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A Valid and Reliable Scale Development for Assessing Adult Literacy Programs

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Title: A Valid and Reliable Scale Development for Assessing Adult Literacy Programs
Language: English
Authors: Mohammed Amine Douai (ORCID 0009-0008-7295-765X), Ayoub Saidi, Ahlam Qafas
Source: Adult Learning. 2026 37(2):113-128.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 16
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Test Construction, Adult Literacy, Measures (Individuals), Evaluation Methods, Cultural Context, Student Welfare, Program Evaluation, Test Validity, Test Reliability
Geographic Terms: Morocco
DOI: 10.1177/10451595251357255
ISSN: 1045-1595
2162-4070
Abstract: This study aims to develop and validate an instrument for measuring the effectiveness of adult literacy programs in Morocco, addressing a longstanding concern that affects a significant segment of the country. Framed within a theory supporting an all-inclusive concept of literacy, the study employed a systematic scale development process, incorporating literature review and focus group discussions to generate the required items. Based on exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, the developed instrument, which the authors named "EduValue," consists of 85 items, organized into six main dimensions: (1) Personal life, (2) family sphere, (3) inclusive decision-making, (4) spiritual and environmental well-being, (5) societal engagement, (6) economic empowerment. The survey was conducted among 152 graduates of the "Literacy for Empowerment" program. This article fills existing knowledge gaps in this field by offering empirical evidence supporting the development of educational policies and reforms to enhance the effectiveness of adult literacy initiatives within the Moroccan context and in the rest of the world.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1502464
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0192697305;adl01may.26;2026Apr03.06:11;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0192697305-1">A Valid and Reliable Scale Development for Assessing Adult Literacy Programs </title> <p>This study aims to develop and validate an instrument for measuring the effectiveness of adult literacy programs in Morocco, addressing a longstanding concern that affects a significant segment of the country. Framed within a theory supporting an all-inclusive concept of literacy, the study employed a systematic scale development process, incorporating literature review and focus group discussions to generate the required items. Based on exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, the developed instrument, which the authors named "EduValue," consists of 85 items, organized into six main dimensions: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>) Personal life, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>) family sphere, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>) inclusive decision-making, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>) spiritual and environmental well-being, (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>) societal engagement, (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>) economic empowerment. The survey was conducted among 152 graduates of the "Literacy for Empowerment" program. This article fills existing knowledge gaps in this field by offering empirical evidence supporting the development of educational policies and reforms to enhance the effectiveness of adult literacy initiatives within the Moroccan context and in the rest of the world.</p> <p>Keywords: adult literacy; scale development; program evaluation; exploratory factor analysis; confirmatory factor analysis</p> <p>"The primary objective of this study is evaluative, offering a holistic and culturally relevant view of adult literacy outcomes in Morocco."</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-2">Introduction</hd> <p>For a long time, the traditional conception of literacy has rested on the ability to demonstrate three skills, namely, the skills of reading, writing, and numeracy, in any given language. However, with the implementation of the UNESCO Experimental World Literacy Program (EWLP) in the early 1970s, there has been a gradual shift from this three-skill conception of literacy to a more inclusive notion of literacy that seeks to integrate the "3 Rs" (e.g., reading, writing, and arithmetic) with human beings' daily activities ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref7">12</reflink>]).</p> <p>Within this context, researchers have found that, when integrated into development initiatives, adult literacy not only improves daily life activities but also enhances personal empowerment, including improvement of self-confidence, promotion of critical thinking, participation in national democratic processes, positive involvement in family affairs, and enhancement of positive relations across generations ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref8">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref9">17</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref10">20</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref11">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref12">33</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref13">35</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref14">43</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref15">55</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref16">57</reflink>]).</p> <p>The present study is framed within an all-inclusive concept of literacy. The Moroccan "Literacy for Empowerment" program, which is the focus of this study, is a unique national literacy project that seeks to employ the skills of reading, writing, and numeracy as functional instruments to advance the populace's social, political, psychological and economic well-being.</p> <p>This study offers another approach to assessing the program's effectiveness by examining adult learners through multiple lenses. It provides a suggestive multidimensional framework that precludes a reductionist view of literacy as something related only to individual skills but linked to several dimensions of people's lives.