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Longitudinal Relationships between Career Satisfaction, Perceived Organizational Support, and Psychological Capital in Teachers

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Title: Longitudinal Relationships between Career Satisfaction, Perceived Organizational Support, and Psychological Capital in Teachers
Language: English
Authors: Luyun Xu (ORCID 0000-0001-9318-2998), Feng Zhu, Weilong Xiao (ORCID 0000-0002-4836-8934), Binghai Sun
Source: Journal of Career Development. 2026 53(2):249-269.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 21
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Preschool Education
Elementary Education
Secondary Education
Elementary Secondary Education
Descriptors: Job Satisfaction, Capital (Sociology), Foreign Countries, Preschool Teachers, Elementary School Teachers, Secondary School Teachers, Teacher Attitudes, Institutional Characteristics
Geographic Terms: China
DOI: 10.1177/08948453261432574
ISSN: 0894-8453
1556-0856
Abstract: Teachers' career satisfaction (CS), perceived organizational support (POS), and psychological capital (PC) have a significant impact on their professional growth and overall educational quality. However, the interactive dynamics and temporal mechanisms among these variables remain underexplored. This study addresses this gap by employing cross-lagged panel network analysis. A total of 431 Chinese teachers (71.69% female; M = 37.61, SD = 8.78) participated in surveys conducted at two time points. Three centrality indices, out-expected influence (out-EI), in-expected influence (in-EI), and bridge-expected influence (bridge-EI) were used to identify the most important nodes in the POS-PC-CS network. Results showed that POS-1 exhibits the highest out-EI; all five CS nodes displayed relatively high in-EI. Although not ranking highest, the four PC nodes showed comparatively elevated out-EI, in-EI, and bridge-EI. These results offer valuable insights for developing targeted interventions and educational policies that aim to foster positive professional outcomes among teachers.
Abstractor: As Provided
Notes: https://osf.io/tuaws/?view_only=cf316099765e4c1fa03547ffe814fdc2
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1501176
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0192433326;[2yf6]01apr.26;2026Mar24.05:20;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0192433326-1">Longitudinal Relationships Between Career Satisfaction, Perceived Organizational Support, and Psychological Capital in Teachers </title> <p>Teachers' career satisfaction (CS), perceived organizational support (POS), and psychological capital (PC) have a significant impact on their professional growth and overall educational quality. However, the interactive dynamics and temporal mechanisms among these variables remain underexplored. This study addresses this gap by employing cross-lagged panel network analysis. A total of 431 Chinese teachers (71.69% female; M = 37.61, SD = 8.78) participated in surveys conducted at two time points. Three centrality indices, out-expected influence (out-EI), in-expected influence (in-EI), and bridge-expected influence (bridge-EI) were used to identify the most important nodes in the POS-PC-CS network. Results showed that POS-1 exhibits the highest out-EI; all five CS nodes displayed relatively high in-EI. Although not ranking highest, the four PC nodes showed comparatively elevated out-EI, in-EI, and bridge-EI. These results offer valuable insights for developing targeted interventions and educational policies that aim to foster positive professional outcomes among teachers.</p> <p>Keywords: career satisfaction; perceived organizational support; psychological capital; cross-lagged panel network analysis; longitudinal study</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-2">Introduction</hd> <p>As of 2023, China employed 18.918 million full-time teachers, forming the world's largest teaching force and supporting the world's largest education system ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref1">55</reflink>]). Within this system, cultural norms and institutional structures create a complex work experience for teachers. On the one hand, Confucian tradition and collectivist orientations emphasize role obligations, respect for teaching, and collaboration; these features can strengthen teachers' identity and support positive experiences at work ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref2">38</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref3">51</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref4">73</reflink>]). On the other hand, school governance and evaluation practices extend beyond pedagogy to include administrative and compliance tasks, adding workload pressures and shaping day-to-day work conditions ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref5">47</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref6">77</reflink>]). Especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, many teachers in China reported moderate to high levels of burnout, with 43.32% experiencing severe emotional exhaustion, underscoring these challenges ([<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref7">74</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref8">75</reflink>]). Against this backdrop, and informed by positive psychology, research in educational psychology has increasingly focused on teachers' career satisfaction and on positive resources such as perceived organizational support and psychological capital, to support teacher well-being.</p> <p>Teachers' career satisfaction (CS), defined as their overall attitude toward the profession and the perceived alignment between attained outcomes and professional aspirations ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref9">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref10">69</reflink>]). In China, CS is linked to role expectations within schools and to organizational practices that structure autonomy, collaboration, and recognition ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref11">48</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref12">51</reflink>]). Positive CS is associated with teacher well-being, professional engagement, and teaching quality ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref13">5</reflink>]). We also examine CS alongside perceived organizational support (POS) and psychological capital (PC). POS refers to employees' general perception that the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref14">21</reflink>]). In schools, POS is related to resource allocation, trust, and institutional care, which can shape teachers' motivation and commitment ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref15">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref16">43</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref17">61</reflink>]). PC is a positive psychological state comprising confidence, optimism, hope, and resilience, which supports sustained effort and recovery from setbacks ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref18">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref19">50</reflink>]). Together, POS and PC can serve as key resources for teachers working in demanding environments.</p> <p>The interrelations among POS, PC, and CS can be framed by Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) theory and Social Exchange Theory (SET), where POS acts as a job resource and PC as a personal resource ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref20">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref21">21</reflink>]). These resources can help meet psychological needs and, through reciprocal processes, relate to higher CS. Prior studies report positive associations among these variables ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref22">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref23">34</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref24">58</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref25">74</reflink>]).</p> <p>Ongoing policy reforms in Zhejiang, China, provide a concrete context for these dynamics. The "County Management and School Recruitment" policy aims to balance teacher allocation across urban and rural schools, which may reshape teachers' organizational affiliations and support networks, with implications for POS ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref26">45</reflink>]). The nationwide "Double Reduction" policy has adjusted teachers' roles by increasing after-school services and parent communication, altering time use and role boundaries ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref27">32</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref28">68</reflink>]). Such changes can influence how teachers appraise workload and advancement opportunities and may be associated with shifts in psychological capital and career satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref29">32</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref30">33</reflink>]). In this context, differences across CS facets (i.e., advancement, income, and skill development) are likely to be salient.