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Service Learning as a Mechanism for Change in Attitudes and Perceptions of Human Services Students toward Substance-Dependent Mothers

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Title: Service Learning as a Mechanism for Change in Attitudes and Perceptions of Human Services Students toward Substance-Dependent Mothers
Language: English
Authors: Hogan, Sean R., Bailey, Caroline E.
Source: Journal of Teaching in Social Work. 2010 30(4):420-434.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 15
Publication Date: 2010
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Descriptors: Human Services, Undergraduate Students, Quasiexperimental Design, Substance Abuse, Mothers, Service Learning, Social Work, Experimental Groups, Residential Programs, Drug Rehabilitation, Drug Addiction, Knowledge Level, Student Attitudes, Children, Attitude Change
Geographic Terms: California
DOI: 10.1080/08841233.2010.516729
ISSN: 0884-1233
Abstract: The purpose of the study was to explore the potential effectiveness of service learning as a pedagogical technique for providing substance abuse education to human services/social work students. Using a quasi-experimental design, the authors assigned 38 human services undergraduate students to experimental and comparison groups on the basis of their availability to attend a service-learning project in substance abuse. The service learning consisted of a 30-min educational presentation followed by a visit to a residential substance abuse treatment facility for women. Results indicated that service learning in substance abuse had a positive effect on the general knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes of human services students toward substance-dependent mothers and their children. The findings from this exploratory study support future research in this area. (Contains 2 tables.)
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 26
Entry Date: 2010
Accession Number: EJ905369
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0055227326;8am01oct.10;2019Feb28.13:40;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0055227326-1">Service Learning as a Mechanism for Change in Attitudes and Perceptions of Human Services Students Toward Substance-Dependent Mothers. </title> <p>The purpose of the study was to explore the potential effectiveness of service learning as a pedagogical technique for providing substance abuse education to human services/social work students. Using a quasi-experimental design, the authors assigned 38 human services undergraduate students to experimental and comparison groups on the basis of their availability to attend a service-learning project in substance abuse. The service learning consisted of a 30-min educational presentation followed by a visit to a residential substance abuse treatment facility for women. Results indicated that service learning in substance abuse had a positive effect on the general knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes of human services students toward substance-dependent mothers and their children. The findings from this exploratory study support future research in this area.</p> <p>Keywords: service learning; substance abuse; social work education</p> <hd id="AN0055227326-2">INTRODUCTION</hd> <p>Over the past 20 years, there has been a movement in higher education to incorporate service learning into the broad university curriculum as a means of increasing community and civic involvement in university students ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref1">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref2">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref3">26</reflink>]). Service learning joins traditional academic classroom curricula with community service through an interactive and integrated process of teaching, learning, and reflecting ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref4">13</reflink>]). Pedagogically, it is important to distinguish service-learning experiences from community service projects or required field practica. Service- learning curricula synthesize the students' academic needs with the needs of the community, whereas community-based field practica and voluntary community service experiences have largely independent needs-based objectives ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref5">14</reflink>]). Service learning also targets key outcomes in the educational process, including student learning, promoting community service, and creating partnerships between students and members of their local communities ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref6">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>Theoretically, service-learning experiences are conceptualized using differing models, most prominently the civic engagement model and the philanthropic model. The civic engagement model of service learning proposes that civic involvement is a fundamental part of higher education ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref7">8</reflink>]) and that citizenship experiences lay an important foundation for later community involvement ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref8">4</reflink>]). Proponents of the civic engagement model suggest that service learning changes the primary focus of higher education institutions (i.e., research and teaching) to incorporate outreach into the curricula, thereby invigorating students' interest in social justice and civic responsibility ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref9">25</reflink>]). In turn, this creates greater student awareness of social problems and social welfare issues, endearing students to the role of social activist ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref10">25</reflink>]). Alternatively, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref11">1</reflink>]) supported a philanthropic model of service learning in which students critically and neutrally observe their world through service, gaining knowledge and empathy for others, and building strength of character. In this empathy-based model, students act as observers of social processes and must therefore form their own abstract definitions of <emph>social justice</emph> and <emph>altruism</emph>, rather than acting directly as agents of social change, a process that may inadvertently cause students to incorporate or adopt preordained agendas, beliefs, and attitudes regarding social justice. Hence, the philanthropic conceptualization of service learning reinforces the notion that service learning functions as a mechanism for personal development, as well as the development of critical thinking in students ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref12">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref13">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>The civic engagement and philanthropic models of service learning have direct application to the education of human services students who digest a curriculum emphasizing both community involvement and empathy-building experiences. These aspects of a human services education are particularly important in the context of providing services to disenfranchised and underserved populations, such as substance abusers. Development of empathic, nonjudgmental attitudinal states is an important curricular objective in the education of students and professionals serving substance-abusing clients ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref14">6</reflink>]). Service-learning experiences enhance the development of essential professional skills such as reducing negative stereotyping, developing tolerance, and building acceptance of diversity ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref15">9</reflink>]). Research suggests that, when paired with reflection, service-learning curricula help students reframe their attitudes regarding substance abuse ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref16">22</reflink>]).