</p> <p>Against this background, and in line with the stated objective, this study is guided by the following research question:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> • How can a validated measurement instrument be developed to reliably evaluate the multifaceted outcomes of the "Literacy for Empowerment" Adult Education Program?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0192697305-3">Adult Literacy in Morocco: An Overview</hd> <p>The history of literacy in Morocco can be traced back to two millennia, beginning with the first Islamic period and running through the colonial and post-colonial periods. The religious dimension has always profoundly influenced literacy in Morocco, with its attendant methods of Quranic recitation and rote learning ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref17">29</reflink>]). Through all these phases in Moroccan history, the promotion of traditional literacy (e.g., reading, writing and numeracy) was prioritized.</p> <p>However, as a result of the persistent inability of Moroccan society to transcend its national gender literacy gap, wherein a far higher population of men are always more literate than women, the issue of limited access to reading and writing skills among a substantial portion of the population remains a critical concern. For instance, about 1 in 4 Moroccans is completely illiterate, and more than 60% of rural women are unable to read or write, even in 2024 ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref18">36</reflink>]). Moreover, in response to the recent global development initiatives (e.g., the 2000–2015 Millennium Development Goals), that emphasized the central place of gender balanced for national socio-economic development, Morocco established in 2013 a national agency mandated to lead the fight against illiteracy in the country ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref19">4</reflink>]). That agency was and is still officially known as <emph>Agence Nationale de Lutte contre l'analphabétisme (ANLCA)</emph> or the <emph>National Agency for the Fight Against Illiteracy,</emph> reflects Morocco's strong political commitment to addressing adult illiteracy and enhancing governance ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref20">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>ANLCA is recognized for its innovative and unique approach, driven by its mission to promote inter- and cross-sectoral collaboration. By integrating various ministerial departments (i.e., the Ministry of Ocean Fisheries, the Ministry of Trades and Crafts, and Prison Administration) and civil organizations into a comprehensive education pool, ANLCA aims to create a literacy system with different pathways and strong interrelation between formal and non-formal education ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref21">35</reflink>]). This system addresses citizens' needs for survival and development by adopting a modern literacy education approach that links literacy acquisition to real-world contexts and everyday life.</p> <p>ANLCA has developed a national strategy for adult literacy and lifelong learning (2023–2030), underscoring the country's commitment to providing literacy learning opportunities for anyone who wishes to master or improve his or her competencies, irrespective of age and proficiency levels ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref22">24</reflink>]). With the ambitious goal of educating over a million people annually, and eradicating adult illiteracy by 2029, Morocco seeks to align itself with the international community's objectives in lifelong learning, specifically with Target 4.6 of the 2030 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, which states that by 2030, all youth and a substantial proportion of adults (both men and women) should achieve literacy and numeracy ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref23">65</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-4">Description of the Program</hd> <p>The "Literacy for Empowerment" program, conducted by the ANLCA in partnership with civil society organizations across the entire national territory, plays a pivotal role in the nation's literacy efforts. According to the program's competency framework, "literacy" doesn't just refer to the ability to read and write. It also includes other essential skills, such as critical thinking, numerical comprehension, and the capacity to engage in lifelong learning, thereby embracing a life-wide approach that links literacy acquisition to learners' daily activities and real-world needs. This all-inclusive definition aligns with ANLCA's strategic vision for 2023–2027, and Marrakech framework of action adopted at the International Conference on Adult Education (CONFINTEA) VII, which views literacy learning as a holistic approach that ultimately leads to personal development, effective social participation, and inclusive decision-making ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref24">35</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-5">Research Methodology</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0192697305-6">Procedure</hd> <p>The procedure used in this study to develop a valid and reliable instrument, "Edu value," for measuring the effectiveness of adult literacy program, followed the generally accepted principles of instrument design proposed by [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref25">18</reflink>]. The procedure involved:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> 1. Item generation through extensive literature review and focus group discussions.</item> <p></p> <item> 2. Categorization of items into determinants.</item> <p></p> <item> 3. Initial data collection and purification.</item> <p></p> <item> • Expert validation.</item> <p></p> <item> • Pilot testing.</item> <p></p> <item> • Scale modification, refinement and finalization.</item> <p></p> <item> 4. Data Collection.</item> <p></p> <item> 5. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using <emph>R software</emph> to discover the fundamental dimensions.</item> <p></p> <item> 6. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using <emph>R software</emph> to test reliability and validity of our findings.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0192697305-7">Item Generation</hd> <p>In order to generate items for developing an instrument to measure the program's overall effectiveness, the present study involved not only review of existing literature but also focus group discussions with relevant stakeholders.