</p> <p>Despite existing research, two limitations persist. First, many studies treat POS, PC, and CS as unitary latent variables, which restricts insight into how their dimensions differentially relate to one another and limits the precision of organizational interventions (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref31">19</reflink>]). Second, reliance on cross-sectional designs constrains inferences about directional relationships (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref32">74</reflink>]). To address these gaps and to trace dimension-level dynamics over time within this policy and cultural setting, we employ a cross-lagged panel network analysis. We analyze kindergarten, primary, and secondary school teachers in Zhejiang province to reveal how specific facets of POS, PC, and CS relate to one another across waves.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-3">Teachers' Career Satisfaction and Theoretical Framework</hd> <p>Teachers' career satisfaction refers to teachers' personal satisfaction with various aspects of career progress and success ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref33">3</reflink>]). Unlike job satisfaction, which focuses on present job enjoyment, career satisfaction encompasses a broader, long-term perspective on career development ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref34">49</reflink>]). The Career Satisfaction Scale ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref35">31</reflink>]) is a widely accepted and frequently updated measurement ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref36">65</reflink>]). It contains five items to evaluate an individual's progress toward meeting various career-related goals (i.e., overall career goals, income, advancement, and development) and career-related successes (i.e., achieved success; [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref37">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>Most research treats career satisfaction as a single construct, exploring its antecedents such as individual factors (e.g., professional identity and self-esteem; [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref38">59</reflink>]) and workplace factors (e.g., school climate, leadership style, and workplace support; [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref39">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref40">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref41">76</reflink>]). Some studies differentiate intrinsic satisfaction (e.g., skill development) from extrinsic satisfaction (e.g., salary and promotion), with evidence suggesting that intrinsic factors more strongly influence career satisfaction, particularly among highly skilled professionals ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref42">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref43">30</reflink>]). However, research on the comparative effects of different satisfaction subcategories (e.g., income vs. advancement) remains limited ([<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref44">67</reflink>]). Given that different antecedents affect distinct aspects of career satisfaction, a dimension-level analysis is essential.</p> <p>JD-R theory and social exchange theory provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how work conditions influence career satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref45">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref46">61</reflink>]). JD-R theory classifies job characteristics into demands, which deplete energy, and resources, which enhance motivation and well-being; these correspond to the health impairment process and the motivational process, respectively ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref47">6</reflink>]). Resources such as social support, skill variety, and feedback buffer the effects of demands and also independently foster work engagement, thereby promoting career satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref48">7</reflink>]). Among these resources, perceived organizational support and psychological capital are particularly influential predictors of teacher career satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref49">34</reflink>]).</p> <p>Social exchange theory originated from research on organizational support, positing that employees reciprocate perceived organizational concern, appreciation, and recognition with positive attitudes and behavior ([<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref50">61</reflink>]). In particular, teachers perceive organizational support as social exchange resources. When teachers obtain resources from the organizations where they work, they will offer positive attitudes and higher obligation to contribute to their organization in exchange, leading to career satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref51">17</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref52">25</reflink>]). This reciprocal exchange logic is consistent with the resource emphasis in JD-R theory, in that the social exchange clarifies why and when resources supplied by the organization translate into motivational gains and satisfaction-related outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref53">82</reflink>]).</p> <p>Taken together, the two theories yield a coherent explanation with an implied temporal sequence. Perceived organizational support, as a job resource, can initiate the exchange process described by social exchange theory and also stimulate the motivational process specified by JD-R theory ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref54">17</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref55">61</reflink>]). Through that exchange, perceived organizational support fosters the development and deployment of psychological capital as a personal resource ([<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref56">72</reflink>]). In turn, perceived organizational support and psychological capital operate jointly to buffer job demands and culminate in higher career satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref57">8</reflink>]). We adopt this integrated perspective to guide our analyses and to interpret the directional relations among perceived organizational support, psychological capital, and career satisfaction.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-4">Relationship Between Teachers' Perceived Organizational Support, Psychological Capital, and C...</hd> <p>A substantial body of research links perceived organizational support to career satisfaction. Consistent with JD-R theory and social exchange theory, teachers who perceive stronger organizational support feel valued and cared for, which operates as a resource that enhances motivation and, through reciprocity, contributes to career satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref58">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref59">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref60">73</reflink>]). Empirical studies further corroborate this relationship: [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref61">58</reflink>] found that perceived organizational support significantly predicts career satisfaction among Chinese teachers, and [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref62">61</reflink>] reported its association with higher satisfaction in areas like salary and promotion. We hypothesize a particularly strong association between perceived organizational support and career satisfaction in intrinsic domains like skill development. This proposition is driven by both the normative context of Chinese collectivism, which deepens the psychological bond between support and satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref63">63</reflink>]), and empirical evidence demonstrating that competence-growth values moderate teacher satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref64">73</reflink>]). Nevertheless, the proposition that perceived organizational support exhibits a different association with teachers' different satisfaction dimensions remains underexplored and merits specific investigation ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref65">46</reflink>]).</p> <p>Psychological capital is also closely related to both perceived organizational support and career satisfaction. From a JD-R perspective, psychological capital serves as a personal resource that enhances career satisfaction through the motivational process by fostering positive attitudes and work engagement ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref66">50</reflink>]). Personal resources, such as psychological capital, also buffer the negative effects of job demands and promote career satisfaction by empowering individuals to navigate their environment successfully. Empirical evidence supports these claims. For example, [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref67">83</reflink>] found that psychological capital positively predicts career satisfaction in a longitudinal study during the COVID-19 pandemic. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref68">40</reflink>] further identified that while self-efficacy plays a significant role, other dimensions of psychological capital exhibit varying degrees of influence on career satisfaction, suggesting complex interactions at the dimensional level.