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Child Temperament and Sleep Problems: The Moderating Role of Bedtime Routines

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Title: Child Temperament and Sleep Problems: The Moderating Role of Bedtime Routines
Language: English
Authors: Ibrahim H. Acar (ORCID 0000-0003-4007-5691), Özge Barata (ORCID 0000-0002-5329-3105)
Source: Child & Youth Care Forum. 2026 55(1):205-226.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 22
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Children, Personality Traits, Sleep, Family Environment, Self Management, Child Behavior, Persistence, Psychological Patterns, Behavior Patterns, Repetition
DOI: 10.1007/s10566-025-09870-8
ISSN: 1053-1890
1573-3319
Abstract: Background: Children's temperamental traits, such as rhythmicity, reactivity, and persistence, as well as bedtime routines, play a crucial role in influencing their sleep behaviors. Objective: The present study examined the contributions of the children's temperament (rhythmicity, reactivity, and persistence) and bedtime routines to children's sleep problems, with a further interest in examining the moderating role of bedtime routines between child temperament and sleep problems. Method: The sample consisted of 313 mothers of children aged between 16 and 84 months (M = 52.42, SD = 12.36). The mothers provided reports on their children's sleep problems, bedtime routines, and temperament. Results: Hierarchical regression analyses were run to test hypotheses. Results indicated that children's temperamental rhythmicity and reactivity were closely linked to sleep problems, with bedtime routines, especially a consistent bedtime environment, helping to reduce these issues. Consistent bedtime practices moderated the effect of low rhythmicity, as children with lower rhythmicity experienced fewer sleep problems when routines were stable. Conclusions: Regular bedtime routines may serve as a protective factor, mitigating the effects of challenging temperamental traits on sleep.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1505863
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0191453680;5jr01feb.26;2026Feb11.04:54;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0191453680-1">Child Temperament and Sleep Problems: The Moderating Role of Bedtime Routines </title> <p>Background: Children's temperamental traits, such as rhythmicity, reactivity, and persistence, as well as bedtime routines, play a crucial role in influencing their sleep behaviors. Objective: The present study examined the contributions of the children's temperament (rhythmicity, reactivity, and persistence) and bedtime routines to children's sleep problems, with a further interest in examining the moderating role of bedtime routines between child temperament and sleep problems. Method: The sample consisted of 313 mothers of children aged between 16 and 84 months (M = 52.42, SD = 12.36). The mothers provided reports on their children's sleep problems, bedtime routines, and temperament. Results: Hierarchical regression analyses were run to test hypotheses. Results indicated that children's temperamental rhythmicity and reactivity were closely linked to sleep problems, with bedtime routines, especially a consistent bedtime environment, helping to reduce these issues. Consistent bedtime practices moderated the effect of low rhythmicity, as children with lower rhythmicity experienced fewer sleep problems when routines were stable. Conclusions: Regular bedtime routines may serve as a protective factor, mitigating the effects of challenging temperamental traits on sleep.</p> <p>Keywords: Sleep problems; Temperament; Bedtime routines; Covid-19 pandemic</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-2">Introduction</hd> <p>In early childhood, a child spends more time sleeping than any particular daily activity like social interaction, exploring, learning, or eating, which fuels the scientific community's curiosity to understand the importance of sleep for children's health and development (Dahl, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref1">22</reflink>]; Matricciani et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref2">47</reflink>]). Both the quality and quantity of sleep are directly associated with children's physical, social, and cognitive development, as sleep facilitates the restoration of biological resources depleted during wakefulness and the consolidation of new information encountered throughout the day (Bates et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref3">12</reflink>]; Brinkman et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref4">17</reflink>]; Dewald et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref5">26</reflink>]; Hoyniak et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref6">40</reflink>]; National Sleep Foundation, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref7">56</reflink>]; Paavonen et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref8">60</reflink>]; Wolfson & Carskadon, [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref9">87</reflink>]). Consistent sleep onsets (transition into sleep), consistent sleep durations (total amount of sleep), greater sleep quality (well-rested sleep), and lack of daytime sleepiness are associated with attention-sustaining abilities (Hoyniak et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref10">41</reflink>]), achievement motivation, and control of aggression in school (Meijer et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref11">48</reflink>]; Palmer et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref12">61</reflink>]). Additionally, while longer sleep duration improved the children's neurobehavioral functioning, including attention, response time, and memory (Alfano et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref13">3</reflink>]; Sadeh et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref14">69</reflink>]), shorter sleep duration increased inattentiveness, impaired response inhibition, reduced sustained attention (Falone et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref15">29</reflink>]), and undermined academic functioning (Falone et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref16">30</reflink>]). Moreover, children's healthy sleep behaviors support their self-regulation regarding goal-directed behavior, executive functioning, and decision-making (Breitenstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref17">16</reflink>]). On the other hand, sleep problems such as bedtime resistance (avoid going to bed on time) or night wakings restrain the development of self-regulation in children (Turnbull et al., [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref18">81</reflink>]). In addition, sleep problems are associated with several health problems such as high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, or immune system problems (Dutil & Chaput, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref19">28</reflink>]; Kim et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref20">42</reflink>]; Sparano et al., [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref21">77</reflink>]) and associated with depressive symptoms, risk-taking behaviors and anxiety symptoms in preschool children (Dahl & Harvey, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref22">23</reflink>]; Foley & Weinraub, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref23">33</reflink>]; Hochadel et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref24">39</reflink>]; Maasalo et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref25">46</reflink>]).</p> <p>Children's sleep problems can be understood as a complex interplay between individual characteristics, such as temperament, and environmental factors, including bedtime routines. Children with difficult temperaments—marked by high levels of reactivity and difficulty in self-regulation—are often more susceptible to sleep disturbances (Foley & Weinraub, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref26">33</reflink>]; Goodnight et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref27">35</reflink>]). These children may struggle with falling asleep, maintaining sleep, and waking up at appropriate times, leading to overall poorer sleep quality. In contrast, children with more adaptable temperaments, such as high regulation, may find it easier to transition to sleep and adhere to regular sleep schedules (Vassalo & Sanson, [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref28">83</reflink>]).</p> <p>Environmental factors also play a critical role in shaping children's sleep behaviors. Bedtime routines, encompassing the activities and practices that precede sleep, can significantly impact sleep quality and duration (Henderson & Jordan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref29">38</reflink>]). A consistent, calming bedtime routine can help signal to children that it is time to wind down, making it easier for them to transition into sleep. In contrast, inconsistent or chaotic bedtime practices can exacerbate sleep issues, particularly for children with challenging temperaments.</p> <p>Moreover, environmental influences such as changes in family dynamics, disruptions in daily routines, and external stressors that occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic can further complicate sleep patterns (Dellagiulia et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref30">25</reflink>]). When children experience increased stress or anxiety in their environment, it can negatively affect their ability to fall asleep and stay asleep, especially if bedtime routines are disrupted (Altena et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref31">5</reflink>]; Liu et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref32">44</reflink>]; Zreik et al., [<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref33">91</reflink>]). During the COVID-19 pandemic, children's sleep routines have become inconsistent (Bates et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref34">13</reflink>]), their sleep durations have decreased (Dellagiulia et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref35">25</reflink>]), and their general sleep qualities have also decreased (Dellagiulia et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref36">25</reflink>]). The notion behind it could be explained by the legislative regulations that changed the daily routines and interactions, such as diminished physical activity and outdoor time, increased screen time and blue light exposure, and lack of social interaction, which all have negative contributions to sleep behaviors (Altena et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref37">5</reflink>]; Bates et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref38">13</reflink>]; Becker & Gregory, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref39">15</reflink>]; Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref40">85</reflink>]).