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Systematically Reviewing the Rigour of Immersive Virtual Reality Research in STEM Education: A Deep Dive into Threats to Internal Validity

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Title: Systematically Reviewing the Rigour of Immersive Virtual Reality Research in STEM Education: A Deep Dive into Threats to Internal Validity
Language: English
Authors: Amédee Marchand Martella, Alyssa P. Lawson (ORCID 0000-0001-8658-1261), Ronald C. Martella, Kristen LaBonte, Fangzheng Zhao, Cynthia Y. Delgado (ORCID 0009-0000-7161-0875), Mitchell E. Munns, Ashleigh Wells LeRoy, Justin A. Gluck, Richard E. Mayer
Source: Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 2026 42(1).
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 31
Publication Date: 2026
Sponsoring Agency: National Science Foundation (NSF)
Office of Naval Research (ONR) (DOD)
Contract Number: 2222208
N000142112047
Document Type: Journal Articles
Information Analyses
Descriptors: Computer Simulation, Educational Research, STEM Education, Risk, Validity, Technology Uses in Education, Technology Integration, Accountability
DOI: 10.1002/jcal.70165
ISSN: 0266-4909
1365-2729
Abstract: Background: There have been many initiatives focused on implementing IVR in the classroom to either replace or supplement conventional instruction. The efficacy of these initiatives is often informed by IVR media comparison studies that examine the learning outcomes of students who learn academic content in IVR versus conventional media. However, the current methodological rigour of research on the use of IVR for learning in STEM education has not yet been established to ensure recommendations concerning its use in education are rooted in rigorous research studies. Objective: The present review aimed to fill this gap in the literature by evaluating published journal articles, conference proceedings, and dissertations (between the years 2013 and 2023) related to IVR comparison studies in STEM education. Method: The 44 articles were evaluated with respect to 13 internal validity controls (i.e., research design, justified sample size, group equivalence, attrition equivalence, operational definitions provided, matched dosage, matched timeframe, matched content, implementation fidelity, practice equivalence with dependent measures [DMs], equivalent DMs, interrater agreement for DM scoring and technical adequacy of DMs). Results: Results indicated there were no articles that explicitly met all 13 internal validity controls; the average number of control issues was 5.36. When articles were not penalised for missing information, 21 articles adhered to all internal validity controls. As can be seen when comparing these findings, the lack of methodological information was a glaring problem. Conclusion: These findings indicate that there are both methodological problems and reporting problems in IVR media comparison research that need to be addressed to advance future IVR research. Recommendations for productively moving forward are discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Notes: https://osf.io/3zbj6/?view_only=5f4e69393fa64549a214adbacf03ee02
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1495860
Database: ERIC
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  Data: Systematically Reviewing the Rigour of Immersive Virtual Reality Research in STEM Education: A Deep Dive into Threats to Internal Validity
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Amédee+Marchand+Martella%22">Amédee Marchand Martella</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Alyssa+P%2E+Lawson%22">Alyssa P. Lawson</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8658-1261">0000-0001-8658-1261</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ronald+C%2E+Martella%22">Ronald C. Martella</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kristen+LaBonte%22">Kristen LaBonte</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Fangzheng+Zhao%22">Fangzheng Zhao</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cynthia+Y%2E+Delgado%22">Cynthia Y. Delgado</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0009-0000-7161-0875">0009-0000-7161-0875</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Mitchell+E%2E+Munns%22">Mitchell E. Munns</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ashleigh+Wells+LeRoy%22">Ashleigh Wells LeRoy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Justin+A%2E+Gluck%22">Justin A. Gluck</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Richard+E%2E+Mayer%22">Richard E. Mayer</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Computer+Assisted+Learning%22"><i>Journal of Computer Assisted Learning</i></searchLink>. 2026 42(1).
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  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
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  Data: 31
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  Data: 2026
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  Data: National Science Foundation (NSF)<br />Office of Naval Research (ONR) (DOD)
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  Data: 2222208<br />N000142112047
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Simulation%22">Computer Simulation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Research%22">Educational Research</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22STEM+Education%22">STEM Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Risk%22">Risk</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Validity%22">Validity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Technology+Uses+in+Education%22">Technology Uses in Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Technology+Integration%22">Technology Integration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Accountability%22">Accountability</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1002/jcal.70165
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  Data: 0266-4909<br />1365-2729
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
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  Data: Background: There have been many initiatives focused on implementing IVR in the classroom to either replace or supplement conventional instruction. The efficacy of these initiatives is often informed by IVR media comparison studies that examine the learning outcomes of students who learn academic content in IVR versus conventional media. However, the current methodological rigour of research on the use of IVR for learning in STEM education has not yet been established to ensure recommendations concerning its use in education are rooted in rigorous research studies. Objective: The present review aimed to fill this gap in the literature by evaluating published journal articles, conference proceedings, and dissertations (between the years 2013 and 2023) related to IVR comparison studies in STEM education. Method: The 44 articles were evaluated with respect to 13 internal validity controls (i.e., research design, justified sample size, group equivalence, attrition equivalence, operational definitions provided, matched dosage, matched timeframe, matched content, implementation fidelity, practice equivalence with dependent measures [DMs], equivalent DMs, interrater agreement for DM scoring and technical adequacy of DMs). Results: Results indicated there were no articles that explicitly met all 13 internal validity controls; the average number of control issues was 5.36. When articles were not penalised for missing information, 21 articles adhered to all internal validity controls. As can be seen when comparing these findings, the lack of methodological information was a glaring problem. Conclusion: These findings indicate that there are both methodological problems and reporting problems in IVR media comparison research that need to be addressed to advance future IVR research. Recommendations for productively moving forward are discussed.
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  Label: Abstractor
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  Data: As Provided
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  Data: https://osf.io/3zbj6/?view_only=5f4e69393fa64549a214adbacf03ee02
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  Data: 2026
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