</p> <p>From a social exchange perspective, higher perceived organizational support can foster the development of psychological capital, which teachers then deploy to address work difficulties as a form of reciprocity ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref69">15</reflink>]; Wu et al., 2019). Empirical studies reinforce this relationship. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref70">52</reflink>] demonstrated that psychological capital mediates the relationship between perceived organizational support and job performance, while [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref71">36</reflink>] found that employees who perceive higher organizational support experience a subsequent increase in psychological capital over time. Additionally, a meta-analysis by [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref72">72</reflink>] identified perceived organizational support as an antecedent and workplace satisfaction as a consequence of psychological capital.</p> <p>In summary, theoretical frameworks such as JD-R and social exchange theory ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref73">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref74">61</reflink>]), along with empirical evidence (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref75">58</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref76">72</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref77">83</reflink>]), underscore the positive and directional relationships among perceived organizational support, psychological capital, and career satisfaction. However, research remains limited in two key areas: the exploration of these relationships within the teaching profession and the examination of the links between the dimensional aspects of these variables ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref78">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref79">41</reflink>]). Additionally, most existing studies are cross-sectional (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref80">52</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref81">58</reflink>]), restricting causal inferences. Addressing these gaps is critical for advancing our understanding of these variables and their interplay in educational settings ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref82">54</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-5">The Cross-Lagged Panel Network Analysis Approach</hd> <p>Cross-lagged panel network analysis (CLPN) models the dynamic interplay among granular components of psychological constructs across time. In these networks, nodes represent items or dimensions, and edges capture the strength and direction of prospective associations. Directed edges are depicted with arrows from a source node to a target node, indicating that activity in the source at an earlier wave may forecast activity in the target at a later wave ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref83">53</reflink>]). This structure allows visualization of how specific components of career satisfaction (CS), perceived organizational support (POS), and psychological capital (PC) relate over time. We also summarize node importance using centrality indices: Expected influence reflects the extent to which a node is connected to other nodes; higher expected influence suggests a more centrally connected node that may play a larger role in the network ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref84">60</reflink>]).</p> <p>Several advantages make the CLPN well suited to the present research aims. First, since the nodes represent the item or dimension level of variables, it allows observation of how these variables interact at a finer granularity ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref85">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref86">41</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref87">75</reflink>]). For example, it can show which item of CS is more strongly connected with POS, thereby refining our understanding of these variables. Second, CLPN is a longitudinal approach that integrates network analysis with a cross-lagged panel structure, which may improve the interpretation of the influence direction among nodes and address limitations of cross-sectional designs that have been common in work on POS, PC, and CS (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref88">52</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref89">58</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref90">79</reflink>]). Third, CLPN offers practical value for intervention design: centrality indices indicate comparatively influential nodes in the network, and focusing on higher-centrality nodes may provide greater leverage for targeted policies and practices ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref91">39</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref92">62</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-6">The Current Study</hd> <p>While theories and empirical studies posit that POS (job resource) and PC (personal resource) enhance satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref93">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref94">7</reflink>]), few studies focus on teacher populations or explore dimensional-level interactions within these variables ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref95">52</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref96">72</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref97">83</reflink>]). This study employs CLPN analysis to examine how specific dimensions of POS, PC, and items of CS interact over time. The study has three objectives: First, to identify the most influential items of CS (e.g., career goals, income, advancement, skill development, and success). Second, analyze dimensional-level connections between POS, PC, and CS, informing targeted interventions for teachers. Third, model the temporal relationships among these constructs to reveal directional influences over time. Guided by JD-R theory and social exchange theory, this study positions POS and PC as antecedents and career satisfaction as the outcome ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref98">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref99">61</reflink>]), offering new insights into teachers' workplace experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-7">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0192433326-8">Participants and Procedure</hd> <p>This study employed a two-wave longitudinal design, surveying kindergarten, primary, and secondary school teachers from Zhejiang Province, China. Data collection occurred in October 2021 (T1) and April 2023 (T2). The research procedures adhered to the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and were approved by the university's research ethics committee (retrospective approval no. ZSRT2022020). We recruited participants during two training conferences for teachers in Zhejiang Province. The teachers completed the questionnaires through an online link on the platform Credamo (https://www.credamo.world). All participants provided informed consent before participation and completed the questionnaires anonymously. Responses from the two time points were matched using a unique user response ID assigned to each participant by the platform. Upon completion of the questionnaire at each wave, participants received monetary compensation.</p> <p>A total of 704 teachers were recruited during the first training conference to complete the T1 questionnaire. The T2 data collection was conducted during a separate, subsequent training conference. As the participant pools for the two conferences were not identical due to the extended time interval and natural turnover in the teaching cohort (e.g., resignation, transfer, leave of absence, or unwillingness to participate again), we successfully matched only 431 teachers from the initial T1 sample at T2, resulting in a matched retention rate of 61.22%. To assess attrition bias, independent samples <emph>t</emph>-tests were conducted on the T1 scores of all subscales measuring our core variables (POS, PC, and CS) between the attrition group (<emph>N</emph> = 273) and the follow-up group (<emph>N</emph> = 431). Results indicated no significant differences between the two groups on any of these variables (<emph>|t|</emph> < 1.62, <emph>ps</emph> > 0.11), suggesting that the attrition was not systematic regarding the initial levels of our key variables.</p> <p>Teachers who fully completed the two questionnaires at two time points (i.e., T1 and T2) were included in this study, resulting in a final sample of 431 (28.3% males). The average age of these teachers was 37.61 years (standard deviation, <emph>SD</emph> = 8.81), with a mean teaching experience of 18.22 years (<emph>SD</emph> = 10.80) at T1. Regarding educational attainment, the majority of teachers (92.1%) held a bachelor's degree, while a small proportion had a postgraduate degree (0.7%) or less than a bachelor's degree (7.2%). By educational level taught, 6.5% of the participants were junior high school teachers, 21.1% were senior high school teachers, 55.2% were primary school teachers, 16.2% were kindergarten teachers, and 0.9% did not specify the subject area or grade level they were teaching. Importantly, the final sample contained no missing values, eliminating the need for interpolation methods.