</p> <p>In summary, children's sleep problems are influenced by individual factors, such as temperament and environmental factors, including the consistency and nature of bedtime routines. Therefore, the present study aims to examine the contributions of child temperament and bedtime routines to sleep problems in children. Specifically, we seek to investigate the moderating role of bedtime routines in the relationship between children's temperament and sleep problems. A comprehensive approach that addresses both individual and environmental factors is essential for effectively managing and enhancing children's sleep health.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-3">Child Temperament and Sleep Problems</hd> <p>Temperament as an individual factor influences the appearance of children's sleep behaviors (Breitenstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref41">16</reflink>]). The individual tendencies in reactivity and regulation in terms of activity, attention, or affect may exacerbate or mitigate the effects of sleep problems that are influenced by the pandemic (Barata & Acar, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref42">6</reflink>]; Moccia et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref43">54</reflink>]; Verdolini et al., [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref44">84</reflink>]). Temperament is defined as individual differences founded on biology, influenced by experience and maturation throughout development (Rothbart & Bates, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref45">68</reflink>]). Individual differences in temperament could be conceptualized as two main components: regulation (i.e., persistence) and reactivity in terms of affect, activity, and attention (Rothbart & Bates, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref46">68</reflink>]; Vassalo & Sanson, [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref47">83</reflink>]). <emph>Persistence</emph> accounts for the regularity component of temperament and could be explained as the ability to adjust reactivity, which is adapting responses to control behavioral and emotional tendencies (Rothbart & Bates, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref48">68</reflink>]). <emph>Reactivity</emph>, on the other hand, is the biological tendency to react to changes within the internal or external environment emotionally or physically, like through fear or anger (Rothbart & Bates, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref49">68</reflink>]; Sanson et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref50">71</reflink>]). Being high in reactivity refers to being more disposed to negative reactions, negative mood, irritability, and fear of novelty than less reactive children (Sanson et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref51">71</reflink>]). Associated with persistence, <emph>rhythmicity</emph> is children's capacity to regulate physical routine behaviors like sleeping, eating, or bowel motion (Vassalo & Sanson, [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref52">83</reflink>]). Being high in rhythmicity refers to consistency in maintaining the schedule of routines, like needing to eat at the same time every day (Prior et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref53">64</reflink>]). Temperament in early childhood exhibits relative stability, indicating that children tend to demonstrate consistent temperamental traits across this developmental period. For instance, a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies reported average retest stability coefficients of 0.32, 0.52, and 0.45 for overall temperamental traits across three age intervals: from birth to three years, three to six years, and six to twelve years, respectively (Roberts & Delvecchio, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref54">67</reflink>]). These findings suggest that while temperament shows a degree of continuity, its stability may increase with age.</p> <p>Temperamental differences in children are associated with various sleep behaviors of children (Atkinson et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref55">8</reflink>]; Foley & Weinraub, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref56">33</reflink>]; Goodnight et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref57">35</reflink>]). Temperamental rhythmicity was found to be associated with longer sleep duration and consistency in wake time (Scher et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref58">72</reflink>]). Research indicates that reactive children, characterized by strong emotional responses and high negative affect, tend to exhibit more sleep problems (Bruni et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref59">19</reflink>]; Foley & Weinraub, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref60">33</reflink>]; Goodnight et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref61">35</reflink>]; Troxel et al., [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref62">80</reflink>]). Due to their heightened sensitivity to environmental changes, such as variations in temperature, light, or darkness, highly reactive children are more easily distracted or irritated by such stimuli (Carey, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref63">21</reflink>]). Conversely, temperamental persistence has been linked to more consistent sleep patterns, including less variability in sleep onset and longer sleep durations (Molfese et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref64">55</reflink>]). Children's temperamental traits play a key role in shaping their ability to adapt to new environments, as they influence susceptibility to effective or maladaptive coping mechanisms (Rothbart & Bates, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref65">68</reflink>]). This was particularly evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, where children's adaptation to new regulations was associated with their temperament. Highly reactive children experienced elevated stress levels in their daily lives (Moccia et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref66">54</reflink>]), while persistent children were able to maintain their day-to-day functioning (Verdolini et al., [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref67">84</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-4">Bedtime Routines and Sleep Problems</hd> <p>In addition to the influence of children's temperamental characteristics on their sleep behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic, the structure and consistency of bedtime routines also play a crucial role in shaping sleep patterns. Establishing consistent and adaptive bedtime routines can mitigate the negative effects of adverse environmental conditions (Bates et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref68">11</reflink>]). Bedtime routines are defined as a sequence of repetitive behaviors that occur each night before sleep, creating a predictable transition to the sleeping environment (Henderson & Jordan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref69">38</reflink>]). These routines typically involve the participation of at least one caregiver, who may either actively engage with the child or take on a supervisory role (Ren & Hu, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref70">66</reflink>]). The activities within bedtime routines can either support healthy sleep behaviors, such as reading or listening to a story or contribute to poor sleep patterns, such as watching television (Henderson & Jordan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref71">38</reflink>]). Beyond the consistency of specific activities, bedtime routines also emphasize the stability of the sleep environment, such as going to bed with the same caregiver at a regular time or place each night (Henderson & Jordan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref72">38</reflink>]).</p> <p>A bedtime routine involves predictability, offering children the opportunity to mentally prepare for sleep (Bathory & Tomopolous, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref73">14</reflink>]). The consistency of adaptive behaviors and environments that repeat daily provides children with a sense of comfort and security, facilitating the process of falling asleep and helping them learn to self-soothe when they wake during the night (Bathory & Tomopolous, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref74">14</reflink>]). Consequently, consistent and adaptive bedtime routines are associated with improved sleep quality and a reduction in problematic sleep behaviors (Henderson & Jordan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref75">38</reflink>]; Mindell & Williamson, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref76">53</reflink>]; Prokasky et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref77">65</reflink>]; Ren & Hu, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref78">66</reflink>]). Regular bedtime routines have been linked to longer sleep durations, fewer night awakenings, reduced bedtime resistance, shorter sleep onset delays, and better overall sleep quality in children (Allen et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref79">4</reflink>]; Mindell et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref80">51</reflink>]; Staples et al., [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref81">78</reflink>]). Implementing and following a consistent bedtime routine has been shown to reduce sleep problems, including decreased bedtime resistance, fewer night awakenings, shorter sleep onset latency, and improved overall sleep quality, even after as little as two weeks of implementation (Adams & Rickert, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref82">1</reflink>]; Mindell et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref83">52</reflink>]).</p> <p>In contrast, irregular or maladaptive bedtime routines are associated with more frequent night awakenings and delayed sleep onset (Fiese et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref84">31</reflink>]; Mindell & Williamson, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref85">53</reflink>]). For instance, activities such as watching television, using electronic devices before bed, or engaging in highly stimulating activities like active play negatively affect sleep quality, increasing sleep onset latency, daytime sleepiness, and reducing overall sleep duration (Brockmann et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref86">18</reflink>]; Henderson & Jordan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref87">38</reflink>]; Xu et al., [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref88">88</reflink>]).