</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-8">Extensive Literature Review</hd> <p>This phase included a comprehensive review of existing literature, examining several articles published on evaluating adult literacy programs across various global contexts, such as India, Colombia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Uganda, South Africa, Turkey, Morocco, the United States of America, and others ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref26">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref27">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref28">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref29">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref30">33</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref31">40</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref32">43</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref33">45</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref34">50</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref35">68</reflink>]). These studies collectively emphasize the transformative potential of adult literacy programs in improving personal, social, political, psychological and economic well-being.</p> <p>For instance, research conducted by [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref36">15</reflink>] indicates that adult literacy programs can influence the socio-economic conditions of illiterate adults, which aligns with findings from Oljira and Hailu that highlight the positive impact of integrated functional adult education programs on individual livelihoods in Ethiopia ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref37">53</reflink>]).</p> <p>Moreover, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref38">33</reflink>] highlight the strong impact of literacy programs on personal goals, self-efficacy, and contributions to the social environment ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref39">33</reflink>]). Similarly, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref40">5</reflink>] reinforce the broad impact of adult literacy, emphasizing that it not only improve daily life activities but also enhances personal empowerment, promotes social participation, expands economic opportunities, and strengthens positive intergenerational relationships.</p> <p>Additionally, this review extended to institutional documents, such as curricula, programs, and strategies ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref41">6</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref42">7</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-9">Focus Groups Discussions</hd> <p>After reviewing, we conducted seven focus groups with two key stakeholder categories (adult learners and tutors) to generate items that could efficiently and effectively measure the program's overall effectiveness. In total, 49 individuals participated in these discussions, with four groups consisting of women, two men, and one tutor. These participants were not part of the larger sample of 152 individuals; rather, they served as an initial qualitative pool that guided the generation of the instrument's items.</p> <p>We chose the focus group method as it encourages participants to share their experiences more openly in a group rather than in individual interviews ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref43">44</reflink>]). Moreover, focus groups provide a deeper understanding of the participants' attitudes, perceptions, beliefs, and experiences within the program ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref44">27</reflink>]). Each of the focus group discussions started with clearly highlighting the objectives of the research and the need for the discussions. The guideline used for conducting the focus group discussion is attached in "Appendix A."</p> <p>With participants' consent, focus group sessions were recorded using audio devices and notes were taken. In analyzing the discourse of participants, we employed a sequential method. This involved identifying keywords emerging from each focus group discussion, categorizing them, and contextualizing the discourse ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref45">9</reflink>]). For the first two stages of this analysis, we utilized <emph>NVivo 14 software</emph> to organize and harmonize the dimensions and sub-dimensions we were interested in. The data analysis involved thematic content analysis. After this phase, relevant statements were formulated based on the identified keywords.</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-10">Item Categorization for Literacy Program Determinants Assessment</hd> <p>Initially, 123 statements were drafted and grouped into five dimensions and their 14 sub-dimensions. To further purify the items, they were presented to a panel of five specialist, including two department heads from education sciences and three administrative officials responsible for literacy. The panel was asked to analyze each item concerning the dimension it was supposed to measure. The process resulted in several items being eliminated and others refined. The academics and experts also focused on any of the items that required any changes in the wording. As a result of this phase, a total of 86 items were then categorized into the first version of our five main dimensions:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> 1. "Personal sphere" (two sub-dimensions);</item> <p></p> <item> 2. "Familial cohesion" (three sub-dimensions);</item> <p></p> <item> 3. "Social skills" (four sub-dimensions);</item> <p></p> <item> 4. "Community engagement" (two sub-dimensions);</item> <p></p> <item> 5. "Economic empowerment" (three sub-dimensions).</item> </ulist> <p>The survey instrument consisted of two distinct sections. Part A collected the demographic and socio-economic variables of the respondents. Part B measured participants' perceptions of the program's impact. Responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale, with one denoting "Strongly Disagree" and five signifying "Strongly Agree."