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-9">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0192433326-10">Perceived Organizational Support</hd> <p>Perceived organizational support (POS) was measured using the perceived organizational support scale, a culturally adapted version of [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref100">20</reflink>] scale, known for its robust reliability ([<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref101">81</reflink>]). The scale consists of a single dimension with 8 items, rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree), with items 6 and 7 reverse-scored. The composite score is calculated as the average of all item scores, where a higher value signifies a stronger perception of organizational support. In this study, the Cronbach's <emph>α</emph> was 0.91 at T1 and 0.92 at T2.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-11">Teachers' Psychological Capital</hd> <p>The Teachers' Psychological Capital Scale, developed by [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref102">80</reflink>] for Chinese cultural context, was employed to evaluate teachers' psychological capital. The scale comprises 19 items in four dimensions: resilience, optimism, hope, and confidence. This scale uses a 6-point Likert scoring system, with reverse scoring for items 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 10. Responses range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree), with higher scores indicating greater psychological capital. In the current study, the Cronbach's α was 0.93 at T1 and 0.93 at T2.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-12">Career Satisfaction</hd> <p>Career satisfaction (CS) was measured using the Career Satisfaction Scale, a localized adaptation of [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref103">31</reflink>] scale, known for its robust reliability ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref104">70</reflink>]). This one-dimensional scale comprises 5 items, each rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Item scores are averaged, with a higher score indicating a greater level of career satisfaction. In the current study, the Cronbach's α was 0.91 at T1 and 0.93 at T2.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-13">Data Analysis</hd> <p>Descriptive statistics were initially generated using SPSS 27.0. Next, a cross-lagged panel network (CLPN) model was constructed in R version 4.3.1 to examine the temporal and dynamic interrelationships among perceived organizational support, teachers' psychological capital, and career satisfaction from T1 to T2. Specifically, the <emph>glmnet</emph> package in R was used to estimate the regularized logistic regression model ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref105">28</reflink>]). Additionally, the <emph>qgraph</emph> package in R was used to visualize the results ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref106">23</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-14">Cross-Lagged Panel Network (CLPN) Models</hd> <p>We selected cross-lagged panel network analysis (CLPN) as the primary analytic method. We aimed to examine how POS, PC, and CS interact at the dimension level to inform targeted teacher well-being interventions. Structural equation modeling approaches, including random-intercept cross-lagged panel models and growth models, typically represent constructs as latent variables and often rely on aggregate scores, which can limit insight into finer-grained relations (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref107">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref108">44</reflink>]). In contrast, CLPN integrates network analysis with a cross-lagged panel structure, represents nodes as dimensions or items, and estimates time-directed edges, providing more granular and directional evidence aligned with our research questions ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref109">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>This study's CLPN model followed the methodological framework of [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref110">60</reflink>]. The model was estimated using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regularization with 10-fold cross-validation ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref111">22</reflink>]). By modeling autoregressive and cross-lagged effects, the CLPN model estimated the impact of prior nodes on subsequent nodes at the next time point. Additionally, the <emph>qgraph</emph> package was used for data visualization ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref112">23</reflink>]). In the network plots, nodes represented various items of the career satisfaction, perceived organizational support, and teachers' psychological capital measures. Arrows on edges indicated the direction of cross-lagged effects, with solid lines representing positive predictions, dotted lines representing negative predictions, and line thickness indicating association strength. Autoregressive paths dominated the network, visually suppressing the cross-lagged paths—a key aspect in this study ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref113">29</reflink>]). Therefore, autoregressive paths were set to zero in the results figures to emphasize relevant cross-lagged effects. Figure including autoregressive paths is available in the appendix.</p> <p>Three centrality indices were estimated to quantify each node's structural importance in the network ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref114">39</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref115">53</reflink>]): (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref116">1</reflink>) Cross-lagged out-expected influence (out-EI), representing the sum of outgoing edge weights for a node. (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref117">2</reflink>) In-expected influence (in-EI), representing the sum of incoming edge weights for a node. Nodes with high out-EI were closely examined for their ability to predict multiple other nodes, potentially activating them within the network. (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref118">3</reflink>) Bridge expected influence (bridge-EI), representing the sum of edge weights connecting a node to all nodes in other communities, was used to identify the node with the strongest connections to nodes in other communities.</p> <p>Bootstrapping methods in the <emph>bootnet</emph> package in R were used to assess the stability and accuracy of the CLPN model ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref119">24</reflink>]). First, the correlation stability (CS) of node centrality was estimated using the case-drop bootstrapping method with 1000 samples. A CS coefficient of at least 0.25 was considered acceptable ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref120">12</reflink>]). Second, the accuracy of edge weights was estimated with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) surrounding each edge, using non-parametric bootstrapping with 1000 samples. Narrower CIs indicated greater accuracy of edge estimates. Additionally, bootstrapped difference tests (1000 samples, α = 0.05) were conducted to analyze differences in edge weights and node centrality.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-15">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0192433326-16">Descriptive Statistics</hd> <p>Table 1 and Figure S1 (see Supplemental material) present descriptive statistics, including the mean, <emph>SD</emph>, comparison results of T1 and T2, and bivariate correlations for each node. The nodes were represented by 5 items of career satisfaction, a single dimension of perceived organizational support, and 4 dimensions of teachers' psychological capital. Results indicate that Chinese teachers exhibit relatively high levels of perceived organizational support, psychological capital, and career satisfaction. Furthermore, these psychological constructs are significantly and positively correlated. To analyze the trends, a series of paired-sample <emph>t</emph>-tests were performed to examine changes in each node over time. The results indicated that, compared to T1, teachers reported significantly lower mean scores in T2 for PC-1 (<emph>t</emph> (<reflink idref="bib860" id="ref121">860</reflink>) = 3.05, <emph>p</emph> <.05, <emph>d</emph> = 0.21), PC-3 (<emph>t</emph> (<reflink idref="bib860" id="ref122">860</reflink>) = 2.50, <emph>p</emph> <.05, <emph>d</emph> = 0.17), PC-4 (<emph>t</emph> (<reflink idref="bib860" id="ref123">860</reflink>) = 2.72, <emph>p</emph> <.05, <emph>d</emph> = 0.17), CS-1 (<emph>t</emph> (<reflink idref="bib860" id="ref124">860</reflink>) = 3.42, <emph>p</emph> <.05, <emph>d</emph> = 0.23), and CS-2 (<emph>t</emph> (<reflink idref="bib860" id="ref125">860</reflink>) = 3.76, <emph>p</emph> <.05, <emph>d</emph> = 0.26), CS-5 (<emph>t</emph> (<reflink idref="bib860" id="ref126">860</reflink>) = 3.10, <emph>p</emph> <.05, <emph>d</emph> = 0.21). However, they reported no significant difference for POS-1, PC-2, CS-3, and CS-4 at T1 and T2 (see Figure 1 for detail).