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Autistic Young Adults' Routine Travel Pre- and Post-License

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Title: Autistic Young Adults' Routine Travel Pre- and Post-License
Language: English
Authors: Emma B. Sartin (ORCID 0000-0002-0609-8235), Lauren O'Malley, Alexis Z. Tomlinson, Laura Bennett, Rachel K. Myers (ORCID 0000-0003-1998-8162), Kristina B. Metzger, Haley J. Bishop, Benjamin E. Yerys, Allison Curry
Source: Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice. 2026 30(5):1360-1367.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 8
Publication Date: 2026
Sponsoring Agency: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (DHHS/NIH)
Contract Number: R01HD096221
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Autism Spectrum Disorders, Adolescents, Young Adults, Longitudinal Studies, Transportation, Motor Vehicles, Certification, Behavior Patterns, Behavior Change
Geographic Terms: Pennsylvania (Philadelphia)
DOI: 10.1177/13623613251394558
ISSN: 1362-3613
1461-7005
Abstract: Compared with their non-licensed peers, licensed autistic adults appear to report more positive outcomes in objective measures of quality of life, particularly participation in activities outside of the home. We examined if this is due to individual differences/factors or the ability to independently drive. We conducted a prospective follow-up survey study of 16-21 years old in the United States and compared engagement in activities outside of the home over time by licensing status. Our final sample included 111 young adults; at follow-up, 62% did not have a permit or a license, 18% had obtained a permit, and 20% were licensed. Generally, travel patterns were consistent, except for reported increases in employment. The lack of overall differences across groups over time suggests individual differences in resources, barriers/facilitators to traveling, or general characteristics may underlie objective measures of quality of life rather than the obtainment of a license. Furthermore, regardless of licensure status, most respondents were not traveling everywhere they wanted to go, and nearly 80% were interested in a transportation modality they did not currently use. Thus, there is a continued need to support autistic adults' independent use of various transportation modalities.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1503232
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0193059415;f9d01may.26;2026Apr20.02:44;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0193059415-1">Autistic young adults' routine travel pre- and post-license </title> <p>Compared with their non-licensed peers, licensed autistic adults appear to report more positive outcomes in objective measures of quality of life, particularly participation in activities outside of the home. We examined if this is due to individual differences/factors or the ability to independently drive. We conducted a prospective follow-up survey study of 16–21 years old in the United States and compared engagement in activities outside of the home over time by licensing status. Our final sample included 111 young adults; at follow-up, 62% did not have a permit or a license, 18% had obtained a permit, and 20% were licensed. Generally, travel patterns were consistent, except for reported increases in employment. The lack of overall differences across groups over time suggests individual differences in resources, barriers/facilitators to traveling, or general characteristics may underlie objective measures of quality of life rather than the obtainment of a license. Furthermore, regardless of licensure status, most respondents were not traveling everywhere they wanted to go, and nearly 80% were interested in a transportation modality they did not currently use. Thus, there is a continued need to support autistic adults' independent use of various transportation modalities. Short Report: Obtaining a driver's license may not change autistic young adults' engagement in activities outside of the home Autistic adults who have a driver's license say they participate in activities outside of their home, like employment or socializing, more often than those who do not have a license. It is unclear if this is because these adults can drive or if people who obtain licenses are different in some way than those who do not obtain a license. To examine this, we administered multiple surveys to a group of autistic young adults (16–21 years old) to see if their travel patterns changed after obtaining a license. In total, 111 young adults completed our surveys. Generally, we did not see changes in adults' travel patterns, regardless of if they obtained a license or not. The only change was an increase in employment over time among young adults who never obtained a learner's permit/license and those who obtained a license. Overall, our findings suggest that individual differences may be why some adults are engaged in activities outside of the home more often than others. We also found that most adults in our sample were not traveling everywhere they wanted to go or using all the modes of transportation they were interested in. This suggests more efforts are needed that improve autistic adults' independent mobility across transportation modes (e.g., driving, public transportation).