</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-11">Data Collection</hd> <p>The researchers used a stratified sampling technique to select a sample of 152 "Literacy for Empowerment" graduates during 2022–2023, all of whom reside in the "Rabat-Sale-Kenitra" region. Throughout the process of collecting and analyzing data, we made sure to uphold three important ethical considerations. These included obtaining participant consent, respecting their privacy rights, and protecting against potential harm.</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-12">Exploratory Factor Analysis</hd> <p>To provide a comprehensive evaluation of the multifaceted outcomes of the "Literacy for Empowerment" Adult Education Program, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis, using the procedure of parallel analysis in <emph>R language</emph> for each dimension, aiming to identify the underlying structure of a large set of variables ([<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref46">56</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-13">Evaluation of the Suitability of Using FA on a Selected Dataset</hd> <p>Before we get to the factor creation phase, it was necessary to verify whether the dataset was suitable for the FA application. For this purpose, we relied on two statistics in our work. The first was the Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin (KMO) measure, which evaluated the degree of homogeneity of the observed variables and served as an overall measure of the adequacy of the experimental dataset ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref47">41</reflink>]). The second was Bartlett test, which assessed whether the correlation matrix of the dataset significantly differed from an identity matrix ([<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref48">67</reflink>]). The results of KMO were between.96 and.99, indicating excellent range of adequacy, and the overall significance of the correlation matrix was tested using Bartlett's test.</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-14">Determination of the Number of Factors</hd> <p>After verifying the dataset's suitability for factor analysis, we conducted a parallel analysis using the <emph>R language</emph> to identify the number of significant factors. Previous studies comparing various methods for determining the number of factors have indicated that the parallel analysis method provides accurate estimations ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref49">54</reflink>]). It is seen that parallel analysis has become widely used over recent years, with the development of user-friendly software, although it is not included in the most used programs such as SPSS and SAS ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref50">38</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref51">42</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref52">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>Parallel analysis is based on the comparison of eigenvalues of the actual data (real) to those of the simulative data (artificial). In this process, the focal point is how many of the factors obtained from the actual data have an eigenvalue more significant than that of the simulative data. Accordingly, the number of factors is decided ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref53">54</reflink>]).</p> <p>In estimating the number of significant factors, the results indicated that the five dimensions identified through literature review and focus group discussions yielded a single factor. However, the "Familial sphere" split into two distinct factors, as the actual data revealed two factors with larger eigenvalues than those generated from random data ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref54">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref55">60</reflink>]). Therefore, it was justified to retain six variables. The parallel analysis results are illustrated in Figures 1 to 5 in Appendix B.</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-15">Refining Scales Using Factor Rotation</hd> <p>In order to determine the factor items of the scale consisting of six factors, the "Oblimin" oblique rotation method was applied to the data obtained from 152 participants. This method is preferred when factors are interrelated ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref56">63</reflink>]). In educational research, it is often unrealistic to assume that factors are completely independent of one another ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref57">30</reflink>]). In this respect, it is considered appropriate to prefer the "Oblimin" oblique rotation method within the scope of this study.</p> <p>The initial factor structure showed that all items were retained except for the last item in the "inclusive decision-making" factor, as its standardized factor loading was less than 0.5. As a result, the item was removed, and factor analysis was re-run. According to the Figures 1–5, all factor loadings exceeded 0.5 after the second implementation.</p> <p>DIAGRAM: Figure 1.Diagram path for personal life.</p> <p>DIAGRAM: Figure 2.Diagram path for family sphere and inclusive decision-making.</p> <p>DIAGRAM: Figure 3.Diagram path for social skills.</p> <p>DIAGRAM: Figure 4.Diagram path for community engagement.</p> <p>DIAGRAM: Figure 5.Diagram path for Economic Empowerment.</p> <p>Table 1 summarizes the results of exploratory factor analysis in terms of the factor, its sub-dimensions, corresponding definitions and theoretical references.</p> <p>Table 1. Summary of Factors, Sub-dimensions, Definitions, and Theoretical References.