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Adolescents' Attainability and Aspiration Beliefs for Famous Musician Role Models

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Title: Adolescents' Attainability and Aspiration Beliefs for Famous Musician Role Models
Language: English
Authors: Ivaldi, Antonia, O'Neill, Susan A.
Source: Music Education Research. Jun 2010 12(2):179-197.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Physical Description: PDF
Page Count: 19
Publication Date: 2010
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Role Models, Music, Musicians, Adolescents, Aspiration, Music Teachers, Beliefs, Questionnaires, Student Attitudes, Student Motivation, Music Education, Teaching Methods
DOI: 10.1080/14613801003746568
ISSN: 1461-3808
Abstract: This study examines the role that adolescents' competence beliefs and subjective task values for music have in relation to their aspirations and expectations for becoming like their musician role models. A total of 381 adolescents (aged 13-14) completed a questionnaire about their competence beliefs and values for music, the musicians they admired and why, and their attainability and aspiration beliefs about becoming like their musician role model. Adolescents' aspiration and attainability beliefs were influenced by their beliefs and values for music; adolescents who played an instrument were more likely than non-players to think they could become like their musician role model, and were more likely than non-players to choose role models who played instruments. The majority of adolescents thought that they could become like their musician role models if they wanted to, with their attainability and aspiration beliefs in relation to musician role models being mediated by their beliefs and value beliefs for music. The findings suggest that because the majority of adolescents' musician role models do not play instruments, they believe that their role models' accomplishments are more attainable, which also increases their aspirations to become like their musician role models. Implications for music educators are discussed in relation to the need for strategies that increase young people's valuing of music played by a wider range of musicians, thereby increasing positive motivation towards youth engagement in music. (Contains 5 tables and 3 figures.)
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 31
Entry Date: 2010
Accession Number: EJ886220
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0051253586;54y01jun.10;2019Feb13.17:24;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0051253586-1">Adolescents' attainability and aspiration beliefs for famous musician role models. </title> <p>This study examines the role that adolescents' competence beliefs and subjective task values for music have in relation to their aspirations and expectations for becoming like their musician role models. A total of 381 adolescents (aged 13–14) completed a questionnaire about their competence beliefs and values for music, the musicians they admired and why, and their attainability and aspiration beliefs about becoming like their musician role model. Adolescents' aspiration and attainability beliefs were influenced by their beliefs and values for music; adolescents who played an instrument were more likely than non-players to think they could become like their musician role model, and were more likely than non-players to choose role models who played instruments. The majority of adolescents thought that they could become like their musician role models if they wanted to, with their attainability and aspiration beliefs in relation to musician role models being mediated by their beliefs and value beliefs for music. The findings suggest that because the majority of adolescents' musician role models do not play instruments, they believe that their role models' accomplishments are more attainable, which also increases their aspirations to become like their musician role models. Implications for music educators are discussed in relation to the need for strategies that increase young people's valuing of music played by a wider range of musicians, thereby increasing positive motivation towards youth engagement in music.</p> <p>Keywords: achievement motivation; competency beliefs and values; celebrity</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Previous definitions of role models indicate that a role model is 'someone to look up to and base your character, values or aspirations on' (Gauntlett [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref1">6</reflink>], 211). However, individuals vary in the extent to which they wish to emulate their chosen role model. Drawing on social comparison theory, Lockwood and Kunda ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref2">11</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref3">12</reflink>]) argue that a role model's achievements are likely to inspire and instil the belief that others can achieve the same kind of success. However, such comparisons can also produce the opposite effect. That is, while the role model could be self-enhancing and inspiring, the figure may equally be self-deflating and demoralising (if the individual believes the role model's achievements to be unattainable, for example). Recent research (see Lockwood, Jordan, and Kunda [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref4">10</reflink>]; Lockwood, Marshall, and Sadler [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref5">15</reflink>]; Lockwood et al. [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref6">14</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref7">13</reflink>]) has emphasised the notion of role models acting as motivators for individuals, and examined more specifically the role of positive and negative role models on an individual's motivation. In order to further our understanding of the relationship between motivational factors and role models, this paper first revisits two key factors involved in expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation, that of expectancies for success or competence beliefs and subjective task values (e.g. Eccles et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref8">2</reflink>]).</p> <p>Expectancy-value theory defines expectancies for success as the confidence an individual has in his or her ability to succeed or perform at an immediate or long-term task (Eccles, Wigfield, and Schiefele 1998). Research indicates that these expectancies or competence beliefs in one's ability are powerful predictors of achievement in an individual's chosen pathway or career (Eccles et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref9">5</reflink>]). Subjective task values relate to the degree in which a task or activity satisfies the needs of an individual. Expectancy-value theory posits three types of subjective task values: the attainment value or importance of the task; the intrinsic value; and the usefulness of the task (see further, Eccles et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref10">2</reflink>]). These subjective task values are important predictors of an individual's choice to take up or pursue an activity (Eccles et al. 1998).</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-3">Competence beliefs and subjective task values for music</hd> <p>Eccles et al. ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref11">2</reflink>]) and Wigfield et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref12">28</reflink>]) looked at children's competence beliefs and subjective task values for music (from here on referred to as beliefs and values). Eccles et al. ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref13">4</reflink>]) examined age and gender differences in children's self and task perceptions during elementary school. Using a sample of 865 American children between the ages of seven and 10, they found that the children were able to distinguish between their beliefs and values for different domains, whilst highlighting, in particular, differences in gender: boys' beliefs for sports and maths were higher (stronger) compared to girls, and girls' beliefs were higher for instrumental music and reading compared to boys. boys' values for sports were higher compared to girls', and girls' values for maths, reading and music were higher than boys'</p> <p>Wigfield et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref14">28</reflink>]) undertook a longitudinal study to examine the change in children's beliefs and values during the course of the elementary school years. About 615 American children between the ages of seven and 10 participated. It was found that over time the children's beliefs and values decreased the most in relation to the domain of music. Gender differences in beliefs and values were also found over time, with girls having higher beliefs for music and reading compared to boys. The authors explain these findings based on the idea that elementary children do not study music until comparatively late in elementary school, and are not engaged in music for long periods of time. They argue that children are more likely to have lower beliefs and values for tasks in which they are not frequently engaged.