</p> <p>Keywords: autism spectrum disorder; driving; independent mobility; quality of life; transportation</p> <hd id="AN0193059415-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Objective measures of quality of life, including employment, education, and socialization, are related to perceived or subjective quality of life. In the United States, where personal vehicles are the primary and often only source of available transportation for individuals, driving is overlooked and under supported during the transition to adulthood for autistic individuals ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref1">21</reflink>]). Most autistic teens and young adults without an intellectual disability (hereafter, "young adults") are interested in pursuing driving ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref2">8</reflink>]), yet only one in three obtain a license ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>]). Those with a license appear to be generally safe drivers ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref4">2</reflink>]) but have unique training needs that may result in prolonged learner periods and a need for specialty instruction ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref5">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref6">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref7">12</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref8">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref9">21</reflink>]).</p> <p>Most research examining transportation among autistic young adults has been qualitative or cross-sectional in nature. While these qualitative and cross-sectional studies generally report improved quality-of-life perceptions among licensed autistic individuals when compared with those who do not have a license, it remains unclear if these perceptions are actually related to the obtainment of a license and the hypothesized increased opportunities a license provides for engagement in activities outside of the home or due to individual-level factors (e.g., depression, anxiety, autonomy) that may pre-exist licensure. In other words, when compared with individuals who do not become licensed, it is unclear if licensed individuals have higher quality-of-life perceptions and outcomes pre-licensing that are continuously higher post-license (i.e., are more likely to be employed or involved in educational activities that increase subjective quality-of-life perceptions regardless of licensure status), or if their quality of life improves after a license is obtained (i.e., they are able to acquire employment after the obtainment of a license). Thus, our goal is to present results from a longitudinal or follow-up survey in which transportation patterns were followed over time. Specifically, we aimed to characterize patterns in objective quality-of-life measures, specifically engagement with activities outside of the home like employment, social activities, enrollment in education, and accessing medical care, as well as individual satisfaction in engagement with activities outside of the home and transportation options pre- and post-license.</p> <hd id="AN0193059415-3">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0193059415-4">Participants and recruitment</hd> <p>We recruited young adults and a caregiver with access to at least a shared household vehicle in the United States to participate in a longitudinal survey study. Young adults were eligible if they: were 16–21 years old, had a community diagnosis of autism [i.e., caregiver confirmed (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref10">1</reflink>) young adult was diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder, including Autism, PDD-NOS, or Asperger's, or that they were diagnosed with Social Communication Disorder, and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref11">2</reflink>) the diagnosis was made by a neurologist, psychologist, psychiatrist, developmental pediatrician, or psychiatric nurse practitioner], did not have an intellectual disability (as reported by the caregiver), had not yet received a driver's license (learner's permit was allowed), received a score of 12 or higher on the Social Communication Questionnaire ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref12">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref13">23</reflink>]), and were fluent in English. Young adults were not eligible to participate if they had a medical condition that would prevent them from becoming a driver (e.g., vision problems, uncontrolled seizures). We recruited participants via the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP) Recruitment Enhancement Core (REC), social media, flyers, by partnering with community organizations such as vocational rehab, driving schools, schools, and colleges, and via word of mouth. Enrollment began in November 2020 and ended in August 2023. Surveys were administered until January 2024. Participants were paid for each survey they completed, with up to $130 possible in compensation.</p> <hd id="AN0193059415-5">Procedure</hd> <p>Study procedures were approved by the CHOP Institutional Review Board. All surveys were administered via REDCap ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref14">7</reflink>]). After baseline, surveys were programmed to be both event- and time-based. Event-based surveys were completed if the young adult obtained a permit and/or a license. Text check-ins sent to participants every 4 weeks post-baseline survey monitored the occurrence of events. If participants did not qualify to complete an event-based survey, they completed check-in surveys every 12 months. Licensed participants completed a survey 3 months post-license. Participants were enrolled in the study for up to 24 months. The exact questions as they were presented to participants are provided in Supplementary Materials Table 1, along with details about how we collapsed certain answer options for analyses.