</p> <p>Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Comparison results of Network Nodes (N = 431)</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left" colspan="2">T1</th><th align="left" colspan="2">T2</th><th align="left" rowspan="2">T1 VS. T2</th></tr><tr><th align="left">Node</th><th align="left"><italic>M</italic></th><th align="left"><italic>SD</italic></th><th align="left"><italic>M</italic></th><th align="left"><italic>SD</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">1 POS-1</td><td align="char" char=".">3.81</td><td align="char" char=".">0.84</td><td align="char" char=".">3.80</td><td align="char" char=".">0.86</td><td align="left"><italic>t</italic> (860) = 0.27, <italic>p</italic> =.79, <italic>d</italic> = 0.02</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2 PC-1</td><td align="char" char=".">4.85</td><td align="char" char=".">0.84</td><td align="char" char=".">4.67</td><td align="char" char=".">0.91</td><td align="left"><italic>t</italic> (860) = 3.05, <italic>p</italic> <.05, <italic>d</italic> = 0.21</td></tr><tr><td align="left">3 PC-2</td><td align="char" char=".">4.38</td><td align="char" char=".">0.94</td><td align="char" char=".">4.29</td><td align="char" char=".">0.97</td><td align="left"><italic>t</italic> (860) = 1.45, <italic>p</italic> =.15, <italic>d</italic> = 0.10</td></tr><tr><td align="left">4 PC-3</td><td align="char" char=".">4.52</td><td align="char" char=".">0.91</td><td align="char" char=".">4.36</td><td align="char" char=".">0.98</td><td align="left"><italic>t</italic> (860) = 2.50, <italic>p</italic> <.05, <italic>d</italic> = 0.17</td></tr><tr><td align="left">5 PC-4</td><td align="char" char=".">4.85</td><td align="char" char=".">0.87</td><td align="char" char=".">4.68</td><td align="char" char=".">0.92</td><td align="left"><italic>t</italic> (860) = 2.72, <italic>p</italic> <.05, <italic>d</italic> = 0.17</td></tr><tr><td align="left">6 CS-1</td><td align="char" char=".">4.05</td><td align="char" char=".">0.91</td><td align="char" char=".">3.84</td><td align="char" char=".">0.92</td><td align="left"><italic>t</italic> (860) = 3.42, <italic>p</italic> <.05, <italic>d</italic> = 0.23</td></tr><tr><td align="left">7 CS-2</td><td align="char" char=".">4.08</td><td align="char" char=".">0.87</td><td align="char" char=".">3.85</td><td align="char" char=".">0.92</td><td align="left"><italic>t</italic> (860) = 3.76, <italic>p</italic> <.05, <italic>d</italic> = 0.26</td></tr><tr><td align="left">8 CS-3</td><td align="char" char=".">3.65</td><td align="char" char=".">1.08</td><td align="char" char=".">3.55</td><td align="char" char=".">1.01</td><td align="left"><italic>t</italic> (860) = 1.50, <italic>p</italic> =.13, <italic>d</italic> = 0.10</td></tr><tr><td align="left">9 CS-4</td><td align="char" char=".">3.65</td><td align="char" char=".">1.12</td><td align="char" char=".">3.58</td><td align="char" char=".">1.06</td><td align="left"><italic>t</italic> (860) = 0.94, <italic>p</italic> =.35, <italic>d</italic> = 0.06</td></tr><tr><td align="left">10 CS-5</td><td align="char" char=".">3.90</td><td align="char" char=".">0.92</td><td align="char" char=".">3.70</td><td align="char" char=".">0.93</td><td align="left"><italic>t</italic> (860) = 3.10, <italic>p</italic> <.05, <italic>d</italic> = 0.21</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note.</emph> POS-1 = perceived organizational support scale; PC-1 = Resiliency _Subscale of Teachers' Psychology Capital; PC-2 = Optimism _Subscale of Teachers' Psychology Capital; PC-3 = Hope _Subscale of Teachers' Psychology Capital; PC-4 = Confidence _Subscale of Teachers' Psychology Capital; CS-1 = I am satisfied with the success I have achieved in my career; CS-2 = I am satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my overall career goals; CS-3 = I am satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my goals for income; CS-4 = I am satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my goals for advancement; CS-5 = I am satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my goals for the development of new skills. <emph>M</emph> = Mean. <emph>SD</emph> = Standard Deviation. T1 = Time 1, T2 = Time 2.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1.The cross-lagged panel networks of perceived organizational support, teachers' psychology capital, and career satisfaction for T1 and T2. Note. Autoregressive edges were excluded to make the cross-lagged edges more visually interpretable</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-17">The CLPN Inference</hd> <p>The cross-lagged panel network was constructed to represent the temporal relationships from T1 to T2 among perceived organizational support, psychological capital, and career satisfaction at their respective dimensional levels (see Figure 1). Blue arrows denote positive predictive relationships in the plot, while red arrows indicate negative predictions. To focus on interpreting cross-lagged edges, we excluded autoregressive edges, which have the highest path coefficients in the network, to enhance the clarity of the cross-lagged edges. The network plot, including autoregressive paths, is available in Figure S2 of the supplemental material.</p> <p>As depicted in Figure 1, the cross-lagged panel network generated a total of 90 potential cross-lagged edges (calculated as 10*(10–1)), with 46 (51.11%) edges having non-zero values. Node POS-1 is the most significantly predicted characteristic, exerting broad influence on all other nodes within the network. Specifically, POS-1 robustly predicts nodes PC-2, PC-3, CS-2, and CS-5. The strongest cross-lagged edges observed in the network from POS-1 at T1 to PC-3 at T2 (path coefficient = 0.33), POS-1 at T1 to PC-2 at T2 (path coefficient = 0.28), PC-4 at T1 to PC-1 at T2 (path coefficient = 0.19), and POS-1 at T1 to CS-5 at T2 (path coefficient = 0.18). In contrast, the weakest cross-lagged edges, with a path coefficient below 0.02, are from CS-5 at T1 to POS at T2, CS-3 at T1 to CS-2 at T2, CS-4 at T1 to CS-3 at T2, PC-4 at T1 to CS-4 at T2, and CS-2 at T1 to PC-4 at T2. The cross-lagged coefficients and autoregressive coefficients of the node in the network are shown in Table S1 of the supplemental materials.</p> <p>Centrality indices (i.e., out-EI, in-EI, and bridge-EI) with z-scored value for the cross-lagged panel network are illustrated in Figure 2, with their raw values provided in Table S1 of the supplemental materials. Regarding out-EI, POS-1, representing perceived organizational support, exhibited the highest value and significantly surpassed the out-EI of CS-1, CS-3, CS-4, CS-5, PC-1, PC3. More details can be seen in Figure S3(a) of the supplemental materials. Moderate out-EI was observed for nodes PC-1, PC-2, PC-3, and PC-4, which represent teachers' psychological capital. Conversely, nodes CS1, CS3, CS4, and CS5, representing career satisfaction, had the lowest out-EI in the network, with only CS-2 scoring relatively higher. Notably, CS-1 exhibited the highest in-EI and significantly exceeded the in-EI of POS-1 and PC-4, indicating that it is the most highly predicted by other nodes in the network (more details can be seen in Figure S3(b)). For bridge-EI, POS-1 also showed the highest value and significantly exceeded the bridge-EI of CS-1, CS-2, CS-3, CS-4, CS-5, PC-1, PC-3, PC-4 (more details can be seen in Figure S3(c)), while PC-1, PC-2, PC-3, and PC-4 demonstrated moderate scores. The five nodes representing career satisfaction (CS-1, CS-2, CS-3, CS-4, and CS-5) had the lowest bridge-EI in the network. These results highlight the important role of node POS-1 as the best predictor of the development of other nodes in the network.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2.Z-Scored Centrality Indices depicting the out-expected influence, in-expected influence and bridge-expected influence of the cross-lagged panel network</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-18">Estimation of Network Stability and Accuracy</hd> <p>As illustrated in Figure 3(a), the stability of out-EI, in-EI, and bridge-EI decreases slightly as the proportion of resampled sample sizes declines. Specifically, the centrality stability coefficients (CS-coefficients) for the out-EI, in-EI, and bridge-EI sums in the T1→T2 network are 0.36, 0.36, and 0.44, respectively. According to the CS-coefficients standard set by [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref127">12</reflink>] of above 0.25, and based on Figure 3(a), the centrality of nodes in the cross-lagged panel network model was stable. Furthermore, Figure 3(b) displays the result of the bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for edge weights. The small size of the CIs, shown by the grey area in Figure 3(b), indicates that the edge weights are relatively accurate. Additionally, the bootstrapped difference tests for the nodes' centrality indices (i.e., out-EI, in-EI, and bridge-EI) and edge weights revealed that a small proportion of the differences in the T1→T2 networks were statistically significant (see Figure S3(a)–(d) in the supplemental materials). Although many of the 95% CIs for the centrality indices and edge weights overlap, some of the strongest centrality indices and edges are distinct, showing no overlap. These findings further confirm the stability and accuracy of the centrality analyses.