</p> <p>Yoon ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref15">30</reflink>]) examined the motivational predictors for instrumental music amongst 849 early adolescents in grades 3–6 (9–12 years of age). Adolescents reported on: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref16">1</reflink>) their preferred choice between sports and music activities; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref17">2</reflink>) their level of engagement in music activity; and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref18">3</reflink>) parental involvement. The results showed that approximately half of the young adolescents were engaged in learning to play at least one instrument, with gender being the strongest predictor of choosing music rather than sports. Females were more likely to choose music as their preferred activity than boys. These results lend support to the previous findings of Eccles et al. ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref19">2</reflink>]) and Wigfield et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref20">28</reflink>]), where girls were found to have higher beliefs and values for music than boys.</p> <p>After gender, self-schemas (i.e. beliefs and values) were found to be the second strongest predictor. These self-schemas predicted whether or not the young adolescents would engage in learning to play an instrument. Finally, age and parental values were also factors in the young Adolescents' motivation for instrumental music. Contrary to the findings of Eccles et al. ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref21">2</reflink>]) and Wigfield et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref22">28</reflink>]), Yoon found that as the respondents progressed through grades 3–6, their interest in music increased rather than decreased. However, the differences in these findings may be explained by the fact that in the Eccles et al. study, respondents were asked to compare music with a variety of other academic and non-academic subjects, whereas in Yoon's study, music was only compared with sports.</p> <p>In a UK study, O'Neill (2002a) employed the expectancy-value model and found that ratings of beliefs and values by both boys and girls aged 10–12 showed a considerable decline once they were at secondary school. Similar to the findings of Eccles et al. ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref23">2</reflink>]) and Wigfield et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref24">28</reflink>]), girls' beliefs and values for playing instruments were higher than boys'. It was also found that the higher the children's beliefs and values for music, the more likely they were to play an instrument and continue musical involvement once at secondary school.</p> <p>The changes that may occur in musical beliefs and values later on in adolescence have yet to be examined. It can be argued that this is a critical time to study music engagement amongst adolescents, since in the UK, adolescents are able to decide whether or not to continue with music as part of their secondary education. Specifically, they make this choice in Year 9 at the age of 13–14 years, in preparation for Year 10. Research that has been conducted into GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) music uptake rates (e.g. Bray [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref25">1</reflink>]; Lamont and Maton [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref26">9</reflink>]; Wright 2002) has posited that the low rates are partially due to Adolescents' perceptions of it being difficult and elite at this level – e.g. where prior experience is required, the perceived significance of the subject in relation to other curriculum subjects, and the negative perceptions held by others potentially influencing Adolescents' decisions (e.g. parents encouraging their children to select more 'useful' subjects). Exploring Adolescents' beliefs and values for music, in relation to who they are admiring as role models, may help to offer an additional explanation for low engagement in music at this age, both in and out of school.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-4">Motivation as a function of role models</hd> <p>Lockwood and Kunda's (1997, 1999) notion that role models can be self-enhancing and inspiring, as well as self-deflating and demoralising, is understood further through the concepts of <emph>relevance</emph> and <emph>attainability</emph>.</p> <p>According to Lockwood and Kunda (1997, 1999), relevance is the degree to which individuals consider themselves to be similar to, and able to identify with, their role model. The more individuals are able to identify with their role models based on domain relevance, the more social comparison is likely to occur. For example, a student at a music conservatoire may find a musician more relevant as a role model than an actor. When an individual's role model is more distant, as in the case of celebrities, Lockwood and Kunda conclude that domain-relevance-based comparisons are more likely to occur as other similarities are more difficult to define.</p> <p>The degree to which the role model has an impact on the individual is also dependent on the perceived attainability of the role model's success. According to Lockwood and Kunda (1997, 1999), when the role model's success appears attainable, the individual will be inspired; when it appears unattainable, the individual will be self-deflated and demoralised.</p> <p>Although Lockwood and Kunda's (1997, 1999) research has contributed to our understanding of role models in relation to social comparison theory, the link between achievement motivation and musician role models has yet to be investigated. Musical role models have been chosen in this context because there is little research that concentrates solely on musical role models (see further, Ivaldi and O'Neill [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref27">7</reflink>]), despite the wealth of research that states that music is important to adolescents (see, for instance, North, Hargreaves, and O'Neill 2000; Tarrant, North, and Hargreaves [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref28">24</reflink>]; Zillman and Gan [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref29">31</reflink>]). According to Lockwood and Kunda's (1997, 1999) notion of relevance, it would be expected that adolescents who are involved in music (e.g. in this case, those who play a musical instrument) are more likely to choose musicians who play instruments as their role models, compared to adolescents who are not involved in music-making themselves. Similarly, according to their notion of attainability, adolescents who are learning to play an instrument are likely to perceive the attainability of their role model's success more than adolescents who are not involved in learning to play a musical instrument.</p> <p>This paper therefore examines the extent to which individuals' own beliefs and values influence their social comparison with their role model. In particular, it asks what role (if any) do Adolescents' competence beliefs and subjective task values for music have in relation to their aspirations and expectations for becoming like their musician role model? In exploring this question, gender differences were also investigated since previous research indicates that girls and boys may differ in their beliefs and values for music.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-5">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0051253586-6">Respondents</hd> <p>Adolescents (<emph>N</emph>=381, 186 females and 195 males) aged 13–14 years (Year 9) from four secondary schools around Stoke-on-Trent (in the north-west of England) agreed to take part in the research. The schools were located in both urban and rural areas and the pupils were from largely middle- and working-class backgrounds. After permission was gained from the head teacher, a letter was sent home to parents to inform them of the research. Parents had the opportunity to contact the school and author if they did not want their child to take part. At the time of the research, 59 adolescents played musical instruments (referred to as 'players') and 322 adolescents did not play instruments (referred to as 'non-players'). No adolescent stated 'voice' as the musical instrument they played.