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left">Factor</th><th align="center">Sub-dimension</th><th align="center">Definition</th><th align="center">Theoretical Reference</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2">Personal life</td><td align="left">Autonomy</td><td align="left">Self-determination and independence; ability to resist social pressures and think and act accordingly. The term also refers to evaluation of one's behavior according to one's own criteria</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr59">Ryff (1989)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Self esteem</td><td align="left">Feeling of satisfaction that a person has with her-/himself</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr58">Rosenberg (1965)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2">Family sphere</td><td align="left">Family relationship</td><td align="left">The ways in which members of a family interact, communicate, and bond with each other</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr31">Fairlie and Frisancho (2014)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Parental engagement</td><td align="left">The involvement of parents in educational or developmental processes that support children's learning and well-being</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr28">Epstein and Sheldon (2022)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Inclusive decision-making</td><td align="left">Inclusive decision-making</td><td align="left">Processes or practices that ensure all relevant stakeholders have a voice in decision-making, with an emphasis on collaboration and shared responsibility</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr8">Arnstein (1969)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="4">Social skills</td><td align="left">Religious understanding</td><td align="left">Deeper comprehension and practice of religious texts and values. Reinforces spiritual principles that guide ethical behavior</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr48">Liu (2007)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Relationship with environment</td><td align="left">Treating other living beings with respect for their nature and circumstances, and in a way that does not cause offense or harm</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr39">Judson (2010)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Personal and family health</td><td align="left">Knowledge and actions that enhance physical and emotional well-being for oneself and one's family</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr15">Chadha and Wadhwa (2018)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Nutrition and hygiene habit</td><td align="left">The putting into practice of knowledge and techniques to prevent ill health. Personal hygiene is defined as cleaning and caring for the human body</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr16">Chavarría Centeno (2016)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2">Community engagement</td><td align="left">Participation in community life</td><td align="left">The importance of working for the well-being of one's community</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr62">Sifontes (2007)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Political engagement</td><td align="left">Active involvement in civic or political processes, such as voting, campaigning, or advocacy activities</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr66">Verba et al. (1995)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3">Economic empowerment</td><td align="left">Financial transactions</td><td align="left">Skills related to handling money, including basic financial literacy and the ability to conduct transactions effectively</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr51">Lusardi and Mitchell (2014)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Spending, saving, and Investing</td><td align="left">The capacity to budget, manage resources, set aside savings, and engage in investment opportunities for future stability or growth</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr52">OECD (2009)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Career Advancement</td><td align="left">Ability to define goals and direct one's efforts in order to achieve them. Ability to persevere over time and in the face of obstacles. Ability to maintain faith in one's ability to accomplish the tasks one has set for oneself</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr33">Gutiérrez-Carvajal et al. (2021)</xref></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0192697305-16">Confirmatory Factor Analysis</hd> <p>Next, we carried out Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) in order to evaluate the measurement model, which examined data quality, encompassing construct reliability and validity. The measurement models ascertain the relationship between the latent variable and its corresponding observed measures and ascertains if the data fits the model well ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref58">46</reflink>]).</p> <p>[<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref59">67</reflink>] asserted that when fit indices fall in the marginal ranges, it is important to consider consistency of the model expressed by several fit indices. Hence, in order to evaluate the goodness of fit of a specified model to the observed data, the present study utilizes CMIN (Chi square), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), PGFI (Parsimony-adjusted Goodness of Fit Index) and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA).</p> <p>The fit indices have a designated cut-off value. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref60">37</reflink>] recommend a cut-off value of.08 for SRMR; and.06 for RMSEA, however; the value RMSEA should not exceed.08. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref61">11</reflink>] suggest that CFI and TLI values in the range of.90–.95. CMIN/df acceptance varies across researchers, ranging from less than 2 ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref62">26</reflink>]) to less than 5 ([<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref63">61</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 2 indicates that the model shows a good fit. The comparative fit index (CFI) and the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) surpassed the threshold of.90, further validating the model.</p> <p>Table 2. Fit Indices Value From CFA.