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3.The stability and accuracy of the cross-lagged panel network. Note. (a) Stability of centrality indices by case dropping subset bootstrap in the cross-lagged panel network. The x -axis displays the percentage of cases removed at each step. The y -axis shows the average correlation between centrality indices from the original network and the re-estimated networks after dropping an increasing percentage of cases. The color-coded regions indicate the 95% CI. (b) Bootstrapped CI of the edge weights in the cross-lagged panel network. The gray line indicates the edge weight values of sample, the black line indicates the bootstrap mean edge weight, and the gray area indicates the 95% CI</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-19">Discussion</hd> <p>While the relationships between career satisfaction (CS), perceived organizational support (POS), and psychological capital (PC) are well-established in organizational behavior research ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref128">57</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref129">72</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref130">83</reflink>]), studies focusing on teachers remain limited. Most prior research relies on aggregate sum scores, overlooking dimensional-level interactions ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref131">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref132">41</reflink>]). This study addresses these gaps by employing cross-lagged panel network analysis (CLPN) with data from Chinese teachers over an 18-month period to examine granular-level relationships between these constructs.</p> <p>Results showed that POS-1 was both highly influential and a key bridge in the CLPN, with high out-expected influence (out-EI) and bridge-expected influence (bridge-EI) alongside low in-expected influence (in-EI). In contrast, all five CS nodes displayed high in-EI and low out-EI and bridge-EI. Notably, CS-1 ("I am satisfied with the success I have achieved in my career") had the highest in-EI in the network. Although no single PC node ranked highest on any indices, the four PC nodes showed comparatively elevated out-EI, in-EI, and bridge-EI, suggesting broader connective and transmissive roles. In this context, in-EI reflects how strongly a node is influenced by others, out-EI reflects the sum a node influences other nodes, and bridge-EI reflects the strength of a node's links to nodes in other communities ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref133">53</reflink>]). Accordingly, POS and PC nodes with higher out-EI or bridge-EI may be promising leverage points for targeted intervention within the POS–PC–CS system.</p> <p>The study also indicated an overall decline in POS, PC, and CS from T1 to T2, with significant decreases in PC-1 (resilience), PC-3 (confidence), PC-4 (hope), CS-1 (career success), CS-2 (career goals), and CS-5 (skill development). In particular, data were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic (T1) and shortly after its end (T2). By T2, national announcements regarding the pandemic's end and subsequent reopening policies, including school-related policies ([<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref134">56</reflink>]), coincided with adjustments in management and school governance that increased both instructional and noninstructional tasks. In practice, a return to "normal" often involved accelerated efforts to help students "catch up" after pandemic-related learning losses, alongside organizational reforms that introduced new administrative requirements ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref135">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref136">18</reflink>]). Under the JD-R theory, these heightened demands may have depleted work resources and contributed to lower PC and CS ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref137">6</reflink>]). Taken together, the pattern suggests a need for supportive measures to protect teacher well-being, with CLPN results highlighting the potential value of strengthening POS and strategically targeting influential nodes in the network.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-20">Teachers' Perceived Organizational Support, Psychological Capital, and Career Satisfaction: A...</hd> <p>The network centrality indices demonstrated distinct functional roles for POS, PC, and CS. POS-1 showed the highest out-EI and bridge-EI, suggesting that perceived organizational support initiates influence that spreads to other nodes and links communities within the network. In contrast, all CS nodes, especially CS-1, exhibit consistently higher in-EI, indicating that career satisfaction primarily receives influence. Taken together, these results are consistent with an antecedent-like role for perceived organizational support and an outcome-like role for career satisfaction, with psychological capital positioned to transmit and translate influence across the system. Although CLPN does not estimate mediated pathways as cross-lagged mediation models do, our centrality pattern both corroborates prior findings on the relations among POS, PC, and CS ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref138">52</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref139">58</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref140">83</reflink>]) and, through network analysis, adds finer-grained evidence on their dynamic interactions.</p> <p>These findings align with JD-R theory and social exchange theory. POS as a job resource can trigger motivational processes outlined in JD-R theory and activate the reciprocity processes emphasized by social exchange theory ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref141">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref142">61</reflink>]). When teachers perceive strong organizational support, they feel valued and are motivated to reciprocate their organization with positive attitudes, which is expressed in higher career satisfaction. In our network, POS not only shows direct positive links to multiple facets of career satisfaction but also exhibits outward influence on all four dimensions of psychological capital, suggesting that POS may cultivate personal resources that further reinforce satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref143">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref144">74</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-21">Teachers' Career Satisfaction in the Cross-Lagged Panel Network</hd> <p>The five career satisfaction (CS) items—achieved success (CS-1), overall career goals (CS-2), goals for advancement (CS-3), goals for income (CS-4), and goals for skill development (CS-5)—assumed differentiated roles in the CLPN. Specifically, CS-1 showed the highest in-EI, indicating that it received the strongest combined influence from other nodes in the CLPN. This node captures teachers' global appraisals of career attainment, which explain their central positions. The prominence of CS-1 aligns with evidence that subjective career success is closely tied to overall career satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref145">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref146">64</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref147">65</reflink>]). In our network, CS-1 functions primarily as an outcome that consolidates input from other nodes while reinforcing the broader CS construct.</p> <p>CS-3, CS-4, and CS-5 represent domain-specific targets. Among the three nodes, CS-5 displayed comparatively higher centrality on in-EI, out-EI, and bridge-EI, underscoring its role as both a recipient and transmitter of influence and as a connector across communities. POS was strongly linked to all CS nodes, with the POS to CS-5 (goals for skill development) connection among the strongest. Substantively, teachers attach considerable value to professional growth and skill development relative to income (CS-4) and advancement (CS-3), consistent with prior work ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref148">65</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref149">78</reflink>]). In China's specific cultural and institutional context, the collectivist culture emphasizes strong individual-organization bonds and reciprocal obligations, and the teaching profession, often as a tenured position within the public sector ("bianzhi"), closely links career advancement to organizational support. Within this context, teachers not only value organizational recognition and care but also view the organization as a platform for long-term career development ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref150">63</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref151">74</reflink>]). Consequently, when teachers perceive strong organizational support, they are more likely to believe that the organization will invest in their skill development, thereby enhancing their satisfaction with career growth.