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-7">Materials</hd> <p>A questionnaire was employed in order to examine Adolescents' musician role models and their beliefs and values for music. The questionnaire consisted of five main sections: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref30">1</reflink>) listening to music; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref31">2</reflink>) playing musical instruments and singing; (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref32">3</reflink>) beliefs and values about playing musical instruments (e.g. how good do you think you are at playing a musical instrument? how much do you like playing a musical instrument?); (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref33">4</reflink>) admired musicians (e.g. write the name of a musician you admire, who is this musician? – someone famous, a teacher; etc.); and (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref34">5</reflink>) musical background (for those that played musical instruments). Some of the scales were constructed from items that emerged during a previous focus group interview designed to elicit open-ended responses from adolescents about their musical participation. Other scales were based on items used in the Adolescent Music Questionnaire (North, Hargreaves, and O'Neill [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref35">16</reflink>]), the Experience Sampling Questionnaire (Sloboda, O'Neill, and Ivaldi [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref36">23</reflink>]) and the Young People and Music Participation Project Questionnaire (O'Neill [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref37">18</reflink>]). Scale construction was guided by theoretical concerns and factor analyses. All items required the respondents to respond on a seven-point Likert scale. Unless otherwise stated, the anchors represented 1 (<emph>never or not at all</emph>)–7 (<emph>very often or a lot</emph>). All measures were checked for reliability and validity. Respondents were first asked to provide demographic information about their age, sex and whether or not they currently played a musical instrument.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-8">Attainability and aspirations for becoming like the musician role model</hd> <p>Items were used to measure participants' beliefs about how much they thought they <emph>could</emph> become the musician they identified and how <emph>important</emph> it was to become the musician that they identified. The items associated with the belief that participants 'could become the musicians they identified if they wanted to', loaded on to one factor accounting for 72.4% of the variance. This factor was interpreted as attainability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.89) for the six items (how much do you think you <emph>could become</emph> as successful as him/her, as committed/determined as him/her, as talented as him/her, as good-looking as him/her, as popular as him/her, and as ambitious as him/her?). The items associated with 'how important it was to be the musician they identified' loaded on to one factor accounting for 61.2% of the variance. This factor was interpreted as aspirations (Cronbach's alpha = 0.94) for the six items (how <emph>important</emph> is it for you to be as successful as him/her, as committed/determined as him/her, as talented as him/her, as good-looking as him/her, as popular as him/her, and as ambitious as him/her?). Mean composite scores were created for all factors and used in subsequent analyses.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-9">Beliefs and values for music</hd> <p>Respondents were asked to rate 14 items about their beliefs and values about playing a musical instrument. These measures were adapted by O'Neill (2001) from those created by Eccles et al. ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref38">2</reflink>]) for measuring competence beliefs and subjective task values within an expectancy-value theoretical framework.</p> <p>The 'belief' items included questions relating to the individual's perceived confidence in their competence for music (e.g. how good are you at playing a musical instrument compared to other activities you do and how good do you think you would be at playing an instrument?). The 'value' items related to the individual's perceived value for music (e.g. how much do you like playing a musical instrument?), usefulness (e.g. in general, how useful is being able to play a musical instrument?) and importance (e.g. for me, being good at playing an instrument is not at all important/very important). These scales have been found to have excellent reliability and validity in previous studies (see Eccles, O'Neill, and Wigfield [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref39">3</reflink>]). Mean composite scores were created for the two factors and used in subsequent analysis. The beliefs and values section and role model section of the questionnaire can be found in the Appendix.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-10">Procedure</hd> <p>The questionnaire was piloted with 56 adolescents (not in the main sample) and measures were checked for reliability and validity using Cronbach's alpha. As a result of the pilot, some of the items of the questionnaire were omitted as they were a repetition of previous items and made the questionnaire too long for respondents to complete in the allotted time.</p> <p>The final questionnaire was administered on a classroom basis. At the start of the class, instructions were read to the respondents and they were asked if they had any questions. Respondents were informed that they did not have to complete the questionnaire if they did not want to and that their names and school would not be identified in the research. In most cases, the questionnaire was completed during the students' scheduled music class. The majority of the respondents completed the questionnaire within 25 minutes. All those who were present at school during data collection agreed to participate.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-11">Results</hd> <p>Table 1 indicates the number and percentage of the type of famous musician role model admired by players and non-players. The majority of adolescents (81.1%) identified only one type of famous musician role model (i.e. singer, instrumentalist or songwriter/composer).</p> <p>Table 1. Number (and percentage) of famous singers, instrumentalists and songwriters/composers identified.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Is this person a famous ...</td><td>Players, <italic>N</italic> (%)</td><td>Non-players, <italic>N</italic> (%)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Singer</td><td char=".">42 (58.3)</td><td char=".">261 (72.5)</td></tr><tr><td>Instrumentalist</td><td char=".">13 (18.1)</td><td char=".">47 (13.1)</td></tr><tr><td>Songwriter/composer</td><td char=".">17 (23.6)</td><td char=".">52 (14.4)</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td char=".">72 (100)</td><td char=".">360 (100)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 2 documents who the adolescents actually nominated as their role model. The most frequently named role models are reported here, broken down by players and non-players.</p> <p>Table 2. Most frequently reported role models for players and non-players.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Players</td><td>Non-players</td></tr><tr><td>Name of role model</td><td>Frequency</td><td>Name of role model</td><td>Frequency</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Robbie Williams</td><td char=".">6</td><td>Robbie Williams</td><td char=".">37</td></tr><tr><td>Britney Spears</td><td char=".">3</td><td>Eminem</td><td char=".">24</td></tr><tr><td>Eminem</td><td char=".">1</td><td>Britney Spears</td><td char=".">14</td></tr><tr><td /><td char="." /><td>Craig David</td><td char=".">10</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>As Table 2 shows, Robbie Williams was the most admired role model for both players and non-players. This is not surprising, however, as Robbie came from the same town as the participants. Seven non-players identified DJs as their role model, with 22 participants in total identifying a pop group. Eight participants identified a classical musician or composer (players = 2; non-players = 6). Only four players identified a role model that played the same instrument as themselves – these role models were guitarists.