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left">Fit Indices</th><th align="center"><italic>p</italic> Value</th><th align="center">CMIN (chi2)</th><th align="center">SRMR</th><th align="center">RMSEA</th><th align="center">CFI</th><th align="center">TLI</th><th align="center">AIC</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Recommend value</td><td align="left">In-significant</td><td align="left">≤5</td><td align="left">≤.08</td><td align="left">≤.06</td><td align="left">≥.9</td><td align="left">≥.9</td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">Source</td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr61">Schumacker and Lomax (2008)</xref></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr37">Hu and Bentler (1998)</xref></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr11">Bentler (1990)</xref></td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr64">Tucker and Lewis (1973)</xref></td><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr2">Akaike (1974)</xref></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Personal life</td><td align="left">0.000</td><td align="left">180.218</td><td align="left">0.008</td><td align="left">0.066</td><td align="left">0.988</td><td align="left">0.985</td><td align="left">8231.251</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Family sphere</td><td align="left">0.000</td><td align="left">149.5</td><td align="left">0.025</td><td align="left">0.056</td><td align="left">0.987</td><td align="left">0.985</td><td align="left">9401.15</td></tr><tr><td align="left">social skills</td><td align="left">0.000</td><td align="left">907.015</td><td align="left">0.015</td><td align="left">0.077</td><td align="left">0.963</td><td align="left">0.960</td><td align="left">16,464.57</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Societal engagement</td><td align="left">0.000</td><td align="left">88.84</td><td align="left">0.012</td><td align="left">0.049</td><td align="left">0.994</td><td align="left">0.993</td><td align="left">7627.6</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Economic empowerment</td><td align="left">0.000</td><td align="left">270.292</td><td align="left">0.006</td><td align="left">0.057</td><td align="left">0.99</td><td align="left">0.98</td><td align="left">9490.757</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0192697305-17">Reliability and Validity Analysis</hd> <p>Reliability analysis was conducted to ascertain the internal consistency of multiple indicators for each construct ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref64">49</reflink>]). Composite Reliability coefficient was reported to assess the reliability for the factors. The composite reliability estimates the extent to which a set of latent construct indicators share in their measurement of a construct ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref65">34</reflink>]). Traditionally Cronbach's Alpha has been widely used to measure reliability of a construct. However, recently [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref66">21</reflink>] recognized that using Alpha coefficient alone to determine reliability may not be sufficient. Hence, composite reliability is utilized that draws on the standardized loadings and measurement errors of each item ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref67">32</reflink>]). All values of composite reliability were between.742 and.99, showing that measures in the study are reliable ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref68">34</reflink>]).</p> <p>Convergent validity, measured through Average Variance Extracted (AVE), was also evaluated. An AVE of.50 or higher confirms convergent validity ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref69">32</reflink>]). Based on Table 3, it is evident that all factors demonstrate good reliability values across the three indices, except for the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) of the inclusive decision-making factor, which is 0.41.</p> <p>Table 3. Composite Reliability and AVE.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left">Dimensions</th><th align="center">Alpha Cronbach's</th><th align="center">Composite Reliability</th><th align="center">AVE</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Personal life</td><td align="char" char=".">0.99</td><td align="char" char=".">0.992</td><td align="char" char=".">0.899</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Family sphere</td><td align="char" char=".">0.99</td><td align="char" char=".">0.987</td><td align="char" char=".">0.889</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Inclusive decision-making</td><td align="char" char=".">0.73</td><td align="char" char=".">0.742</td><td align="char" char=".">0.416</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Sociocultural skills</td><td align="char" char=".">0.99</td><td align="char" char=".">0.994</td><td align="char" char=".">0.867</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Societal engagement</td><td align="char" char=".">0.99</td><td align="char" char=".">0.988</td><td align="char" char=".">0.887</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Economic empowerment</td><td align="char" char=".">0.99</td><td align="char" char=".">0.995</td><td align="char" char=".">0.918</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>However, it is worth noting that this value is still considered acceptable, as [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref70">47</reflink>] note that AVE values below 0.50 may be acceptable if the Composite Reliability (CR) exceeds 0.60.</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-18">Discussion</hd> <p>This paper sets out to develop and validate an instrument that measures the "effectiveness" of "adult literacy programs" in Morocco in response to a longstanding concern that affects a significant segment of the country (i.e., "illiteracy"). It introduces the process of the development of a scale that was is called "EduValue," an innovative instrument designed to measure the impact of adult literacy programs, based on a theoretical construct of the perceived effects experienced by 152 graduates of the Moroccan "Literacy for Empowerment" program.</p> <p>The empirical methodology, including discussion in focus groups and a literature review, provided a sound basis for understanding the key dimensions of literacy impact. Using both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, we demonstrated how each factor contributes to overall literacy outcomes. The parallel analysis method has been found to give good results in determining the accurate number of factors.</p> <p>The final instrument measures 85 items on a 14-point scale, including unique questions that capture non-economic outcomes like health, religion and family matters. These items are organized into six factors: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref71">1</reflink>) Personal life, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref72">2</reflink>) Family sphere, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref73">3</reflink>) Inclusive decision-making, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref74">4</reflink>) Religion and Environmental Well-being, (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref75">5</reflink>) Societal Engagement, and (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref76">6</reflink>) Economic Empowerment.