</p> <hd id="AN0193059415-6">Analytic approach</hd> <p>We analyzed questions answered by young adults related to their sociodemographics (collected at baseline) and transportation patterns (collected at baseline and most recent follow-up); caregivers answered about their household income. We excluded young adults who did not have at least 12 months between their baseline and most recent follow-up (analytic sample = 111). This ensured enough time had passed between survey responses to allow for potential travel pattern changes. Respondents were placed into the licensing categories "No Permit," "Permit," and "Licensed" based on their licensing status at the time of follow-up. Descriptive statistics are reported as counts (percentages) for categorical variables or median (interquartile range [IQR]) for continuous variables. Differences in categorical variables by license status were assessed using Fisher's exact test or Pearson's chi-square test, and Cramer's <emph>V</emph> was calculated to determine effect size. Differences in continuous variables by license status were assessed using the Kruskal–Wallis tests. McNemar's tests for dichotomous variables were used to compare longitudinal travel routines within licensing categories, with paired odds ratios (OR) calculated to determine effect size. Statistical analyses were performed in R version 4.4.0 ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref15">17</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0193059415-7">Community involvement</hd> <p>This work was directly informed by interviews with autistic young adults, their caregivers, and stakeholders who work with autistic young adults during the transition to adulthood ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref16">12</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref17">13</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref18">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref19">20</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref20">21</reflink>]). We worked with autism advocates and family members to pilot/edit all survey questions and recruitment materials.</p> <hd id="AN0193059415-8">Results</hd> <p>Supplementary Figure 1 depicts the flow of participants into the final study sample. This sample included 111 young adults. Almost 2 out of 3 (<emph>n</emph> = 69, 62%) did not obtain a permit or a license. Self-reported characteristics (reported at baseline) by license status (reported at follow-up) are in Supplementary Table 2. All licensed individuals had access to at least two vehicles, with a median of 3 (range of 2 to 5). Supplementary Table 3 depicts permit and license test attempts by licensing status.</p> <p>Table 1 presents locations participants report routinely visiting at both survey time points by licensing categories. At baseline, more individuals in the licensed (32%) or permitted (25%) groups reported traveling to work as part of their routine when compared with those in the no permit group (10%, Fisher's exact <emph>p</emph> =.03, <emph>V</emph> = 0.24). Conversely, more participants in the no permit group routinely traveled to medical and healthcare appointments (59%) than those in the licensed (27%) or permitted (40%, χ<sups>2</sups> = 7.8, <emph>p</emph> =.02, <emph>V</emph> = 0.27) groups. More young adults in the no permit group also reported traveling to other activities/locations than the permitted or licensed groups (67% vs. 40% and 45%, respectively, χ<sups>2</sups> = 6.2, <emph>p</emph> =.05, <emph>V</emph> = 0.24).</p> <p>Table 1. Places young adults routinely visit overtime by licensing category.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" colspan="16">Across-group differences at baseline and follow-up</th></tr><tr><th /><th align="left" colspan="8">Baseline</th><th align="left" colspan="7">Follow-up</th></tr><tr><th align="left">Activity</th><th align="left" colspan="2">No permit/license<italic>N</italic> = 69</th><th align="left">Permit only<italic>N</italic> = 20</th><th align="left">License<italic>N</italic> = 22</th><th align="left">Statistic</th><th align="left" colspan="2">Effect size</th><th align="left"><italic>p</italic>-value</th><th align="left">No permit/license<italic>N</italic> = 69</th><th align="left">Permit only<italic>N</italic> = 20</th><th align="left" colspan="2">License<italic>N</italic> = 22</th><th align="left">Statistic</th><th align="left">Effect size</th><th align="left"><italic>p</italic>-value</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Work</td><td colspan="2">7 (10%)</td><td>5 (25%)</td><td>7 (32%)</td><td>-</td><td colspan="2">0.24</td><td>.033<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td><td>19 (28%)</td><td>9 (45%)</td><td colspan="2">17 (77%)</td><td>17.32</td><td>0.40</td><td><.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td>School/job training</td><td colspan="2">50 (72%)</td><td>11 (55%)</td><td>12 (55%)</td><td>3.63</td><td colspan="2">0.18</td><td>.162</td><td>48 (70%)</td><td>12 (60%)</td><td colspan="2">12 (55%)</td><td>1.90</td><td>0.13</td><td>.386</td></tr><tr><td>Socializing</td><td colspan="2">45 (65%)</td><td>13 (65%)</td><td>9 (41%)</td><td>4.34</td><td colspan="2">0.19</td><td>.114</td><td>46 (67%)</td><td>7 (35%)</td><td colspan="2">12 (55%)</td><td>6.59</td><td>0.24</td><td>.037<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td>Medical/healthcare</td><td colspan="2">41 (59%)</td><td>8 (40%)</td><td>6 (27%)</td><td>7.79</td><td colspan="2">0.27</td><td>.020<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td><td>37 (54%)</td><td>6 (30%)</td><td colspan="2">8 (36%)</td><td>4.50</td><td>0.20</td><td>.105</td></tr><tr><td>I do not travel</td><td colspan="2">6 (9%)</td><td>3 (15%)</td><td>2 (9%)</td><td>-</td><td colspan="2">0.08</td><td>.600</td><td>3 (4%)</td><td>0 (0%)</td><td colspan="2">0 (0%)</td><td>-</td><td>0.13</td><td>>.999</td></tr><tr><td>Other<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td><td colspan="2">46 (67%)</td><td>8 (40%)</td><td>10 (45%)</td><td>6.19</td><td colspan="2">0.24</td><td>.045<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td><td>41 (59%)</td><td>7 (35%)</td><td colspan="2">13 (59%)</td><td>3.93</td><td>0.19</td><td>.141</td></tr><tr><th align="left" colspan="16">Within-group differences at baseline and follow-up</th></tr><tr><th /><th align="left" colspan="5">No permit/license (<italic>N</italic> = 69)</th><th align="left" colspan="5">Permit only (<italic>N</italic> = 20)</th><th align="left" colspan="5">License (<italic>N</italic> = 22)</th></tr><tr><th /><th align="left">Baseline</th><th align="left">Follow-up</th><th align="left">Statistic</th><th align="left">OR</th><th align="left"><italic>p</italic>-value</th><th align="left">Baseline</th><th align="left">Follow-up</th><th align="left">Statistic</th><th align="left">OR</th><th align="left"><italic>p</italic>-value</th><th align="left">Baseline</th><th align="left">Follow-up</th><th align="left">Statistic</th><th align="left">OR</th><th align="left"><italic>p</italic>-value</th></tr><tr><td>Work</td><td>7 (10%)</td><td>19 (28%)</td><td>6.72</td><td>5.00</td><td>.010<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td><td>5 (25%)</td><td>9 (45%)</td><td>0.90</td><td>2.33</td><td>.343</td><td>7 (32%)</td><td>17 (77%)</td><td>6.75</td><td>11.00</td><td>.009<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td>School/job training</td><td>50 (72%)</td><td>48 (70%)</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.71</td><td>.773</td><td>11 (55%)</td><td>12 (60%)</td><td>0.00</td><td>1.33</td><td>>.999</td><td>12 (55%)</td><td>12 (55%)</td><td>0.00</td><td>1.0</td><td>>.999</td></tr><tr><td>Socializing</td><td>45 (65%)</td><td>46 (67%)</td><td>0.00</td><td>1.09</td><td>>.999</td><td>13 (65%)</td><td>7 (35%)</td><td>2.08</td><td>0.33</td><td>.149</td><td>9 (41%)</td><td>12 (55%)</td><td>0.57</td><td>2.50</td><td>.450</td></tr><tr><td>Medical/healthcare</td><td>41 (59%)</td><td>37 (54%)</td><td>0.50</td><td>0.64</td><td>.480</td><td>8 (40%)</td><td>6 (30%)</td><td>0.10</td><td>0.67</td><td>.752</td><td>6 (27%)</td><td>8 (36%)</td><td>0.17</td><td>2.00</td><td>.683</td></tr><tr><td>I do not travel</td><td>6 (9%)</td><td>3 (4%)</td><td>0.57</td><td>0.40</td><td>.450</td><td>3 (15%)</td><td>0 (0%)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>2 (9%)</td><td>0 (0%)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Other</td><td>46 (67%)</td><td>41 (59%)</td><td>0.94</td><td>0.55</td><td>.332</td><td>8 (40%)</td><td>7 (35%)</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.80</td><td>>.999</td><td>10 (45%)</td><td>13 (59%)</td><td>0.31</td><td>1.60</td><td>.579</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note.</emph> *Job training indicates a vocational training program. "Other" represents the following locations: religious services, shopping/daily errands, support or group therapy services, and a category labeled Other. Ns and %s listed within groups depict the number of individuals in that category (e.g., no permit/license) that endorsed that "Select all that apply" prompt.</p> <p>At the most recent follow-up survey, more individuals in the licensed group (77%) reported routine travel to work than those in the permitted (45%) or no permit groups (28%, χ<sups>2</sups> = 17.32, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>V</emph> = 0.40). There were also differences at follow-up in travel to socializing activities, with fewer individuals in the permitted group reporting they traveled to socialize (35% vs. 67% no permit and 55% licensed, χ<sups>2</sups> = 6.6, <emph>p</emph> =.04, <emph>V</emph> = 0.24).</p> <p>From baseline to follow-up, we generally observed no changes in reported travel (see Supplementary Table 4 for concordance tables depicting individual-level patterns), with one exception. There was an increase in the number of young adults within the no permit and licensed groups who reported traveling to work (10%–28%, χ<sups>2</sups> = 6.7, OR = 5.00, <emph>p</emph> =.01; and 32%–77%, χ<sups>2</sups> = 6.8, OR = 11.0, <emph>p</emph> =.009). There was also an increase in employment among the permitted group; however, it was nonsignificant (χ<sups>2</sups> = 0.9, OR = 2.3, <emph>p</emph> =.3). Among the licensed group, travel to work was not associated with whether the teen was the primary driver of a vehicle (i.e., did not share vehicle with others in the household) (OR = 2.6, <emph>p</emph> =.6).</p> <p>Table 2 provides responses to the prompts "Where do you want to travel on your own, that you don't go now" and "What types of transportation do you want to use that you don't use now" presented to participants at follow-up. In response to the prompt concerning <emph>where</emph>, nearly half (48%) reported wanting to travel to "Socializing" activities. Approximately 37% of young adults independently traveled to all the places/activities they wanted to go. We found no differences across licensing groups.</p> <p>Table 2. Places and types of transportation wanted in the future (n = 111, reported at follow-up).</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left">Prompt, location/activity</th><th align="left" colspan="7"><italic>N</italic> (%)</th></tr><tr><th align="left">Where do you WANT to travel to on your own, that you don't go now?