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-12">Adolescents' beliefs and values for music</hd> <p>In order to examine whether Adolescents' beliefs and values for music differed from those found by Eccles et al. ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref40">2</reflink>]), a 2×2 multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted on the dependent measures of beliefs and values. The independent measures were the sex of the respondent and if they were players or non-players. The means and standard deviations for these measures are presented in Table 3.</p> <p>Table 3. Means and standard deviations for beliefs and values.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td>Beliefs</td><td>Values</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Females, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td><td>Males, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td><td>Females, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td><td>Males, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Players</td><td char=".">4.49 (1.10)</td><td char=".">4.89 (1.20)</td><td char=".">4.94 (1.24)</td><td char=".">5.34 (1.17)</td></tr><tr><td>Non-players</td><td char=".">3.11 (1.32)</td><td char=".">2.82 (1.18)</td><td char=".">2.99 (1.26)</td><td char=".">2.83 (1.55)</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td char=".">3.36 (1.24)</td><td char=".">3.08 (1.37)</td><td char=".">3.35 (1.46)</td><td char=".">3.15 (1.72)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Significant effects were found only for the players and non-players for beliefs (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref41">1</reflink>, 356) = 100.40, <emph>p</emph><0.001) and values (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref42">1</reflink>, 356) = 116.91, <emph>p</emph><0.001). Observations of the means suggest that the players had higher beliefs and values than the non-players, thus supporting the idea that adolescents who play an instrument will have higher beliefs and values than adolescents who do not play an instrument.</p> <p>A significant interaction was also found between the sex of the respondent and whether or not they played an instrument on the level of their beliefs for music (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref43">1</reflink>, 356) = 4.03, <emph>p</emph><0.05; see Figure 1). As Figure 1 illustrates, both male and female players had higher beliefs for music compared to male and female non-players. Post hoc Bonferroni <emph>t</emph>-tests (Dunn's test) were performed to test for significant differences within the interaction. A significant difference was found between the female players and non-players (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib175" id="ref44">175</reflink>) = 11.5, <emph>p</emph><0.01), where female players (<emph>M</emph>=4.49, SD = 1.10) had higher beliefs than female non-players (<emph>M</emph>=3.11, SD = 1.32). A significant difference was also found between the male players and non-players (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib185" id="ref45">185</reflink>) = 17.25, <emph>p</emph><0.01), where male players (<emph>M</emph>=4.89, SD = 1.20) had higher beliefs than male non-players (<emph>M</emph>=2.82, SD = 1.18).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Interaction between respondents' sex and whether they were players or non-players for the variable 'beliefs'.</p> <p>Observation of the interaction effect shows that the difference between ratings for beliefs by players and non-players is larger for males than it is for females. This suggests that whether or not one plays an instrument is a greater determinant of perceived musical competence beliefs for males than it is for females.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-13">The relevance of the musician role model</hd> <p>A chi-square test was used to examine if players were more likely than non-players to choose a famous musician role model who played an instrument. The results showed that players were significantly more likely than non-players to identify musician role models who were instrumentalists (χ<sups>2</sups>=3.63, df = 1, <emph>p</emph><0.05 – <emph>p</emph>-values are based on Fisher's exact test [one-tailed] as one cell was less than 5).</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-14">Attainability of the musician role model</hd> <p>The means and standard deviations for attainability differentiated by sex of respondent and sex of musician role model are presented in Table 4.</p> <p>Table 4. Means and standard deviations for attainability of male and female musician role model (RM).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td>Male adolescents</td><td>Female adolescents</td><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Male RM, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td><td>Female RM, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td><td>Male RM, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td><td>Female RM, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td><td>Total, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Players</td><td char=".">4.81 (1.15)</td><td char=".">3.66 (2.09)</td><td char=".">3.50 (1.22)</td><td char=".">4.25 (1.57)</td><td char=".">4.12 (1.46)</td></tr><tr><td>Non-players</td><td char=".">3.07 (1.56)</td><td char=".">3.41 (1.88)</td><td char=".">3.01 (1.55)</td><td char=".">3.53 (1.49)</td><td char=".">3.17 (1.58)</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td char=".">3.27 (1.61)</td><td char=".">3.44 (1.88)</td><td char=".">3.09 (1.51)</td><td char=".">4.25 (3.53)</td><td char=".">3.31 (1.60)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>A 2×2×2 between-subjects analysis of variance (ANOVA) was undertaken to find out not only if there were differences between the attainability beliefs of players and non-players, but also if these could be attributed to sex of respondent and role model. There were three independent measures: the sex of the respondent; the sex of the musician role model; and whether the respondent was a player or non-player.</p> <p>Players were significantly more likely than non-players to think they could become like their musician role model if they wanted to (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref46">1</reflink>, 350) = 9.32, <emph>p</emph><0.01). However, no other significant main effects were found.</p> <p>There was also a significant interaction between the sex of the respondent and the sex of the musician role model (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref47">1</reflink>, 350) = 9.59, <emph>p</emph><0.05; see Figure 2). As Figure 2 illustrates, both male and female respondents rated attainability higher when the musician role model was female rather than male. Post hoc Bonferroni <emph>t</emph>-tests (Dunn's test) were performed to test for significant differences within the interaction. A significant difference was found between the sex of the musician role model for female respondents only (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib173" id="ref48">173</reflink>) = 3.47, <emph>p</emph><0.01). Female respondents had higher attainability beliefs when their musician role model was female (<emph>M</emph>=4.52, SD = 3.53) rather than male (<emph>M</emph>=3.09, SD = 1.51).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Interaction between sex of the respondent and sex of the musician role model for the variable 'attainability'.</p> <p>In order to examine the strength of Adolescents' attainability further by controlling for the adolescents, beliefs and values, two 2×2×2 analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) were performed on the independent measures of the sex of the musician role model, sex of the respondent and whether the respondent was a player or non-player. The dependent measure was attainability and the covariates were beliefs and value beliefs, respectively. An examination of the correlation matrix found a significant correlation between the covariate beliefs and the dependent measure attainability (<emph>r</emph>(<reflink idref="bib356" id="ref49">356</reflink>) = 0.47, <emph>p</emph><0.01), and between the covariate values and the dependent measure attainability (<emph>r</emph>(<reflink idref="bib347" id="ref50">347</reflink>) = 0.41, <emph>p</emph><0.01). However, it was found that there were no significant main effects or interactions for attainability after controlling for the covariates beliefs and values. Thus, it may be concluded that the influence of attainability beliefs on Adolescents' motivation to pursue activities similar to their musician role models is mediated by their competence beliefs and subjective task values for music.