</p> <p>Our measurements indicate that the "Literacy for Empowerment" program has had a positive impact on participants' lives. The strong effect of the program across all dimensions identified by our analysis suggests that this type of training generates benefits in both personal and social spheres. This finding resonates with previous studies, particularly those exploring the effects of improvements in personal life, family cohesion, and community engagement ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref77">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref78">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref79">33</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref80">43</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref81">50</reflink>]).</p> <p>Social skills were identified as a key determinant of adult literacy outcomes, encompassing four sub-dimensions related to non-economic aspects, like health, hygiene and religion. This means that literacy goes beyond just reading and writing, and includes a deeper understanding of the world and a more responsible role in society ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref82">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref83">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref84">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref85">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref86">23</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref87">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>The impact on learners' economic situation, including enhancing their employability and entrepreneurship, was particularly significant. These findings coincide with [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref88">10</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref89">55</reflink>], and [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref90">68</reflink>] work, which emphasizes that participating in adult education can improve employability, job status, and income potential.</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-19">Conclusion</hd> <p>The primary objective of this study is evaluative, offering a holistic and culturally relevant view of adult literacy outcomes in Morocco. We present a scale that allows for collecting and quantifying qualitative first-hand information about graduates' perceptions of an adult training program. This instrument will facilitate descriptive and correlational research on the perception of impact and informs the creation and improvement of educational programs.</p> <p>Based on our findings, this research carries strategic implications for administrators and policymakers of adult literacy programs. First, the measurement scale developed, "EduValue," is suitable for adaptation or translation to other languages if the evaluated programs operate in similar conditions. Further insights can be gained by replicating and testing this model in various educational institutions and by different practitioners around the world. Second, regular monitoring of program graduates is recommended to inform future program design and development. Educational institutions and administrators should evaluate the success of adult education programs, including literacy programs, not merely by the number of completions but by their transformative impact on participants' lives. Third, our research introduces dimensions to categorize literacy programs' intended impacts, facilitating the development of comprehensive curricula and programs that effectively address the multiple aspects of literacy challenges.</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-20">Limitations</hd> <p>The research study is not beyond limitations that should be recognized and would open avenues for future research. One of the limitations of the study was a small sample size, which consisted of only 152 graduates from the "Literacy for Empowerment" program. While this sample was adequate for the initial validation of the scale, future research should aim to include a broader and more diverse range of participants to improve the generalizability of the results. The data in this study were collected at a single point in time from graduates of the "Literacy for Empowerment" program. Future research could use a longitudinal approach to better understand the program's effectiveness, collecting data at multiple points. This would help understand how graduates' perceptions of the program's effectiveness change as they continue to apply their skills and knowledge in different aspects of their lives. By doing so, researchers can compare empowerment and literacy skills changes over the entire educational experience and beyond.</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-21">Supplemental Material</hd> <p>Graph: Supplemental Material for A Valid and Reliable Scale Development for Assessing Adult Literacy Programs by Mohammed Amine Douai, Ayoub Saidi, and Ahlam Qafas in Adult Learning</p> <hd id="AN0192697305-22">ORCID iD</hd> <p>Mohammed Amine Douai https://orcid.org/0009-0008-7295-765X</p> <ref id="AN0192697305-23"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Addae D. (2021). 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Associations between motivation to learn, basic skills, and adult education and training participation among older adults in the USA. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 38(5), 538–552. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370.2019.1666927</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0192697305-24"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Supplemental material for this article is available online.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Mohammed Amine Douai; Ayoub Saidi and Ahlam Qafas</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Dr. Mohammed Amine Douai is Head of the Project Monitoring Department at the National Agency for the Fight Against Illiteracy in Morocco. He is a key member of the national team responsible for developing the 2023–2027 roadmap and the 2023–2035 national literacy strategy. He also served on the organizing committee of CONFINTEA VII in Morocco. His research focuses on adult education policies, impact evaluation, and the socio-economic outcomes of literacy programs.