</th><th align="left">Total</th><th align="left">No permit/license (<italic>n</italic> = 69)</th><th align="left">Permit only (<italic>n</italic> = 20)</th><th align="left">License (<italic>n</italic> = 22)</th><th align="left">χ<sup>2</sup></th><th align="left"><italic>V</italic></th><th align="left"><italic>p</italic>-value</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Work/employment</td><td>33 (30%)</td><td>20 (29%)</td><td>5 (25%)</td><td>8 (36%)</td><td>0.70</td><td>0.08</td><td>.71</td></tr><tr><td>Education, vocational, or job training</td><td>18 (16%)</td><td>11 (16%)</td><td>4 (20%)</td><td>3 (14%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.05</td><td>.87</td></tr><tr><td>Medical and healthcare appointments</td><td>12 (11%)</td><td>8 (12%)</td><td>2 (10%)</td><td>2 (9%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.03</td><td>>.99</td></tr><tr><td>Socializing</td><td>53 (48%)</td><td>33 (48%)</td><td>12 (60%)</td><td>8 (36%)</td><td>2.35</td><td>0.15</td><td>.31</td></tr><tr><td>Other</td><td>38 (34%)</td><td>24 (35%)</td><td>8 (40%)</td><td>6 (27%)</td><td>0.78</td><td>0.08</td><td>.68</td></tr><tr><td>I go all the places I want to</td><td>41 (37%)</td><td>26 (38%)</td><td>6 (30%)</td><td>9 (41%)</td><td>0.58</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.75</td></tr><tr><th align="left">What types of transportation do you want to use that you don't use now?</th><th align="left">Total</th><th align="left">No permit/license (<italic>n</italic> = 69)</th><th align="left">Permit only (<italic>n</italic> = 20)</th><th align="left">License (<italic>n</italic> = 22)</th><th align="left">χ<sup>2</sup></th><th align="left"><italic>V</italic></th><th align="left"><italic>p</italic>-value</th></tr><tr><td>Driving myself</td><td>52 (47%)</td><td>29 (42%)</td><td>14 (70%)</td><td>9 (41%)</td><td>5.26</td><td>0.22</td><td>.07</td></tr><tr><td>Walking</td><td>9 (8%)</td><td>8 (12%)</td><td>1 (5%)</td><td>0</td><td>–</td><td>0.17</td><td>.22</td></tr><tr><td>Biking</td><td>20 (18%)</td><td>10 (14%)</td><td>5 (25%)</td><td>1 (5%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.18</td><td>.16</td></tr><tr><td>Riding school bus</td><td>3 (3%)</td><td>3 (4%)</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>–</td><td>0.13</td><td>>.99</td></tr><tr><td>Riding as a passenger with a peer</td><td>16 (14%)</td><td>13 (19%)</td><td>1 (5%)</td><td>2 (9%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.17</td><td>.25</td></tr><tr><td>Riding with caregivers/other adults</td><td>11 (10%)</td><td>8 (12%)</td><td>1 (5%)</td><td>2 (9%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.08</td><td>.90</td></tr><tr><td>Ride share (taxis, Uber, etc.)</td><td>19 (17%)</td><td>17 (25%)</td><td>0 (0%)</td><td>2 (9%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.27</td><td>.01</td></tr><tr><td>Paratransit</td><td>7 (6%)</td><td>6 (9%)</td><td>0 (0%)</td><td>1 (5%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.14</td><td>.63</td></tr><tr><td>Logisticare (non-emergency medical transportation)</td><td>1 (1%)</td><td>1 (1%)</td><td>0 (0%)</td><td>0 (0%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.07</td><td>>.99</td></tr><tr><td>Public transportation bus</td><td>27 (24%)</td><td>23 (33%)</td><td>2 (10%)</td><td>2 (9%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.27</td><td>.02</td></tr><tr><td>Public transportation train</td><td>25 (23%)</td><td>17 (25%)</td><td>3 (15%)</td><td>5 (23%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.09</td><td>.76</td></tr><tr><td>Public transportation light rail/subway</td><td>20 (18%)</td><td>14 (20%)</td><td>3 (15%)</td><td>3 (14%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.07</td><td>.83</td></tr><tr><td>Other</td><td>2 (2%)</td><td>2 (3%)</td><td>0 (0%)</td><td>0 (0%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.11</td><td>>.99</td></tr><tr><td>I use all the types of transportation that I want to</td><td>25 (23%)</td><td>13 (19%)</td><td>3 (15%)</td><td>9 (41%)</td><td>–</td><td>0.22</td><td>.08</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 <emph>Note.</emph> Total <emph>N</emph>s and %s represent total sample (<emph>n</emph> = 111). <emph>N</emph>s and %s listed within groups depict the number of individuals in that category (e.g., no permit/license) that endorsed that "Select all that apply" prompt (e.g., 20 individuals or 29% of the 69 individuals without a permit or license endorsed wanting to travel to work/employment).</p> <p>In response to <emph>types of transport</emph>, only about 1 in 5 (23%) respondents used all the types of transport they wanted to. Slightly less than half (41%) of people in the licensed group used all the types of transportation they wanted to, whereas fewer than one-fifth of the respondents in the no permit/license (19%) or permitted group (15%, <emph>p</emph> =.08) used all the types of transportation they wanted to. More young adults in the no license/permit group were interested in using rideshare and public transportation buses than those in the permitted or licensed groups (rideshare: 25% vs. 0% and 9%, <emph>p</emph> =.01 and public transportation: 33% vs. 10% and 9%, <emph>p</emph> =.02, respectively). About two in five people in the no license/permit (42%) and licensed groups (41%) and most people in the permitted group (70%) reported wanting to "Drive Myself" (<emph>p</emph> =.07).</p> <hd id="AN0193059415-9">Discussion</hd> <p>To our knowledge, this is the first longitudinal examination of whether licensure status impacts autistic young adults' travel patterns. Overall, we did not find substantial differences in travel to activities outside of the home by licensure status.