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-15">Aspirations to become like their musician role models</hd> <p>A 2×2×2 between-subjects ANOVA was conducted on the dependent measure aspirations. The three independent measures were the sex of the musician role model, sex of the respondent and whether the respondent was a player or non-player. The means and standard deviations for these measures are presented in Table 5.</p> <p>Table 5. Means and standard deviations for aspirations of male and female musician role models (RM).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td>Male adolescents</td><td>Female adolescents</td><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Male RM, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td><td>Female RM, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td><td>Male RM, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td><td>Female RM, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td><td>Total, <italic>M</italic> (SD)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Players</td><td char=".">5.06 (1.50)</td><td char=".">4.34 (1.20)</td><td char=".">3.62 (1.35)</td><td char=".">4.64 (1.08)</td><td char=".">4.39 (1.42)</td></tr><tr><td>Non-players</td><td char=".">3.41 (2.04)</td><td char=".">3.51 (1.93)</td><td char=".">3.47 (1.77)</td><td char=".">4.44 (1.99)</td><td char=".">3.60 (1.97)</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td char=".">3.59 (2.05)</td><td char=".">3.63 (1.85)</td><td char=".">3.49 (1.70)</td><td char=".">4.49 (1.82)</td><td char=".">3.72 (1.91)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Significant effects were found for the players and non-players for aspiration beliefs only (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref51">1</reflink>, 354) = 5.09, <emph>p</emph><0.05). Observations of the means suggested that the players were more likely to want to become like their musician role model, compared to the non-players.</p> <p>A significant interaction was also found for aspirations between the sex of the respondent and the sex of the musician role model (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref52">1</reflink>, 354) = 4.31, <emph>p</emph><0.05; see Figure 3). As Figure 3 illustrates, both male and female respondents rated aspirations higher when the musician role model was female rather than male. Post hoc Bonferroni <emph>t</emph>-tests (Dunn's test) were performed to test for significant differences within the interaction. A significant difference was found between the sex of the musician role model for female respondents, where female respondents had higher aspiration beliefs when their musician role model was female (<emph>M</emph>=4.49, SD = 1.82) rather than male (<emph>M</emph>=3.49, SD = 1.70), (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib175" id="ref53">175</reflink>) = 5, <emph>p</emph><0.01). A significant difference was also found between the sex of the respondent and female musician role models, where female respondents (<emph>M</emph>=4.49, SD = 1.82) had higher aspirations compared to male respondents (<emph>M</emph>=3.63, SD = 1.85) when the musician role model was female (<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib97" id="ref54">97</reflink>) = 3.19, <emph>p</emph><0.01).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3. Interaction between sex of the respondent and sex of the musician role model for the variable 'aspirations'.</p> <p>In order to examine the strength of Adolescents' aspirations further by controlling for the adolescents beliefs and values, two 2×2×2 ANCOVA were performed on the independent measures of the sex of the musician role model, sex of the respondent and whether the respondent was a player or non-player. The dependent measure was aspirations and the covariates were beliefs and value beliefs, respectively. The correlation matrix revealed a moderate but significant relationship between the dependent measure aspirations and the covariate beliefs (<emph>r</emph>(<reflink idref="bib359" id="ref55">359</reflink>) = 0.29, <emph>p</emph><0.01), and for aspirations and the covariate values (<emph>r</emph>(<reflink idref="bib351" id="ref56">351</reflink>) = 0.36, <emph>p</emph><0.01). However, it was found that there were no significant main effects or interactions for aspirations after controlling for the covariates beliefs and values. Similarly to attainability beliefs, it may be concluded that the influence of aspiration beliefs on adolescents' motivation to pursue activities similar to their musician role models is mediated by their competence beliefs and subjective task values for music.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-16">Discussion</hd> <p>The results indicated that players had higher beliefs and values for music than non-players. This not only supports the research of Eccles et al. ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref57">2</reflink>]), Wigfield et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref58">28</reflink>]) and O'Neill (2002a) who looked at children's beliefs and values for music, but also extends these findings into adolescence. It was also found that female players had higher beliefs than female non-players, and male players had higher beliefs than male non-players. The difference in beliefs between players and non-players was larger for males than it was for females, thus suggesting that playing an instrument (or not) is a greater determinant of perceived musical competence for males than it is for females. It is possible that males who play instruments are more realistic about their ability and therefore rate themselves higher than males who do not play instruments. It may also be that since far more girls than boys play instruments during childhood, girls may believe that most girls are good at playing musical instruments and value music as an activity more than boys (see further, O'Neill [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref59">17</reflink>]). Previous research has also shown that girls tend to have higher beliefs and values for music than boys (see, for instance, Eccles et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref60">2</reflink>]; O'Neill 2002a; Wigfield et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref61">28</reflink>]; Yoon 1997). Although no significant gender differences were found in the current study, the means did suggest that the male players had marginally higher beliefs compared to female players, and that female non-players had marginally higher beliefs compared to male non-players.</p> <p>One way of explaining these findings is to draw on Eccles et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref62">2</reflink>]) reference to how the majority of professional instrumental musicians observed in our culture are males rather than females, and how this contradicts their findings that girls have higher beliefs and values for music compared to boys. O'Neill (1997) also made reference to the prominent role that males have in the music profession. Therefore, it is possible that a change in gender-role beliefs towards music may begin to occur during adolescence, such that adolescents may begin to align themselves with observations of more male musicians in the adult world.</p> <p>Players were more likely to identify musician role models that were instrumentalists compared to non-players. These findings lend support to Lockwood and Kunda's (1997, 1999) notion of the relevance of the role model; that is, an individual is more likely to make a comparison with another when that other person is perceived as relevant to themselves (in this case, an adolescent who plays an instrument is more likely to admire a musician role model who plays an instrument than an adolescent who does not play an instrument). This finding is particularly pertinent given that Lockwood and Kunda (1997) stated that domain relevance is more important in the case of celebrities (as musical role models), since the individual is less likely to identify other characteristics on which to compare.</p> <p>The findings also indicated that players were more likely to think that they could become like their musician role model if they wanted to than non-players. These findings relate to and support the notion that individuals are more likely to make comparisons with others if they believe they could become like that person (Lockwood and Kunda 1997, 1999). The findings may also be explained in terms of the research relating to competence beliefs and the influence they have on individuals' expectancies for future success. In other words, players have higher competence beliefs than non-players and are more likely to think they could become like their musician role model as a result of their higher competence beliefs.