</p> <p>Dr. Ayoub Saidi is a researcher in educational sciences with a specialization in adult education and digital learning environments. His work focuses on literacy, educational technologies, and program evaluation. He has authored several articles on lifelong learning and educational equity.</p> <p>Dr. Ahlam Qafas, PhD in economics, is a research professor at the National School of Commerce and Management, at Ibn Tofail University, previously head of the Economics department. She was an HR manager in the Moroccan Human Rights Council. Dr Ahlam is a member of two think-tanks: the Arab Center for Research and Menassat. Her research interests focus on development economics, behavioral economics, and entrepreneurship. She is also a trainer of trainers on human rights. She has translated and proofread books from and into Arabic. She is preparing her second PhD in sociology on women and work in the informal economy.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref77"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref78"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref86"></nolink>
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  Data: A Valid and Reliable Scale Development for Assessing Adult Literacy Programs
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  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Mohammed+Amine+Douai%22">Mohammed Amine Douai</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0009-0008-7295-765X">0009-0008-7295-765X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ayoub+Saidi%22">Ayoub Saidi</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ahlam+Qafas%22">Ahlam Qafas</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Adult+Learning%22"><i>Adult Learning</i></searchLink>. 2026 37(2):113-128.
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  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
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– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
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  Data: 16
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  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Test+Construction%22">Test Construction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adult+Literacy%22">Adult Literacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Measures+%28Individuals%29%22">Measures (Individuals)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Evaluation+Methods%22">Evaluation Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cultural+Context%22">Cultural Context</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Welfare%22">Student Welfare</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Evaluation%22">Program Evaluation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Test+Validity%22">Test Validity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Test+Reliability%22">Test Reliability</searchLink>
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  Label: Geographic Terms
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Morocco%22">Morocco</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1177/10451595251357255
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  Label: ISSN
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  Data: 1045-1595<br />2162-4070
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study aims to develop and validate an instrument for measuring the effectiveness of adult literacy programs in Morocco, addressing a longstanding concern that affects a significant segment of the country. Framed within a theory supporting an all-inclusive concept of literacy, the study employed a systematic scale development process, incorporating literature review and focus group discussions to generate the required items. Based on exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, the developed instrument, which the authors named "EduValue," consists of 85 items, organized into six main dimensions: (1) Personal life, (2) family sphere, (3) inclusive decision-making, (4) spiritual and environmental well-being, (5) societal engagement, (6) economic empowerment. The survey was conducted among 152 graduates of the "Literacy for Empowerment" program. This article fills existing knowledge gaps in this field by offering empirical evidence supporting the development of educational policies and reforms to enhance the effectiveness of adult literacy initiatives within the Moroccan context and in the rest of the world.
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  Data: 2026
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        Value: 10.1177/10451595251357255
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      – Text: English
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        PageCount: 16
        StartPage: 113
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      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Test Construction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adult Literacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Measures (Individuals)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Evaluation Methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cultural Context
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Welfare
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Program Evaluation
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      – SubjectFull: Test Validity
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      – SubjectFull: Morocco
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      – TitleFull: A Valid and Reliable Scale Development for Assessing Adult Literacy Programs
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            NameFull: Mohammed Amine Douai
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            NameFull: Ayoub Saidi
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              Y: 2026
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            – TitleFull: Adult Learning
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