</p> <p>Among licensed young adults, more individuals were employed at follow-up (77%) compared with individuals in the permitted (45%) and no license/permit groups (28%). This is aligned with recent research finding relationships between independent driving and employment ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref21">16</reflink>]). While our observed increase in employment across groups may be indicative of young adults achieving developmental milestones characteristic of early adulthood, the larger proportion of employed individuals employed within the licensed group at baseline and follow-up may also be attributed to differences in personalities/interests, barriers/facilitators to traveling to activities/locations, or individual-level differences in skills needed to maintain employment (e.g., executive functioning, sensory processing). Such individual-level characteristics and resources may inform motivation, skills, and the need to pursue licensure. For instance, individuals who ultimately pursue licensure may have limited options for or access to other forms of transportation (e.g., obtaining rides, public transportation), while those who are suitable candidates for licensure but do not pursue it may have acceptable alternative modalities available to them. Notably, we did not quantify the type of employment individuals obtained (e.g., part-time, full-time, internship), which may vary between licensure groups. In addition, most autistic individuals who obtain a permit eventually obtain a license ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref22">3</reflink>]); therefore, more analyses among permitted young adults are warranted to determine if they report similar increases in employment post-licensure.</p> <p>Alternatively, our lack of differences in travel patterns among the licensed group may be related to restrictions/limitations in their independent driving post-license, as evidenced by the relatively large number who reported having interest in "Driving Myself" as a future transportation option, despite having obtained their license and reporting they drive independently. Results of prior studies report, for many reasons, the motivation for autistic individuals to pursue a license may be different or lower than their peers ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref23">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref24">13</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref25">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref26">20</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref27">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref28">22</reflink>]). Furthermore, even once licensed, autistic drivers may drive fewer trips, place voluntary restrictions on their driving, and limit their driving to familiar or low-risk routes ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref29">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref30">13</reflink>]), suggesting that individual need and motivation may play an outsized role in the decision to not just obtain a license but to engage in independent transportation. Researchers should more closely examine vehicle access, follow driver training experiences, and examine post-licensure travel patterns more long-term in this population to identify ways to further promote autonomy with drivers' comfort and safety in mind.</p> <p>Regardless of licensure status, most autistic young adults reported not traveling everywhere they wanted to go; nearly 80% appear to be interested in a transportation modality they did not currently use. This suggests more can be done to connect autistic young adults with transportation options. Respondents in the permitted and licensed groups were mostly interested in driving. Conversely, the no permit group had more dispersed transportation goals, with many wanting to use public transportation and rideshare. While use of public transit supports more independence and better quality-of-life outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref31">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref32">10</reflink>]), autistic young adults face unique use/access-related barriers and challenges ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref33">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref34">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref35">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref36">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref37">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref38">16</reflink>]). Individualized trainings are effective ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref39">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref40">18</reflink>]); however, due to the need for individualization of both the content (e.g., routes, type of transit, local process/system) and approach, scaling these interventions remains difficult. To our knowledge, no one has identified autistic young adults' barriers or facilitators to using rideshare.