</p> <p>Organizing consistent and adaptive bedtime routines within the family can serve as a buffer against the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly during periods of significant disruption. Consistent routines act as protective factors during stressful and uncertain times, promoting stability and reducing the psychological impact of such events (Altena et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref89">5</reflink>]; Bates et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref90">11</reflink>]; Fiese et al., 2002). Following these routines is crucial for maintaining family cohesion, preserving relationships, and fostering a sense of security for children (Altena et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref91">5</reflink>]; Bates et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref92">11</reflink>]; Glynn et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref93">34</reflink>]).</p> <p>Research indicates that implementing regular daily routines for children during the pandemic improved their mental health and well-being, reducing both internalizing and externalizing symptoms linked to pandemic-related stress. This protective effect persisted even when factors such as parenting stress, depression, food insecurity, dual-parent households, and income were taken into account (Glynn et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref94">34</reflink>]). Similarly, Bates and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref95">11</reflink>]) found that although families reported fewer routines—especially related to screen time and sleep—compared to pre-pandemic times, routines played a key role in mitigating the negative impact of pandemic-related stress on family functioning. Families that maintained consistent bedtime routines demonstrated greater resilience and improved well-being for children, parents, and other family members despite the ongoing stress of the pandemic (Bates et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref96">11</reflink>]). Encouraging regular and comforting bedtime interactions can enhance both individual and family well-being, helping them navigate stressful situations more effectively (Altena et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref97">5</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-5">The Moderating Role of Bedtime Routines between Child Temperament and Sleep Problems</hd> <p>While prior literature has established that consistent and adaptive bedtime routines serve as a protective factor for children's development, particularly in challenging environmental contexts (Bates et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref98">11</reflink>]; Fiese et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref99">31</reflink>]), limited research has examined how these protective effects may vary according to children's temperamental characteristics. Findings from previous research consistently have demonstrated significant links between children's temperamental traits, such as reactivity and persistence, and their sleep behaviors (Foley & Weinraub, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref100">33</reflink>]; Goodnight et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref101">35</reflink>]; Molfese et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref102">55</reflink>]; Scher et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref103">72</reflink>]), suggesting that bedtime routines could potentially modulate both the direction and strength of these associations. These findings underscore the importance of investigating the interplay between bedtime routines and temperament to better understand their combined impact on children's sleep outcomes. While consistent bedtime routines give children a sense of security and allow them to anticipate what's coming next, they can buffer the arousal caused by temperamental difficulties by promoting a gradual winding down of the process and reducing sleep problems. For example, for children high in emotional reactivity, consistent bedtime routines are predicted to reduce the likelihood of bedtime resistance and frequent awakenings. Incorporating adaptive bedtime routines may help temperamentally reactive children manage their responses to bedtime stressors, potentially leading to a weaker association between reactivity and sleep problems (Mindell & Williamson, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref104">53</reflink>]). The study of Wilson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref105">86</reflink>]) has shown that although children with temperamental reactivity experience greater sleep problems, consistent bedtime routines, especially among children with reactive temperaments, are linked to fewer sleep problems. Children with more temperamental reactivity may be more likely to benefit from consistent bedtime routines (Wilson et al., [<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref106">86</reflink>]).</p> <p>While no studies have specifically investigated the protective effect of bedtime routines for temperamentally difficult children, establishing consistent bedtime routines may mitigate the relationship between temperament and sleep issues. Additionally, bedtime routines could potentially strengthen the association between temperamental persistence and sleep behaviors. Since temperamental persistence in children is often linked to more regular sleep patterns (Molfese et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref107">55</reflink>]), consistent bedtime routines may support these children by reinforcing their regulatory processes, thereby promoting healthier sleep habits. For children with low levels of temperamental persistence, consistent bedtime routines may provide important cues that facilitate the transition to sleep, potentially alleviating self-regulatory difficulties at bedtime and reducing sleep disturbances (Breitenstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref108">16</reflink>]). Thus, for these children, consistent routines may modify the direction of the relationship between their persistence levels and sleep problems.</p> <p>Moreover, a stable bedtime routine could moderate the link between low rhythmicity and sleep disturbances by introducing regularity into a child's nightly routine, even when their intrinsic rhythms are less predictable. By following a consistent set of steps each evening, children with low rhythmicity may benefit from an external structure that promotes a steady sleep schedule, helping them adjust to regular sleep patterns that can counterbalance a natural lack of biological regularity (Mindell & Williamson, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref109">53</reflink>]). The results from previous studies indicate that bedtime routines can play a moderating role in the complex relationship between temperament and sleep, underscoring their importance in supporting children's sleep health.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-6">The Present Study</hd> <p>We aimed to examine the contributions of the children's temperament (rhythmicity, reactivity, and persistence) and bedtime routines to children's sleep problems. In addition, we examined the moderating role of bedtime routines between child temperament and sleep problems. In line with the objectives of the current study, the following hypotheses were proposed: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref110">1</reflink>) temperamental reactivity was expected to be positively associated with sleep problems, whereas persistence and rhythmicity were anticipated to demonstrate negative associations; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref111">2</reflink>) the consistency of bedtime routines and bedtime environments was hypothesized to be negatively associated with children's sleep problems; (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref112">3</reflink>)) It was hypothesized that the relationship between temperament and sleep problems would be moderated by bedtime routines. Specifically, it was expected that higher consistency in bedtime routines would strengthen the protective effects of higher persistence and rhythmicity, resulting in fewer sleep problems. Conversely, for children with high reactivity, low consistency in bedtime routines was expected to be associated with increased sleep problems.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-7">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0191453680-8">Study Design and Participants</hd> <p>The current study had a cross-sectional design. The sample comprised mothers of 313 children (143 girls) between the ages of 16 and 84 months (<emph>M</emph> = 52.42, <emph>SD</emph> = 12.36). The mothers' ages ranged from 23 to 48 years, with a mean age of 35.03 years (SD = 4.47). In terms of education, 20.2% of mothers had completed high school or less, 63.6% held a university degree, and 16.3% had obtained a postgraduate degree. Regarding family income at the time of data collection, 16.3% of families reported earning 6000 Turkish Lira (TL) or less per month (approximately US$750), while 79.6% reported an income above 6000 TL. Socioeconomic status (SES) was computed by averaging the standardized (z-transformed) values of family income and parental education levels.</p> <p>This study was approved by the first author's Institutional Review Board and complies with the guidelines of the Helsinki Declaration. Informed consent was obtained from the participants. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-9">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0191453680-10">Children's Sleep Problems</hd> <p>Parents reported on children's overall sleep problems using the well-established Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ; Owens et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref113">57</reflink>]; Fis et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref114">32</reflink>] for Turkish version), which evaluates sleep concerns over the course of a typical week. The CSHQ includes subscales for various aspects of sleep, such as bedtime resistance, sleep onset delay, sleep duration, sleep anxiety, night wakings, parasomnias, sleep-disordered breathing, and daytime sleepiness. Parents responded to items such as "Awakes more than once" and "Sleeps too little" on a 3-point scale (1 = rarely to 3 = usually). Scores from the 35 items were summed to generate a total sleep problems score, with higher scores indicating greater sleep issues. The internal consistency for the sleep problems measure was strong (α = 0.80).</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-11">Bedtime Routines</hd> <p>Parents reported on the Bedtime Routines Questionnaire (BRQ; Henderson & Jordan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref115">38</reflink>]; Barata & Acar, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref116">9</reflink>] for Turkish version) to assess children's bedtime routines. In this study, two subscales were utilized: consistency of routine behaviors (e.g., <emph>"During weeknights</emph>,<emph> how often did your child perform activities in the same order before going to bed?"