</p> <p>Evidence is mixed regarding the efficacy of service-learning programs in terms of empathy-building outcomes and enhancing learning beyond required coursework ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref17">1</reflink>]), particularly as this relates to attitudes regarding substance-abusing clients (Averill et al., 1997; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref18">19</reflink>]). It has been found that the overall quality and comprehensive character of the service-learning experience influences student-reported outcome measures. Important variables such as quality of agency placement; opportunity for reflective discussion with peers, supervisors, and faculty; and application of course materials have been shown to be strong predictors of learning efficacy ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref19">9</reflink>]). These variables were identified by Eyler and Giles following large-scale national mixed-method service-learning studies examining the experiences of college students before and after community- and curriculum-based service-learning experiences. Similarly, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref20">23</reflink>]) found that written reflection and integration of course content played a meaningful role in the academic and professional development of family science students. Following a service-learning experience in substance abuse, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref21">19</reflink>]) found that human services students engaging in substance-abuse prevention and education programs with peers reported a better knowledge of substance abuse as a construct, as well as increased empathy for college students experiencing substance abuse difficulties. In a study of medical students providing a 6-week service-learning community-based intervention to substance-dependent women, qualitative evidence suggested that medical students increased empathy and knowledge of stressors for this particular population, but they did not report increased substance-abuse knowledge (Averill et al., 1997). Of particular interest to the present study is whether service-learning experiences can create the empathy necessary to promote reduction of negative attitudes toward substance-dependent mothers.</p> <p>Historically, substance-dependent populations have been viewed negatively because of moralistically based beliefs that substance use and abuse is a personal choice made by individuals of weak will and poor character ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref22">6</reflink>]). Substance-dependent mothers are frequently subjected to negative stereotypes and negative attitudes regarding their parenting abilities solely on the basis of their diagnosis of substance dependence rather than on their observable parenting behaviors ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref23">21</reflink>]). One such stereotype is that because of their alcohol and drug use, substance-dependent mothers are more likely to abuse their children ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref24">15</reflink>]). Although the strong correlation between substance abuse and child maltreatment is clear, substance dependence is not necessarily the causal factor in every case of child abuse with substance-dependent caregivers. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref25">12</reflink>]) found that mothers who abuse drugs are no more at risk for abusing their children than non–drug users with similar demographic backgrounds. Hogan et al. concluded that the same risk factors that predict substance abuse among low-income women also predict child abuse, but that one does not necessarily predict the other.</p> <p>Similarly, negative bias exists regarding the developmental trajectory of children of substance-dependent mothers. Although children of substance-dependent women may experience developmental delays and require long-term supportive services, a number of environmental risk factors such as homelessness, low maternal education, low income, and minority status, in addition to parental substance abuse, influence this outcome ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref26">7</reflink>]). At intake, mothers in substance-abuse treatment programs reported low parenting knowledge in the domains of newborn care, feeding behavior, child development, and drug abuse during pregnancy. After a 7-week parent training, the same group of substance-dependent mothers displayed a significant increase in knowledge in these areas ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref27">24</reflink>]). This suggests that parental substance abuse is not the sole cause of the behavioral and health problems observed in children of substance-dependent mothers.</p> <p>Negative attitudes toward substance abusers may lead to punitive treatment of the substance-dependent population by health services workers ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref28">18</reflink>]). Regarding attitudes toward substance-dependent clients, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref29">18</reflink>]) found that undergraduate students had more moralistic appraisals of clients and more negative attitudes regarding treatment outcome than did postgraduate students. Positive attitudes toward treatment outcomes enable health care providers to effectively provide necessary interventions to substance-abusing clients ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref30">17</reflink>]). Thus, strategies are needed in order to overcome attitudinal barriers among human services workers relevant to the service and treatment of substance-abusing clients ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref31">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although traditional educational experiences yield gains in substance abuse knowledge, it is unclear whether these experiences are effective in reducing negative stereotypical attitudes toward the client population. After an educational intervention, knowledge levels of human services workers have increased; however, attitudinal changes have been inconsistent ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref32">10</reflink>]; Gregoire, 1991). [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref33">20</reflink>]) found