</p> <p>As the literature and earlier findings suggest, it is possible that the Adolescents' beliefs and values for music might have influenced their attainability beliefs. In order to examine the strength of their attainability beliefs and to control for these two variables, further analyses were conducted. No significant main effects or interactions were found for attainability beliefs when controlling for beliefs and values. In other words, controlling for beliefs and values evened out any differences that might have existed between groups, which may have influenced their attainability beliefs. This is in contrast to the first finding where it was found that players had higher attainability beliefs than non-players.</p> <p>Drawing on Eccles et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref63">2</reflink>]) expectancy-value model, the constructs that are likely to govern the Adolescents' perceptions of whether or not they could become like the musician role model are their competence beliefs in music and their perceptions of how difficult the task is (i.e. task choice is related to perceived difficulty, see for instance, Weiner [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref64">26</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref65">27</reflink>]). Thus, if an adolescent has high beliefs, and believes that it is not difficult to become like their musician role model, then they are likely to have high attainability beliefs. Also, because 70% of the musician role models identified were singers, it is possible that the adolescents believed they had the <emph>ability</emph> to become like them. The fact that only 13.9% of the musician role models were instrumentalists may explain why playing an instrument (or not) did not have an impact on their attainability beliefs. If Adolescents' observations are based on musical figures that are not playing instruments, it is their own competence beliefs that are likely to determine whether or not they can become like them, as playing an instrument becomes less relevant.</p> <p>The attainability results support Lockwood and Kunda's (1997, 1999) notion of the relevance and attainability of the role model. Their studies concentrated on how attainable an individual found his or her role model's achievements to be. This in turn, they argued, determines the extent in which the individual will find their role model inspiring.</p> <p>It is argued that individuals are more likely to make comparisons with others if they want to become like that person. This notion is also supported by Eccles et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref66">2</reflink>]) expectancy-value theory, where it is posited that those who are involved in particular activities by choice are more likely to have higher value beliefs for that domain. In the present study, players reported higher aspiration beliefs than non-players. According to Eccles et al., subjective task values are made up of the value or importance of the task, its intrinsic value, and its perceived usefulness. Therefore, if players consider music to be important, useful and enjoyable, it is likely that they would want to become like their musician role model more than non-players.</p> <p>In examining the strength of aspiration beliefs by controlling for the Adolescents' beliefs and values, no main effects or interactions were found. These findings may be explained in a similar way to the attainability beliefs; after controlling for beliefs and values, playing an instrument does not influence Adolescents' aspiration beliefs. Thus, it may be concluded that beliefs and values are influencing how much the adolescent wants to become like their musician role model.</p> <p>In summary, we found that adolescents were more likely to identify musician role models based on attainability and relevance and to make comparisons when they believed they could become like their musician role model, and when the musician role model and adolescent shared relevant characteristics and interests. Since previous research had yet to look at the role of competence beliefs and subjective task values in Adolescents' attainability and aspiration beliefs, the present study extended research in this area. The majority of the adolescents do think that they could become like their musician role models if they wanted to, with their attainability and aspiration beliefs in relation to musician role models being mediated by their beliefs and value beliefs for music<emph>.</emph> This suggests that Adolescents' level of attainability beliefs may be due to the fact that most of their musician role models do not play instruments and, as a result, believe their accomplishments to be more attainable.</p> <p>The findings also suggest that females have higher attainability beliefs when their musician role model is female rather than male. It was argued that this might be because of the gender-relevance of the role model. In other words, as Lockwood and Kunda (1997) stated, an individual is more likely to make comparisons when the individual and the role model share similar characteristics and interests. However, if this is indeed the case then this finding has important implications for female adolescents as the findings indicate that adolescents in general admire male musician role models. As fewer adolescents admire female musician role models then it may be interpreted that female adolescents are making fewer comparisons as a result. Although female adolescents are able to identify a musician role model, they are less likely to want to become like them and think that they can become like them. As a result, it may be that female adolescents are less inspired, and therefore less motivated to engage in the same activities as their musician role model.</p> <p>It appears that for the majority of adolescents in the sample, playing a musical instrument is not an important factor in whom they identify as their 'musical' role model. However, this may be a result of the fact that the majority of musician role models identified did not play instruments themselves. Talent shows aired on television (such as X Factor in the UK and American Idol in America) may have a significant influence on adolescents identifying singers as their role models, in addition to potentially increasing Adolescents' attainability and aspiration beliefs for making it as a pop star. This finding might have a potentially positive impact on Adolescents' perceptions of voice in the classroom. However, Wright (2002) found in a sample of 181 Year 9 pupils that using the voice as an instrument was placed in low regard, and that over two-thirds considered having an ability to play an instrument was important when it came to their decision to take GCSE music. Wright argues that by raising the status of singing in schools, in combination with the provision of performance training, more pupils may be encouraged to select music in Year 10.</p> <p>Despite the fact that adolescents are more likely to identify famous singers as their role models, Wright's ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref67">29</reflink>]) findings would suggest that such musical figures are not influencing Adolescents' attitudes towards singing in the classroom. Indeed, North, Hargreaves, and O'Neill (2000) describe the mismatch that often occurs between young people's musical preferences and the music curriculum of schools; these differences can have important consequences for motivation and musical learning. There is often a mismatch between the music-making that young people value in the real world and their perceptions of music-making in the classroom. According to Popkewitz ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref68">21</reflink>]), when knowledge enters the school curriculum, it inevitably undergoes a process of change that alters its original features and masks its relevance to the world outside school (see further Popkewitz and Gustafson [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref69">22</reflink>]). The music that is produced by Adolescents' musician role models is based on a different set of beliefs, values, assumptions and attitudes about the nature of music-making in society.