</emph>) and consistency of routine environment (e.g., <emph>"During weeknights</emph>,<emph> how often did your child get put to bed by the same person?"</emph>). Parents rated their children's behaviors on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = almost never to 5 = nearly always). Target items were averaged to create each subscale, with higher scores reflecting greater consistency in that construct. For this study, internal consistency was high for both subscales, with α = 0.90 for consistency of routine behaviors and α = 0.82 for consistency of routine environment.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-12">Child Temperament</hd> <p>Parents reported on the Short Temperament Scale for Children (STSC; Prior et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref117">64</reflink>]; Yagmurlu & Sanson, [<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref118">89</reflink>] for Turkish version) to assess children's temperament, with parents rating their children's behaviors on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = never to 6 = always). Target items were averaged to create each subscale, with higher scores reflecting greater consistency in that construct. In this study, internal consistency was.71 for persistence,.75 for reactivity, and.63 for rhythmicity. While the internal consistency for rhythmicity appeared relatively low, this value aligns with previous research involving Turkish children (α =.48 in Yagmurlu & Sanson, [<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref119">89</reflink>]; α =.63 in Yagmurlu & Altan, [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref120">90</reflink>]). Although the temperament scale includes an 'approach' dimension, this subscale was not included in the current study. Given the extensive number of measures administered to parents, we aimed to minimize participant burden by prioritizing key constructs most relevant to our research objectives.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-13">Data Collection Procedure</hd> <p>The study was approved by the University Ethics Committee. Data were collected from May to December 2021. Data collection for this study took place between May and December 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic. During this period, pandemic-related restrictions varied. Until May 2021, strict measures were enforced, including school closures, remote work policies, and mask mandates. Starting in June 2021, these restrictions were gradually eased, with curfew hours becoming more flexible. By September 2021, primary, middle, and high schools reopened, and universities adopted a hybrid education model. However, the requirement to wear masks in public spaces remained in place throughout the data collection period (Anatolian News Agency, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref121">10</reflink>]). Data for this study were collected using the online platform Qualtrics (Qualtrics, Provo, UT). A total of 210 mothers were recruited via snowball sampling for the online data collection, and an additional 145 mothers completed paper-based surveys, which were distributed through preschools. We contacted three preschools through personal communication, with one school located in Istanbul and two in Izmir, Türkiye. Due to pandemic-related restrictions, we relied on pre-existing professional connections to reach these schools, as broader recruitment efforts were limited during this period. For online data collection, we advertised the study on social media platforms and distributed the survey link through researchers, school administrators, and institutional social media accounts. This approach allowed us to reach a wider sample of parents beyond those affiliated with the participating preschool. Both online and paper-surveyed participants were provided with a consent form detailing the voluntary nature of their participation and their right to withdraw at any time. Participants were informed in advance about the study's duration, purpose, and procedures. As no funding was available for this study, no incentives were offered to the participating parents.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-14">Data Analysis</hd> <p>We used SPSS 27 for the analysis. The proportion of missing values across study variables ranged from 0.3 to 3.2%. To assess the mechanism of missing data, Little's ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref122">45</reflink>]) Missing Completely at Random (MCAR) test was conducted. The results indicated that the missing data were completely at random (MCAR), <emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups> = 20.366, <emph>p</emph> = 0.06. According to Schafer ([<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref123">73</reflink>]), when missing data constitute less than 5% of the dataset, their impact is considered negligible, as various approaches for handling missing data, such as imputation or listwise deletion, tend to yield similar results (Tabachnick & Fidell, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref124">79</reflink>]). Based on this consideration, no imputation was performed in the current study. Skewness and kurtosis were evaluated to assess the normality assumption using the ± 2 criterion (Byrne, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref125">20</reflink>]; Hair et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref126">36</reflink>]). All variables fell within an acceptable range for normality, and no transformations were necessary. Descriptive statistics for the study variables are presented in Table 1.</p> <p>Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the statistically significant variance each predictor contributed to children's sleep problems. These variables were regressed on demographic factors (family socioeconomic status, child age, and child sex), temperamental traits (persistence, reactivity, rhythmicity), bedtime routines (consistencies of routine environments and behaviors), and two-way interaction terms between predictor variables (e.g., routine environment × reactivity). To create the interaction terms, bedtime routines, and temperamental characteristics were grand-mean centered, and then these variables were multiplied (Aiken & West, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref127">2</reflink>]). Following the hierarchical multiple regression analyses, simple slopes analyses were performed to further explore the nature of the significant interactions. Moderation was plotted at high (1 standard deviation above the mean), mean, and low (1 standard deviation below the mean) levels (Aiken & West, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref128">2</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 1 Bivariate correlations and descriptive statistics of the study variables</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>1</p></th><th align="left"><p>2</p></th><th align="left"><p>3</p></th><th align="left"><p>4</p></th><th align="left"><p>5</p></th><th align="left"><p>6</p></th><th align="left"><p>7</p></th><th align="left"><p>8</p></th><th align="left"><p>9</p></th><th align="left"><p>10</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Sleep Problems</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2. Consistent Routine Bedtime Behaviors</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.176<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3. Consistent Routine Bedtime Environment</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.385<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.427<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4. Persistence</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.180<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.274<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.156<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5. Rhythmicity</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.348<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.406<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.460<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.210**</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>6. Reactivity</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.272<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.204<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.287<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.153**</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.195**</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>7. Child Age (in months)</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.100</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.080</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.075</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.052</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.069</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.185**</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>8. Socioeconomic Status</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.072</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.244<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.057</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.034</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.158**</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.017</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.025</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>9. Total Sleep in Hours</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.225<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.047</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.020</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.084</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.091</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.043</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.234**</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.021</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>10. Child Sex</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.073</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.030</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.022</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.042</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.007</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.115*</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.058</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.042</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.005</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>M</p></td><td align="left"><p>47.09</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.93</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.19</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.84</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.44</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.81</p></td><td align="left"><p>52.42</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.029</p></td><td align="left"><p>10.36</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>SD</p></td><td align="left"><p>7.41</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.88</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.62</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.80</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.74</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.89</p></td><td align="left"><p>12.35</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.76</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Min-Max</p></td><td align="left"><p>28–70</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.00–5.