</p> <p>This study's limitations include the use of a small, generally homogeneous convenience sample that does not include individuals with intellectual disability. We did not ask participants to indicate their actual frequency of travel to specific locations or control for additional permit/license test attempts during the study period. This could obscure more nuanced differences in travel and driving intentions. This could obscure more nuanced differences in travel. We are limited in the conclusions we can draw from our findings due to our final sample size and the relatively low number of individuals who became licensed during the study period, although our licensing rate is similar to those reported in prior studies ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref41">3</reflink>]). In addition, we observed objective measures of quality of life (e.g., employment) as opposed to subjective measures (e.g., purpose), which might be perceived/valued differently across individuals. Strengths of this study include its longitudinal nature, community involvement, and the lived experience provided by young adults. Taken together, our findings highlight a continued need to foster autistic adults' engagement with activities outside the home by supporting their interests in independent travel and use of different transportation modalities. Specifically, work is needed to (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref42">1</reflink>) create and disseminate tailored trainings, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref43">2</reflink>) remove existing barriers, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref44">3</reflink>) create or adapt new infrastructure that enables autistic adults to utilize various transportation modalities, driving or otherwise.</p> <hd id="AN0193059415-10">Supplemental Material</hd> <p>Graph: Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-aut-10.1177_13623613251394558 for Autistic young adults' routine travel pre- and post-license by Emma B Sartin, Lauren O'Malley, Alexis Z Tomlinson, Laura Bennett, Rachel K Myers, Kristina B Metzger, Haley J Bishop, Benjamin E Yerys and Allison Curry in Autism</p> <p>The authors would like to thank Drs. Meghan Carey and Catherine McDonald, as well as Christina Labows, Leah Lombardi, Ashley Downs, Morgan McDonald, and Elizabeth Gay for their contributions during the development and implementation of this project.</p> <ref id="AN0193059415-11"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref5" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Bishop H., Boe L., Stavrinos D., Mirman J. (2018). Driving among adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Safety, 4(3), Article 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/safety4030040</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref4" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Curry A. E., Metzger K. B., Carey M. E., Sartin E. B., Huang P., Yerys B. E. (2021). Comparison of motor vehicle crashes, traffic violations, and license suspensions between autistic and non-autistic adolescent and young adult drivers. 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Psychometric analysis of the Social Communication Questionnaire using an item-response theory framework: Implications for the use of the lifetime and current forms. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 37(3), 469–480.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0193059415-12"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> Emma B Sartin</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0609-8235 Rachel K Myers</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1998-8162</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> All study procedures were reviewed and approved by the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia Institutional Review Board (IRB # 20-017603).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Participants provided written consent/assent to participate in this study.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Emma B Sartin: Conceptualization; Formal analysis; Investigation; Methodology; Project administration; Supervision; Visualization; Writing—original draft; Writing—review & editing.Lauren O'Malley: Investigation; Project administration; Supervision; Writing—original draft; Writing—review & editing.Alexis Z Tomlinson: Data curation; Formal analysis; Software; Validation; Writing—original draft; Writing—review & editing.Laura Bennett: Data curation; Formal analysis; Software; Validation; Writing—original draft; Writing—review & editing.Rachel K Myers: Conceptualization; Writing—review & editing.Kristina B Metzger: Data curation; Formal analysis; Software; Validation; Writing—original draft; Writing—review & editing.Haley J Bishop: Conceptualization; Writing—review & editing.Benjamin E Yerys: Conceptualization; Writing—review & editing.Allison Curry: Conceptualization; Funding acquisition; Methodology; Supervision; Writing—review & editing.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was funded by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD096221, PI: A.C.).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> De-identified data for this study and all analyses/code may be made available upon request to the senior author.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Supplemental material for this article is available online.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Emma B Sartin; Lauren O'Malley; Alexis Z Tomlinson; Laura Bennett; Rachel K Myers; Kristina B Metzger; Haley J Bishop; Benjamin E Yerys and Allison Curry</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref40"></nolink>
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  Data: Autistic Young Adults' Routine Travel Pre- and Post-License