</p> <p>It is also possible that if adolescents were asked to identify a role model from a wide variety of domains, that the pop singer as role model may not be identified as frequently. However, the image of the role model has been identified as an important factor in who adolescents are identifying as their role model (see further, Ivaldi and O'Neill 2008). A British poll in 2006 by Luton First, organisers of National Kids' Day, surveyed approximately 1500 pre-teens and asked them to name 'the very best thing in the world'. The most popular answer was 'being a celebrity', followed by 'good looks' and 'being rich' (Twenge and Campbell [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref70">25</reflink>]). It is possible that increasingly young people are coming to view music engagement not in terms of artistic expression or development, but rather as a means for becoming famous. North, Hargreaves, and O'Neill (2000) found that for males, in particular, creating an external image for oneself was a key reason for wanting to learning to play an instrument. There is also a highly competitive element to this focus on image in relation to musician role models that may create considerable motivational barriers and constraints for Adolescents' engagement in music. This also poses particular difficulties for music educators who aim to foster positive motivation for adolescent engagement in formal music learning at school.</p> <p>Whilst it was not the aim of the study to explore the relationship between the adolescents identifying instrumental role models and their own levels of music engagement, it can be suggested that the lack of instrumental role models may be having a direct influence on the small numbers of adolescents currently playing an instrument. This, in turn, may subsequently impact GCSE uptake, particularly as adolescents perceive prior musical experience to be an important determinant in continuing with school music after Year 9 (Bray 2000; Lamont and Maton 2008; Wright 2002); exposing adolescents to a wider range of instrumental role models may therefore be crucial to maintaining and sustaining instrumental learning in adolescence.</p> <p>O'Neill (2002b) points out that the way young musicians construct a sense of who they are can act as a constraining influence on their musical learning, particularly as their identities reaffirm societal and cultural norms and stereotypes. Once adolescents come to understand what constitutes a musical performance within a particular school or outside school context, their perceptions are often resistant to change and disconfirmation. Instead of accommodating or accepting new or different performance practices, there is a tendency for students to ignore or reject those practices that do not conform to their own beliefs and values. Young people are rarely encouraged or given the opportunity to explore these differences in ways that might challenge the taken-for-granted or hidden agendas that accompany their beliefs and values about musicians and their own music engagement. Jorgensen ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref71">8</reflink>]) joins many other music educators in describing the need for music education to broaden its scope so that young people may begin to broaden their own perspectives and see patterns of relevance in the music-making by a wider range of musicians in the world around them.</p> <p>Further research that explores Adolescents' perceptions of the role model's impact on their own musical learning is necessary in order to examine the significance of the role model more fully. In addition, research into expert adolescent musicians' attainability and aspiration beliefs for musical role models might be useful in determining the impact that the role model can have on adolescent music engagement. It is also necessary for researchers to examine the influence of different educational strategies aimed at increasing Adolescents' understanding of the value of diverse forms of music-making in the world around them and exposure to a wider variety of musician role models who are capable of broadening Adolescents' beliefs and values about what it means to be a musician.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-17">Notes on contributors</hd> <p>Antonia Ivaldi completed her PhD in social music psychology at the Unit for the Study of Musical Skill and Development at Keele University. Her PhD examined why adolescents admire famous musical role models and the implications for Adolescents' aspirations, expectations and identity. After working at Loughborough University, Antonia moved to the Royal Northern College of Music, Manchester in January 2006 to take up a research fellow position in the Centre for Music Performance Research. Her current research interests are identity and social interaction in a musical context.</p> <p>Susan A. O'Neill was formerly a senior lecturer in psychology at Keele University and associate director of the Unit for the Study of Musical Skill and Development. She was a visiting fellow at the University of Michigan before becoming professor (adjunct) at Simon Fraser University and associate professor at the University of Western Ontario, Canada. Her research interests include motivation and identity issues associated with children's and adolescents' musical engagement. She has published widely in the fields of music psychology and music education, including contributions to nine edited books all published by Oxford University Press.</p> <hd id="AN0051253586-18">Appendix. Year 9 Music Questionnaire</hd> <p>Part Two: Your beliefs about playing a musical instrument 12. Please circle a number between 1 and 7 for each question about playing a musical instrument</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td /><td><bold>Not at all good</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td><bold>Very good</bold></td></tr><tr><td>How good are you at playing a musical instrument?</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>How good do you think most teenagers your age are at playing a musical instrument?</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>How good would you be at learning to play a <bold>new</bold> musical instrument?</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>How good do you think you would be in a job playing an instrument when you finish school?</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Compared to other activities you do, how good do you think you would be at playing an instrument?</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td /><td><bold>One of the worst</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td><bold>The best</bold></td></tr><tr><td>If you were to list all the people in your music class from the worst to the best at playing an instrument, where would you put yourself?</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td /><td><bold>Not very much</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td><bold>A lot</bold></td></tr><tr><td>In general, how much do you like playing a musical instrument?</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td /><td><bold>Very boring</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td><bold>Very interesting</bold></td></tr><tr><td>In general, I find playing a musical instrument ...</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td /><td><bold>Not much fun</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td><bold>A lot of fun</bold></td></tr><tr><td>In general, I think playing an instrument is ...</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td /><td><bold>Not at all important</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td><bold>Very important</bold></td></tr><tr><td>For me, being good at playing an instrument is ...</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Compared to other activities I do, playing an instrument is ...</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>For me, putting a lot of effort into playing an instrument is ...</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>For me, being given the chance to play an instrument is ...</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td /><td><bold>Not at all useful</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td><bold>Very useful</bold></td></tr><tr><td>In general, how useful is being able to play a musical instrument?</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>When I am older, being able to play an instrument would be ....</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd1 id="AN0051253586-19">Part Four: Musicians you admire</hd1> <p>16. Think of a musician you admire. This can be anyone at all, someone in your family, one of your friends, someone in your class or school, a teacher, a pop or classical musician, or maybe someone that is no longer alive.