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.00–5.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.86–6.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.14- 6.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.00–5.86</p></td><td align="left"><p>16–84</p></td><td align="left"><p>−3.05–1.99</p></td><td align="left"><p>7–14</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Skewness</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.375</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.823</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.858</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.251</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.320</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.626</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.042</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.825</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.119</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Kurtosis</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.085</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.347</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.772</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.312</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.306</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.540</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.558</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.22</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.584</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>*<emph>p</emph> < 0.05 (2-tailed), **<emph>p</emph> < 0.01 (2-tailed) Child Sex (Girl = 1, Boy = 0)</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-15">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0191453680-16">Preliminary Results</hd> <p>We conducted bivariate correlations to investigate the associations between sleep problems, temperament, bedtime routines, and demographics (i.e., age and SES). See Table 1 for complete results.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-17">Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis</hd> <p>In Table 2, in block 2, temperamental characteristics (persistence, reactivity, and rhythmicity) accounted for an additional 17.2% of the variance in children's sleep problems; after accounting for the effects of demographics, <emph>F</emph> (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref129">6</reflink>, 289) = 11.589, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, <emph>R</emph><sups><emph>2</emph></sups> = 0.194. In the second block, rhythmicity (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.289, <emph>t</emph> = − 5.237, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) and reactivity (<emph>β</emph> = 0.216, <emph>t</emph> = 3.899, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) were significantly related to sleep problems. In Block 3, bedtime routines explained 4.6% of additional variance in children's sleep problems, <emph>F</emph> (<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref130">8</reflink>, 287) = 11.351, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, <emph>R</emph><sups><emph>2</emph></sups> = 0.240. In the third block, a consistent routine bedtime environment was significantly associated with sleep problems (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.257, <emph>t</emph> = − 4.176, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). Block 4 contained two-way interactions between bedtime routines and temperamental characteristics, accounting for an additional 3.4% of the variance in children's sleep problems, <emph>F</emph> (<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref131">14</reflink>, 281) = 7.601, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, <emph>R</emph><sups><emph>2</emph></sups> = 0.275. The interaction between consistent routine bedtime behavior and rhythmicity significantly predicted children's sleep problems (<emph>β</emph> = − 0.159, <emph>t</emph> = − 2.607, <emph>p</emph> = 0.010). In addition, the interaction between consistent routine bedtime environment and rhythmicity significantly predicted children's sleep problems (<emph>β</emph> = 0.202, <emph>t</emph> = 3.254, <emph>p</emph> = 0.001). See Table 2 for details.</p> <p>Table 2 Summary of hierarchical regression analysis for child temperament and bedtime routines predicting child's sleep problems</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Sleep Problems</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Variable</p></th><th align="left"><p>B</p></th><th align="left"><p>SE B</p></th><th align="left"><p>β</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Block 1</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Child's Age</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.056</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.035</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.093</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Child's Sex (Girls = 1, Boys = 0)</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.093</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.855</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.074</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Family Socioeconomic Status</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.912</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.559</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.095</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Total <italic>R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.022</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F</italic></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>2.196</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Block 2</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Persistence</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.837</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.505</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.090</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Rhythmicity</p></td><td align="left"><p>−2.901</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.554</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.289***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Reactivity</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.766</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.453</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.216***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Total <italic>R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.194</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup> Δ</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.172</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F</italic></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>11.589***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Block 3</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Consistent Routine Bedtime Behaviors (CRBB)</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.445</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.537</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.051</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Consistent Routine Bedtime Environment (CRBE)</p></td><td align="left"><p>−3.108</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.744</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.257***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Total <italic>R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.240</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup> Δ</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.046</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F</italic></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>11.351***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Block 4</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> CRBB*Persistence</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.325</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.419</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.043</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> CRBB*Rhythmicity</p></td><td align="left"><p>−1.095</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.420</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.159*</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> CRBB*Reactivity</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.119</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.507</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.015</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> CRBE* Persistence</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.265</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.433</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.034</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> CRBE* Rhythmicity</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.386</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.426</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.202**</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> CRBE* Reactivity</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.271</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.469</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.038</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Total <italic>R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.275</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup> Δ</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>0.034</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F</italic></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>7.601***</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>*<emph>p</emph> < 0.05, **<emph>p</emph> < 0.01, ***<emph>p</emph> < 0.001</p> <p>Results from the simple slopes analysis displayed that the slope for rhythmicity on children's sleep problems when consistent routine bedtime behavior was high (<emph>t</emph> = −3.408, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) and average (<emph>t</emph> = −3.268, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01) was significantly different from zero. However, when consistent routine bedtime behavior was low, the slope for rhythmicity was not significantly different from zero (<emph>t</emph> = −1.686, <emph>p</emph> = 0.09). Consequently, consistent routine bedtime behavior was at high and average levels, low rhythmicity was related to higher sleep problems. However, when consistent routine bedtime behavior was low, rhythmicity was not related to sleep problems (see Fig. 1).