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  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Emma+B%2E+Sartin%22">Emma B. Sartin</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0609-8235">0000-0002-0609-8235</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lauren+O'Malley%22">Lauren O'Malley</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Alexis+Z%2E+Tomlinson%22">Alexis Z. Tomlinson</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Laura+Bennett%22">Laura Bennett</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rachel+K%2E+Myers%22">Rachel K. Myers</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1998-8162">0000-0003-1998-8162</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kristina+B%2E+Metzger%22">Kristina B. Metzger</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Haley+J%2E+Bishop%22">Haley J. Bishop</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Benjamin+E%2E+Yerys%22">Benjamin E. Yerys</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Allison+Curry%22">Allison Curry</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Autism%3A+The+International+Journal+of+Research+and+Practice%22"><i>Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice</i></searchLink>. 2026 30(5):1360-1367.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 8
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: SourceSuprt
  Label: Sponsoring Agency
  Group: SrcSuprt
  Data: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (DHHS/NIH)
– Name: NumberContract
  Label: Contract Number
  Group: NumCntrct
  Data: R01HD096221
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Autism+Spectrum+Disorders%22">Autism Spectrum Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Young+Adults%22">Young Adults</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Longitudinal+Studies%22">Longitudinal Studies</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Transportation%22">Transportation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Motor+Vehicles%22">Motor Vehicles</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Certification%22">Certification</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Behavior+Patterns%22">Behavior Patterns</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Behavior+Change%22">Behavior Change</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pennsylvania+%28Philadelphia%29%22">Pennsylvania (Philadelphia)</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1177/13623613251394558
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1362-3613<br />1461-7005
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Compared with their non-licensed peers, licensed autistic adults appear to report more positive outcomes in objective measures of quality of life, particularly participation in activities outside of the home. We examined if this is due to individual differences/factors or the ability to independently drive. We conducted a prospective follow-up survey study of 16-21 years old in the United States and compared engagement in activities outside of the home over time by licensing status. Our final sample included 111 young adults; at follow-up, 62% did not have a permit or a license, 18% had obtained a permit, and 20% were licensed. Generally, travel patterns were consistent, except for reported increases in employment. The lack of overall differences across groups over time suggests individual differences in resources, barriers/facilitators to traveling, or general characteristics may underlie objective measures of quality of life rather than the obtainment of a license. Furthermore, regardless of licensure status, most respondents were not traveling everywhere they wanted to go, and nearly 80% were interested in a transportation modality they did not currently use. Thus, there is a continued need to support autistic adults' independent use of various transportation modalities.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1503232
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1503232
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1177/13623613251394558
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 8
        StartPage: 1360
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Autism Spectrum Disorders
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Young Adults
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Longitudinal Studies
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Transportation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Motor Vehicles
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Certification
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Behavior Patterns
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Behavior Change
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pennsylvania (Philadelphia)
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Autistic Young Adults' Routine Travel Pre- and Post-License
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Emma B. Sartin
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            NameFull: Lauren O'Malley
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            NameFull: Alexis Z. Tomlinson
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            NameFull: Laura Bennett
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            NameFull: Rachel K. Myers
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            NameFull: Kristina B. Metzger
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            NameFull: Haley J. Bishop
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            NameFull: Benjamin E. Yerys
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            NameFull: Allison Curry
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 05
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1362-3613
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1461-7005
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 30
            – Type: issue
              Value: 5
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            – TitleFull: Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice
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