specific influences. Results and Conclusions: The findings revealed no significant main or interaction effects of the signalling and modality principles on either declarative or procedural knowledge, and motivation and system usability did not moderate these relationships. This indicates that the expected benefits of these design principles may not translate effectively to AR contexts, underscores the complexity of educational AR, and highlights the need for further research to better align instructional design with the unique affordances of immersive technologies.
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