</p> <p>Finally, PC-2 (optimism) showed stronger coefficients with the five CS nodes than the other PC nodes. Optimism means making a positive attribution about succeeding now and in the future ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref152">50</reflink>]). Optimistic teachers interpret career events more constructively and sustain expectations of future success, which supports higher CS over time ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref153">10</reflink>]). Evidence from teachers in Hungary also links optimism and positive emotions with workplace happiness ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref154">42</reflink>]). Prior work further suggests that workplace support can bolster optimism, which in turn relates to CS ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref155">26</reflink>]). Framed by Fredrickson's broaden-and-build theory ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref156">27</reflink>]), positive states like optimism help teachers notice more options and try more effective actions, and repeated positive experiences can build lasting personal resources. These processes provide a plausible pathway for the stronger links observed between optimism and multiple facets of CS and point to optimism as a practical leverage point for intervention.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-22">Implications for Practice</hd> <p>The current work offers several practical insights grounded in the CLPN results. First, the study highlights key areas for enhancing career satisfaction. CS-1 (career success), CS-2 (career goals), and CS-5 (skill development) emerged as central nodes within the network, indicating high leverage points for intervention. At the same time, CS-1, CS-2, and CS-5 showed significant declines from T1 to T2, suggesting a post-pandemic need to prioritize intrinsic aspects of satisfaction and to meet teachers' professional growth needs. In line with these centrality signals, schools should improve working conditions, provide clear career pathways, and offer professional development opportunities, such as mentorship and skill enhancement training, to support long-term career growth ([<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref157">71</reflink>]).</p> <p>Second, perceived organizational support (POS-1) was the most influential node, underscoring its predictive role for career satisfaction. Consistent with the network's high out-EI and bridge-EI for POS-1, interventions that begin with organizational support are likely to have broader downstream effects across the POS–PC–CS system. Schools and policymakers can strengthen organizational support through structured onboarding, periodic feedback systems, and workload management strategies to foster a more supportive work environment ([<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref158">61</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref159">66</reflink>]).</p> <p>Third, the four psychological capital nodes showed comparatively elevated out-EI, in-EI, and bridge-EI in the network, suggesting broader connective and transmissive roles. Particularly, optimism (PC-2) showed stronger coefficients with the five CS nodes. Optimistic teachers are more resilient, interpret challenges constructively, and maintain motivation ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref160">26</reflink>]). Interventions such as Psychological Capital Interventions (PCI), gamification strategies, and web-based resilience training can be implemented to cultivate optimism and enhance teachers' long-term career engagement ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref161">50</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-23">Limitations and Future Research Directions</hd> <p>This study has several limitations. First, this study focused on teachers' career satisfaction and examined the longitudinal network among career satisfaction, perceived organizational support, and psychological capital. However, other factors—such as school climate, leadership styles, and personality traits—may also shape distinct facets of career satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref162">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref163">35</reflink>]). Future research should therefore broaden the network model to incorporate these antecedents, providing a more comprehensive account of influences on teachers' career satisfaction.</p> <p>Second, our study was conducted in Zhejiang Province, which may influence the generalizability of the results. As noted in the Introduction, Zhejiang often pilots national initiatives, so its teachers are informative for understanding policy-linked changes in work ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref164">45</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref165">68</reflink>]). Nonetheless, province-level differences in resources, implementation, and school contexts may yield different patterns elsewhere. Future research should replicate the design across multiple Chinese provinces and, where feasible, in non-Chinese settings to assess robustness and extend external validity.</p> <p>Third, in this network analysis, career satisfaction (CS) was modeled at the item level, whereas perceived organizational support (POS) and psychological capital (PC) were modeled at the dimension level, which can introduce modest reliability concerns and a granularity mismatch. Item-level nodes are treated as observed without explicitly modeling measurement error, which may produce spurious edges or attenuate true edges; they can also overlap semantically, complicating interpretation ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref166">14</reflink>]). Including every POS and PC item would likely exacerbate these problems. We nonetheless used the five-item Career Satisfaction Scale because it is widely adopted and captures core facets of career success, overall goals, advancement, income, and skill development. Future work could develop extended facet scales with multiple items per domain, harmonize the level of analysis across CS, POS, and PC, and better separate substantive change from wording or response-style artifacts.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-24">Conclusion</hd> <p>This study examined the component-level relationships between career satisfaction (CS), perceived organizational support (POS), and psychological capital (PC) among teachers using cross-lagged panel network analysis. The findings identified CS-1 (career success), CS-2 (career goals), and CS-5 (skill development) as key items of career satisfaction. POS-1 emerged as a strong predictor, while PC-2 (optimism) played a bridging role linking POS and CS. These results underscore the importance of organizational support and psychological capital in enhancing teacher satisfaction. The study offers practical implications for targeted interventions and informs educational policies to improve teacher well-being and professional growth.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-25">Supplemental Material</hd> <p>Graph: Supplemental Material for Longitudinal Relationships Between Career Satisfaction, Perceived Organizational Support, and Psychological Capital in Teachers by Luyun Xu, Feng Zhu, Weilong Xiao, and Binghai Sun in Journal of Career Development</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-26">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>Thanks to the participants who participated in this study. We are very grateful to the editor and reviewers for their work and suggestions for this paper. We thank our colleagues at ZJNU, KUL, and VUB.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-27">ORCID iDs</hd> <p>Luyun Xu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9318-2998</p> <p>Weilong Xiao https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4836-8934</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-28">Ethical Consideration</hd> <p>This study was authorized by the Ethics Committee of the Zhejiang Normal University, which was conducted per the Declaration of Helsinki. This study was also approved by school authorities and principals.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-29">Consent to Participate</hd> <p>The participants were informed that their responses to questionnaires would be anonymous and confidential, and the data collected would be used for academic research only. The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in OSF at https://osf.io/tuaws/?view_only=cf316099765e4c1fa03547ffe814fdc2.</p> <hd id="AN0192433326-30">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in OSF at https://osf.io/tuaws/?view_only=cf316099765e4c1fa03547ffe814fdc2.</p> <ref id="AN0192433326-31"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref116" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Abele A. E., Spurk D. (2009). The longitudinal impact of self-efficacy and career goals on objective and subjective career success. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74(1), 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2008.10.005</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref39" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Admiraal W., Kittelsen Røberg K. I. (2023). Teachers' job demands, resources and their job satisfaction: Satisfaction with school, career choice and teaching profession of teachers in different career stages. 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Journal of Vocational Behavior, 112, 282–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.04.003</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zyberaj J., Seibel S., Schowalter A. F., Pötz L., Richter-Killenberg S., Volmer J. (2022). Developing sustainable careers during a pandemic: The role of psychological capital and career adaptability. Sustainability, 14(5), 3105. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14053105</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0192433326-32"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> The authors utilized <emph>ChatGPT-4o</emph> (an AI tool) for language polishing and grammatical refinement during the writing process, as they are non-native English speakers.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Luyun Xu, Weilong Xiao, and Binghai Sun: Conceptualization and Writing-Original draft. Feng Zhu, Weilong Xiao, and Binghai Sun: Methodology and Data Collection. Weilong Xiao and Binghai Sun: Resources and Data Collection. Weilong Xiao, Binghai Sun, Feng Zhu, and Luyun Xu: Writing-Reviewing and Editing.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This project was supported by the Zhejiang Provincial Philosophy and Social Sciences Planning Annual Project (2026) (Project No.:26NDJC020YBMS).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Supplemental material for this article is available online.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Luyun Xu; Feng Zhu; Weilong Xiao and Binghai Sun</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Luyun Xu is an academic master's student in the School of Psychology at Zhejiang Normal University, China. Her research focuses on teachers' occupational mental health and organizational behavior management, using a range of quantitative and analytical methods. In her daily life, she enjoys traveling and loves dogs.</p> <p>Feng Zhu is currently a PhD candidate in the Department of Psychology at Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Belgium. His research examines the dynamic changes of burnout using machine learning and network analysis. In his spare time, he enjoys playing mahjong and cooking.</p> <p>Weilong Xiao received his PhD through a joint doctoral program between Zhejiang Normal University, China and KU Leuven, Belgium. He is currently a lecturer in the School of Psychology at Zhejiang Normal University. His research uses psychological network analysis, behavioral experiments, and fNIRS hyperscanning to investigate teacher teaching expertise and teachers' occupational mental health. He enjoys playing basketball and reading film reviews.</p> <p>Binghai Sun is a professor and doctoral supervisor in the School of Psychology at Zhejiang Normal University, China. His research focuses on teacher education neuroscience, particularly the neuroscience of teacher empathy and moral education. He is enthusiastic about public welfare and enjoys sports.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib77" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib76" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib82" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib83" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref83"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib79" firstref="ref90"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref91"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref92"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref100"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib81" firstref="ref101"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib80" firstref="ref102"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref104"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref105"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref106"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref107"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref108"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref109"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref111"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref113"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref119"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref120"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib860" firstref="ref121"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref128"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref134"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl66" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref135"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl67" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref136"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl68" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref146"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl69" bibid="bib78" firstref="ref149"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl70" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref154"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl71" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref155"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl72" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref156"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl73" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref157"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl74" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref159"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl75" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref163"></nolink>
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Longitudinal Relationships between Career Satisfaction, Perceived Organizational Support, and Psychological Capital in Teachers
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Luyun+Xu%22">Luyun Xu</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9318-2998">0000-0001-9318-2998</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Feng+Zhu%22">Feng Zhu</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Weilong+Xiao%22">Weilong Xiao</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4836-8934">0000-0002-4836-8934</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Binghai+Sun%22">Binghai Sun</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Career+Development%22"><i>Journal of Career Development</i></searchLink>. 2026 53(2):249-269.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 21
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Preschool+Education%22">Preschool Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Secondary+Education%22">Elementary Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Job+Satisfaction%22">Job Satisfaction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Capital+%28Sociology%29%22">Capital (Sociology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preschool+Teachers%22">Preschool Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Teachers%22">Elementary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+School+Teachers%22">Secondary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Institutional+Characteristics%22">Institutional Characteristics</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22China%22">China</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1177/08948453261432574
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0894-8453<br />1556-0856
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Teachers' career satisfaction (CS), perceived organizational support (POS), and psychological capital (PC) have a significant impact on their professional growth and overall educational quality. However, the interactive dynamics and temporal mechanisms among these variables remain underexplored. This study addresses this gap by employing cross-lagged panel network analysis. A total of 431 Chinese teachers (71.69% female; M = 37.61, SD = 8.78) participated in surveys conducted at two time points. Three centrality indices, out-expected influence (out-EI), in-expected influence (in-EI), and bridge-expected influence (bridge-EI) were used to identify the most important nodes in the POS-PC-CS network. Results showed that POS-1 exhibits the highest out-EI; all five CS nodes displayed relatively high in-EI. Although not ranking highest, the four PC nodes showed comparatively elevated out-EI, in-EI, and bridge-EI. These results offer valuable insights for developing targeted interventions and educational policies that aim to foster positive professional outcomes among teachers.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: Note
  Label: Notes
  Group: Note
  Data: https://osf.io/tuaws/?view_only=cf316099765e4c1fa03547ffe814fdc2
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1501176
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1501176
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    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1177/08948453261432574
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 21
        StartPage: 249
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Job Satisfaction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Capital (Sociology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Secondary School Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Institutional Characteristics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: China
        Type: general
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      – TitleFull: Longitudinal Relationships between Career Satisfaction, Perceived Organizational Support, and Psychological Capital in Teachers
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            NameFull: Feng Zhu
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            NameFull: Weilong Xiao
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            NameFull: Binghai Sun
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              Y: 2026
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