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Temperamental Rhythmicity and Consistent Routine Bedtime Behaviors Predicting Children's Sleep Problems</p> <p>Results from the second simple slopes analysis displayed that the slope for rhythmicity on children's sleep problems when a consistent routine bedtime environment was low (<emph>t</emph> = − 4.796, <emph>p</emph> < 0.0001) and average (<emph>t</emph> = − 3.614, <emph>p</emph> < 001) was significantly different from zero. However, when a consistent routine bedtime environment was high, the slope for rhythmicity was not significantly different from zero (<emph>t</emph> = − 1.466, <emph>p</emph> = 0.143). Consequently, a consistent routine bedtime environment was at low and average levels, and low rhythmicity was related to higher sleep problems. However, when a consistent routine bedtime environment was high, rhythmicity was not related to sleep problems (see Fig. 2).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2 Temperamental Rhythmicity and Consistent Routine Bedtime Environment Predicting Children's Sleep Problems</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-18">Discussion</hd> <p>We examined the contributions of the children's temperament (rhythmicity, reactivity, and persistence) and bedtime routines to children's sleep problems, with a further interest in examining the moderating role of bedtime routines (consistent bedtime routine behavior and bedtime routine environment) between child temperament and sleep problems. The findings indicated that children's temperamental rhythmicity and reactivity were closely associated with sleep problems. A consistent bedtime environment was particularly beneficial in reducing these issues. Children with lower rhythmicity experienced more sleep problems when bedtime behaviors were highly consistent. This suggests that while a structured bedtime environment supports better sleep, excessively rigid bedtime behaviors may not be equally beneficial for all children. Each finding is discussed below.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-19">Temperament and Children's Sleep Problems</hd> <p>In alignment with prior research, temperamental rhythmicity was found to be negatively associated with sleep problems, as rhythmicity is inherently seen as a contributor to healthy sleep patterns in children (Anders & Keener, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref132">7</reflink>]; Scher et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref133">72</reflink>]; Van Tassel, [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref134">82</reflink>]). Given that temperamental rhythmicity reflects the regulation of circadian activities, including sleep, children with higher rhythmicity tend to exhibit longer sleep durations, more regular sleep onsets, fewer night awakenings, and reduced need for parental intervention during the night (Hayes et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref135">37</reflink>]; Scher et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref136">72</reflink>]). The reason why children with higher rhythmicity experience fewer sleep disturbances can be attributed to their ability to regulate circadian activities in a more stable and predictable manner (Molfese et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref137">55</reflink>]; Scher et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref138">72</reflink>]). This predictability fosters regular sleep onsets, reducing the likelihood of delayed sleep onset, which often contributes to sleep difficulties. Additionally, children with high rhythmicity are less likely to experience frequent night wakings or disruptions throughout the night. Their capacity for internal regulation helps them transition smoothly between sleep stages, which can further promote longer and more restful sleep durations (Scher et al., [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref139">74</reflink>]).</p> <p>Temperamental reactivity was found to be positively associated with sleep problems, a result consistent with previous research linking reactivity to various sleep difficulties, including shorter sleep duration, more frequent nighttime awakenings, and greater variability in sleep onset (Goodnight et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref140">35</reflink>]; Scher et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref141">72</reflink>]). Reactivity, a temperamental trait characterized by heightened emotional responsiveness and difficulty with behavioral regulation, is closely tied to the intensity and frequency of negative emotional experiences. Children high in reactivity are more prone to emotional dysregulation, experiencing frustration, anger, or anxiety with greater intensity and frequency, especially in response to everyday challenges or environmental changes (Carey, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref142">21</reflink>]; Troxel et al., [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref143">80</reflink>]).</p> <p>The underlying mechanism for the association between high reactivity and sleep problems can be attributed to these children's heightened sensitivity to emotional stimuli and environmental disruptions. Children who are more reactive tend to become easily overwhelmed by frustration or stress, which can be particularly problematic before bedtime, a time when emotional regulation is critical for winding down and preparing for sleep (Foley & Weinraub, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref144">33</reflink>]). Even minor disturbances or frustrations at home, such as a change in bedtime routine, sibling conflicts, or parental stress, can trigger intense emotional responses in highly reactive children. This heightened emotional arousal can lead to difficulty settling down for sleep, prolonging the time it takes to fall asleep, and increasing the likelihood of sleep onset delays (Troxel et al., [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref145">80</reflink>]).</p> <p>Contrary to previous research, temperamental persistence was not significantly related to sleep problems in the current study. This finding is unexpected, given that previous research has identified negative associations between persistence and sleep difficulties, with more persistent children generally exhibiting fewer sleep problems, such as delayed sleep onset or night awakenings (Foley & Weinraub, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref146">33</reflink>]; Goodnight et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref147">35</reflink>]; Molfese et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref148">55</reflink>]; Scher et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref149">72</reflink>]). Temperamental persistence, which reflects a child's ability to stay focused on tasks and maintain consistent behavior, is typically considered to support better self-regulation, including in bedtime routines and sleep habits. More persistent children are often better able to maintain the discipline required for consistent bedtime routines, which is associated with better sleep outcomes. Several reasons may account for the lack of significant findings in the current study. One possibility is the cross-sectional nature of the data, which captures only a snapshot of children's sleep behaviors and temperamental traits. Another explanation could be cultural differences (Pham et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref150">62</reflink>]). Much of the research that has found significant associations between persistence and sleep behaviors has been conducted in Western contexts. It is possible that the role of persistence in regulating sleep may differ across cultural settings, including in Türkiye. For example, parenting practices and expectations around sleep routines, as well as broader environmental factors such as family structure, school schedules, or cultural attitudes toward sleep, might moderate the relationship between persistence and sleep outcomes in ways that are not fully captured in this study (Pham et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref151">62</reflink>]). Given these limitations, it would be premature to draw definitive conclusions from this single study.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-20">Bedtime Routines and Children's Sleep Problems</hd> <p>Consistent bedtime routine environment was found to be negatively related to sleep problems. This aligns with earlier studies, which indicate that having consistent times and places for bedtime, along with a stable caregiver presence during the bedtime routine, is associated with greater sleep duration and less bedtime resistance (Koulouglioti et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref152">43</reflink>]; Mindell et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref153">52</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref154">51</reflink>]; Mindell & Williamson, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref155">53</reflink>]). A consistent bedtime routine is linked to healthy sleep behaviors, as a predictable sleep schedule in a stable environment creates a sense of routine, while the caregiver's consistent presence helps the child follow the routine (Bathory & Tomopoulos, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref156">14</reflink>]). This consistency offers comfort, easing the transition to sleep and reducing bedtime resistance, and helps children learn to fall back asleep on their own during nighttime awakenings (Bathory & Tomopoulos, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref157">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>Nevertheless, unexpectedly, consistent bedtime routine behavior, like performing the same activities before bedtime, was not related to sleep problems. While a single cross-sectional study cannot provide definitive conclusions, one possible reason is that previous research examined overall consistency in bedtime routines without distinguishing between the consistency of behaviors and the environment (Staples et al., [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref158">78</reflink>]; Ren & Hu, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref159">66</reflink>]). According to Henderson & Jordan ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref160">38</reflink>]), consistency