</p> <p>Write the full name of the musician you admire (please PRINT): __________________</p> <hd1 id="AN0051253586-20">OR</hd1> <p>If you can't think of anyone you admire, think of a musician that teenagers admire and write their name here (please PRINT): ___________________________</p> <p>Who is this musician? (please circle one)</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td>A Teacher</td><td>A family member</td><td>A friend</td><td>Someone famous →</td><td>Is this person: (Please tick those that apply)</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>ℑ a singer</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>ℑ an instrumental player</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>ℑ a song writer/composer</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>17. Thinking about this musician that you have just identified, please answer the questions below.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td><bold>I/teenagers admire this musician because he or she was/is ...</bold></td><td><bold>Not at all</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td><bold>A lot</bold></td></tr><tr><td>A good player/singer or composer/songwriter</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Committed/determined</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Good looking</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Hard working</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Cool/trendy</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>A good example</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Talented</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Good for his/her age</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Popular</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Ambitious</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Good on more than one instrument</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Able to overcome personal difficulties</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>Able to overcome physical difficulties</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>An inspiration</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>18. When you compare yourself to the musician you have identified...</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td><bold>How much do you think you COULD BECOME</bold></td><td><bold>Not at all</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td><bold>A lot</bold></td></tr><tr><td>As successful as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>As good a player/singer as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>As committed/determined as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>As talented as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>As good-looking as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>As popular as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>As ambitious as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>19. When you compare yourself to the musician you have identified...</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td><bold>How IMPORTANT is it for you to be...</bold></td><td><bold>Not at all important</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td><bold>Very important</bold></td></tr><tr><td>As successful as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>As good a player/singer as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>As committed/determined as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>As talented as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>As good-looking as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>As popular as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>As ambitious as him/her</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr><tr><td>In general (not just in music), how important is it for you to have someone that you admire?</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ref id="AN0051253586-21"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref16" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Bray, D.2000. 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O'Neill</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib175" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib185" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib173" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib356" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib347" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib97" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib359" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib351" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref70"></nolink>
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  Data: Adolescents' Attainability and Aspiration Beliefs for Famous Musician Role Models
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Role+Models%22">Role Models</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Music%22">Music</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Musicians%22">Musicians</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Aspiration%22">Aspiration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Music+Teachers%22">Music Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Beliefs%22">Beliefs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Questionnaires%22">Questionnaires</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Motivation%22">Student Motivation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Music+Education%22">Music Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Methods%22">Teaching Methods</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/14613801003746568
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1461-3808
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study examines the role that adolescents' competence beliefs and subjective task values for music have in relation to their aspirations and expectations for becoming like their musician role models. A total of 381 adolescents (aged 13-14) completed a questionnaire about their competence beliefs and values for music, the musicians they admired and why, and their attainability and aspiration beliefs about becoming like their musician role model. Adolescents' aspiration and attainability beliefs were influenced by their beliefs and values for music; adolescents who played an instrument were more likely than non-players to think they could become like their musician role model, and were more likely than non-players to choose role models who played instruments. The majority of adolescents thought that they could become like their musician role models if they wanted to, with their attainability and aspiration beliefs in relation to musician role models being mediated by their beliefs and value beliefs for music. The findings suggest that because the majority of adolescents' musician role models do not play instruments, they believe that their role models' accomplishments are more attainable, which also increases their aspirations to become like their musician role models. Implications for music educators are discussed in relation to the need for strategies that increase young people's valuing of music played by a wider range of musicians, thereby increasing positive motivation towards youth engagement in music. (Contains 5 tables and 3 figures.)
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: Ref
  Label: Number of References
  Group: RefInfo
  Data: 31
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2010
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ886220
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ886220
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/14613801003746568
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 19
        StartPage: 179
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Role Models
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Music
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Musicians
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Aspiration
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Music Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Beliefs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Questionnaires
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Motivation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Music Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teaching Methods
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Adolescents' Attainability and Aspiration Beliefs for Famous Musician Role Models
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Ivaldi, Antonia
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: O'Neill, Susan A.
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 06
              Type: published
              Y: 2010
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1461-3808
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 12
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Music Education Research
              Type: main
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