in routine behaviors may set the stage for compliance with a predictable sequence of activities, while environmental consistency acts as a cue for this compliance. Although previous studies have highlighted the importance of following the same activities in the same order, at the same time, in the same environment, and with the same caregiver to address children's sleep issues (Henderson & Jordan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref161">38</reflink>]; Mindell et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref162">52</reflink>]; Staples et al., [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref163">78</reflink>]); no empirical study separately assessed their individual contributions yet. The total consistency of the bedtime routine is associated with less arousal and sleep problems such as night wakings, delayed sleep onset, or shortened sleep duration (Mindell & Williamson, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref164">53</reflink>]; Staples et al., [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref165">78</reflink>]; Ren & Hu, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref166">66</reflink>]). However, as Henderson & Jordan ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref167">38</reflink>]) emphasized the significance of the individual contributions of routine behaviors and environment in their original study, and the distinction between the factors of routine behaviors and environment is supported empirically (Barata & Acar, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref168">9</reflink>]), it is essential for future studies to examine routine behaviors and routine environments separately to better understand their unique impacts.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-21">Moderating Role of Bedtime Routines between Temperament and Children's Sleep Problems</hd> <p>Consistent bedtime behaviors (performing the same activities in the same order) moderated the relationship between temperamental rhythmicity and sleep problems. Specifically, children with low rhythmicity displayed elevated sleep problems when consistent bedtime behaviors were at high or average levels, compared to their high-rhythmicity counterparts. This finding suggests that, even with a high degree of bedtime consistency, low rhythmicity may exacerbate sleep difficulties, underscoring the crucial role of temperamental rhythmicity in supporting healthy sleep behaviors in children. Children with high rhythmicity may not need the same level of bedtime structure, as their internal body clocks help regulate their sleep. This implies that routine behavior consistency, performing the same activities in the same sequence, may be less crucial for these children, as their natural rhythms provide stability. (Dearing et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref169">24</reflink>]). However, for children with low rhythmicity, even the presence of consistent bedtime routines was not enough to prevent sleep problems, indicating that a lack of rhythmicity may override the benefits of bedtime structure. As Henderson and Jordan ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref170">38</reflink>]) noted, the consistency of routine behaviors provides a mechanism that allows children to accept the transition to sleep. Children with high rhythmicity, on the other hand, are able to internally provide the acceptance needed for the transition to sleep, whereas those with low rhythmicity may require additional interventions beyond the consistency of routine behaviors to address sleep problems.</p> <p>When it comes to the consistency of the bedtime routine environment- such as performing the routine with the same caregiver within the same place at the same time- it moderated the association between temperamental rhythmicity and sleep problems. Specifically, low levels of consistent bedtime environment combined with low temperamental rhythmicity resulted in greater sleep problems. This indicates that for children who are low in rhythmicity, an unstable or inconsistent bedtime environment can exacerbate sleep difficulties, underscoring the importance of creating a consistent environment for these children. Research by Sadeh et al. ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref171">70</reflink>]) emphasized that environmental factors, including caregiver presence and routine stability, play a crucial role in regulating sleep for children with lower innate rhythmicity. The consistency of environmental conditions, such as the presence of a consistent caregiver during bedtime routine, promotes a sense of security and a distinctive motivation to accept the transition to sleep (Henderson & Jordan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref172">38</reflink>]), which is critical for children who lack biological regularity. Thus, establishing a stable and predictable bedtime environment may not only reinforce behavioral sleep cues but also provide emotional reassurance, further facilitating the sleep transition for children with low temperamental rhythmicity.</p> <p>The study found no interaction between other temperamental traits and bedtime routines, which suggests that rhythmicity is a particularly important factor in predicting sleep problems. However, to make suggestions regarding the fact that there is no interaction between bedtime routines and temperament traits of persistency and reactivity in relation to children's sleep problems, one cross-sectional study would not be sufficient. Further studies are needed to investigate these associations. Overall, the findings of the current study emphasize that the role of consistent bedtime routines and environments can differ based on a child's temperamental rhythmicity. For children with low rhythmicity, consistent bedtime routine environments are essential for mitigating sleep problems. In contrast, children with high rhythmicity may be more naturally equipped to handle variability, making bedtime routines less critical for them.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-22">Limitations</hd> <p>This study has several limitations that need consideration. First, the cross-sectional design of the study precludes any causal or directional conclusions about the relationships between temperament, bedtime routines, and sleep problems. Specifically, while we examined the potential moderating role of bedtime routines, we cannot rule out the possibility that the relationship between bedtime routines and sleep problems is bidirectional. For example, a child's temperament may influence the consistency of bedtime routines, with more difficult temperaments making it harder for parents to establish and maintain consistent routines. Future research employing longitudinal design would be better equipped to explore these bidirectional relationships and the potential moderating effects of temperament on the association between bedtime routines and sleep problems. Additionally, the reliance on parent-reported measures may introduce bias, as parents' perceptions of their child's temperament and sleep problems may vary from reality (Prokasky et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref173">65</reflink>]). Objective measures, such as actigraphy, would provide more robust data on children's sleep behaviors.</p> <p>Moreover, the parents in this study predominantly came from medium- to high-income families, which may limit the generalizability of the findings, as they do not represent all socioeconomic groups within the specified cultural context. The high education level of the mothers in our sample suggests that the findings may be more reflective of mid-to-high socioeconomic status (SES) families rather than the broader population. Given that maternal education is often associated with greater access to parenting resources, knowledge about child development, and structured family routines (Prickett & Augustine, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref174">63</reflink>]), our results may not fully generalize to families with lower educational backgrounds. For instance, highly educated mothers may be more likely to implement consistent bedtime routines or have greater awareness of sleep-related guidelines, which could influence the observed associations. Future research should aim to include a more socioeconomically diverse sample to enhance the generalizability of the findings. To enhance the generalizability of future research, it would be beneficial to include families from a more diverse range of SES levels to understand the variations within Turkish culture. Additionally, future studies should test the applicability of the model across different time periods to explore whether the findings hold outside the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Another methodological limitation of the study is the use of both online and paper-based survey methods for data collection. Although no significant differences were found between these groups in most study variables, participants who completed the paper-based survey reported higher scores on Consistent Routine Bedtime Behaviors and Consistent Routine Bedtime Environment. These differences suggest that data collection mode may have influenced responses on specific bedtime routine measures. Future research should consider standardizing data collection methods or further investigating the potential impact of survey format on parental reporting. Finally, another limitation of this study is the use of a convenience sampling method for data collection. Due to pandemic-related restrictions, recruitment for the in-person survey was conducted through personal communication with three preschools, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, online data collection relied on social media advertisements and researcher networks, which may have introduced self-selection bias. Future studies should aim for a more diverse and randomized sampling approach to enhance the representativeness of the findings.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-23">Implications</hd> <p>As the results demonstrate, maintaining consistent bedtime routines is crucial for promoting healthy sleep behaviors. Research has consistently shown that children who follow adaptive, consistent routines experience improvements in sleep duration, fewer night wakings, reduced bedtime resistance, and easier sleep onset (Henderson & Jordan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref175">38</reflink>]; Mindell & Williamson, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref176">53</reflink>]; Prokasky et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref177">65</reflink>]; Ren & Hu, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref178">66</reflink>]). Intervention studies that include parent training programs that are either face-to-face, app-based, or online, that focus on consistent bedtime routines have demonstrated durable improvements in children's sleep (Mindell et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref179">50</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref180">49</reflink>]; Seymour et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref181">75</reflink>]).</p> <p>Furthermore, the findings of this study underscore the importance of tailoring bedtime routine interventions considering children's temperamental traits. For example, for children with low rhythmicity, consistent bedtime environments, including predictable caregiver presence and a stable bedtime setting, can mitigate sleep problems. These findings suggest that interventions targeting bedtime routines should prioritize environmental consistency for children with less natural biological regularity, as this may provide both behavioral and emotional support during the sleep transition.</p> <p>Future research should explore the distinct contributions of consistent bedtime behaviors versus environmental factors to better inform intervention design. Additionally, expanding the scope of investigation to include diverse cultural contexts and longitudinal approaches will enhance the generalizability and applicability of findings. These efforts can guide the development of more effective, temperament-sensitive strategies to improve sleep outcomes in children.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-24">Funding</hd> <p>This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-25">Data Availability</hd> <p>The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-26">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0191453680-27">Conflict of interest</hd> <p>The authors personally have not received any funding for this project, therefore, the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest to disclose.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-28">Ethical Approval</hd> <p>All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-29">Informed Consent</hd> <p>Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-30">Declaration of Generative AI and AI-Assisted Technologies in the Writing Process</hd> <p>During the preparation of this work the author(s) used ChatGPT-4o in order to edit some language errors in the manuscript. After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the published article.</p> <hd id="AN0191453680-31">Appendix</hd> <p>Differences between online and in-person across study variables (online = 170, In-person = 143)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Variable</p></th><th align="left"><p>Sample</p></th><th align="left"><p>M</p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>t</p></th><th align="left"><p>df</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>p</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Cohen's d</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Sleep Problems</p></td><td align="left"><p>Online</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>47.83</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>7.49</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.85</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>301</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.065</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>In-person</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>46.25</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>7.26</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Persistence</p></td><td align="left"><p>Online</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.85</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.77</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>310</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.943</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>In-person</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.84</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.84</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Rhythmicity</p></td><td align="left"><p>Online</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.39</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.75</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 1.35</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>310</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.178</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>In-person</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.5</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.73</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Reactivity</p></td><td align="left"><p>Online</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.82</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.91</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>310</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.941</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>In-person</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.81</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.88</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Consistent Routine Bedtime Behaviors</p></td><td align="left"><p>Online</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.82</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.92</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 2.48</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>307</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.014</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.28</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>In-person</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.82</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Consistent Routine Bedtime Environment</p></td><td align="left"><p>Online</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.11</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.66</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 2.79</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>307</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.006</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.32</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>In-person</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.30</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.57</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0191453680-32">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0191453680-33"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref82" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Adams LA, Rickert VI. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Child Temperament and Sleep Problems: The Moderating Role of Bedtime Routines
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ibrahim+H%2E+Acar%22">Ibrahim H. Acar</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4007-5691">0000-0003-4007-5691</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Özge+Barata%22">Özge Barata</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5329-3105">0000-0002-5329-3105</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Child+%26+Youth+Care+Forum%22"><i>Child & Youth Care Forum</i></searchLink>. 2026 55(1):205-226.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 22
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Children%22">Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personality+Traits%22">Personality Traits</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Sleep%22">Sleep</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Family+Environment%22">Family Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Management%22">Self Management</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Child+Behavior%22">Child Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Persistence%22">Persistence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychological+Patterns%22">Psychological Patterns</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Behavior+Patterns%22">Behavior Patterns</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Repetition%22">Repetition</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s10566-025-09870-8
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1053-1890<br />1573-3319
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Background: Children's temperamental traits, such as rhythmicity, reactivity, and persistence, as well as bedtime routines, play a crucial role in influencing their sleep behaviors. Objective: The present study examined the contributions of the children's temperament (rhythmicity, reactivity, and persistence) and bedtime routines to children's sleep problems, with a further interest in examining the moderating role of bedtime routines between child temperament and sleep problems. Method: The sample consisted of 313 mothers of children aged between 16 and 84 months (M = 52.42, SD = 12.36). The mothers provided reports on their children's sleep problems, bedtime routines, and temperament. Results: Hierarchical regression analyses were run to test hypotheses. Results indicated that children's temperamental rhythmicity and reactivity were closely linked to sleep problems, with bedtime routines, especially a consistent bedtime environment, helping to reduce these issues. Consistent bedtime practices moderated the effect of low rhythmicity, as children with lower rhythmicity experienced fewer sleep problems when routines were stable. Conclusions: Regular bedtime routines may serve as a protective factor, mitigating the effects of challenging temperamental traits on sleep.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1505863
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1505863
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s10566-025-09870-8
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 22
        StartPage: 205
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Personality Traits
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Sleep
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Family Environment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Management
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Child Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Persistence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Psychological Patterns
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Behavior Patterns
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Repetition
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Child Temperament and Sleep Problems: The Moderating Role of Bedtime Routines
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Ibrahim H. Acar
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Özge Barata
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1053-1890
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1573-3319
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 55
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Child & Youth Care Forum
              Type: main
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