that a brief (4-hr) educational intervention regarding substance abuse was not sufficient to produce attitudinal changes in master's-level social work students. Conversely, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref34">2</reflink>]) found that professional social workers provided with longer-term (84-hr course taught in 3-hr intervals once per week over 9 consecutive months) educational programs about substance abuse experienced significantly positive changes in attitude compared with a group of social workers without such training. [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref35">6</reflink>]) reported that in comparison with a group of highly educated, multidisciplinary professionals working directly with substance-abusing clients, colleagues with equal education but lack of direct service provision experience held significantly greater negative views toward substance-dependent clients and potential treatment outcomes, suggesting that general education alone may not be sufficient to reduce pervasive negative stereotypical beliefs. In contrast, receiving specific coursework in substance abuse as part of a standardized medical education curriculum has been shown to produce more positive attitudes toward substance-dependent patients in medical students ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref36">5</reflink>]).</p> <p>The relation between service learning and attitudes toward substance-abusing clients in human services/social work students requires further investigation. The present study explored the effect of a single service-learning experience on the attitudes and perceptions of undergraduate human services students toward substance-dependent mothers. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref37">16</reflink>]) stated that one-time and short-term (e.g., one-semester) service-learning experiences "can result in perceptual and attitudinal changes among participants and inspire their commitment to further service" (p. 133). Using the philanthropic model as a conceptual framework, we predicted that students participating in a service-learning experience will display gains in general knowledge about the client population, a reduction in punitive attitudes toward substance-dependent mothers, and a reduction in negative perceptions of increased or persistent development deficits and child maltreatment among children of substance-dependent mothers, in comparison with students not receiving the service-learning intervention. The purpose of this study was to provide evidence to support the use of service learning as an effective pedagogical tool in the substance-abuse education of human services and social work students.</p> <hd id="AN0055227326-3">METHODS</hd> <p>This study used a quasi-experimental research design to explore the effect of service learning on the attitudes and perceptions of human services students toward substance-dependent mothers and their children. Using a pretest–posttest nonequivalent comparison groups design, we assigned 38 human services undergraduate students from a large public university in southern California to experimental and comparison groups on the basis of their availability to attend a service-learning project in substance abuse. We automatically placed students in the comparison group (<emph>n</emph> = 19) if they were unable to attend the scheduled service-learning project. We recruited study participants through flyers and classroom announcements; the Human Services Student Association at the university also played an integral role in soliciting student participation. There were no exclusion criteria for the study, with the exception that a study participant had to be a human services major or minor at the time of the study. All participation was voluntary; there were no incentives provided to study participants.</p> <p>The service-learning project consisted of one 30-min educational presentation on basic substance-abuse concepts (e.g., diagnostic criteria, theoretical underpinnings and models of use) and information related to substance-dependent mothers and their children; the presentation was given by a full-time tenure-track faculty member considered knowledgeable in the field of substance abuse and substance-abuse treatment. The educational presentation was followed by a visit to a public residential substance-abuse treatment facility for women located in Los Angeles County in California. This agency primarily serves low-income minority women who have had their children removed by child protective services. At the treatment facility, students observed substance-dependent mothers in a large group process. This single 60-min observation entailed students listening to clients voluntarily share some of their life experiences related to substance abuse and its consequences. After the group-process observation, students were allowed to interact with clients individually. Students were encouraged to ask the women questions about their substance-abuse experiences. This informal interaction lasted for approximately 1 hr. The community-service aspect of the service-learning project included donations of clothing and personal hygiene items to the clients at the treatment facility. Students were present to observe the receipt of these items by the substance-dependent mothers.</p> <p>We used an original 48-statement, 5-point Likert-type scale questionnaire, ranging from 1 (<emph>strongly disagree</emph>) to 5 (<emph>strongly agree</emph>), to measure changes in the perceptions and attitudes of students toward substance-dependent mothers and their children. The instrument also contained demographic information (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, parental status) and information related to a study participant's previous substance abuse education, work experience, and relation to substance-abuse recovery (e.g., "Have you ever been in recovery for alcohol or drug problems?" and "Have you ever personally known anybody in recovery for alcohol or drug problems?"). After the pretest, we used principle component analysis and principal axis factoring to refine the measurement instrument. This analysis identified four primary constructs in the questionnaire: (a) general knowledge about substance-dependent mothers, (b) punitive attitudes toward substance-dependent mothers, (c) perceptions of increased or persistent developmental deficits among children of substance-dependent mothers, and (d) perceptions of increased child abuse and neglect among children of substance-dependent mothers (see the Appendix for list of statements by construct and load factors). The reliability of each corresponding set of statements varied from good to very good (Cronbach's alpha for each construct was.70,.74,.80, and.81, respectively). Ultimately, the original instrument was reduced to 22 statements, with one item reverse-coded. The reliability coefficient for the revised 22-item instrument was.85.</p> <p>The timeline for implementing this study was short. After identification of an appropriate substance abuse treatment program, informed consent was received from the agency and its clients. The recruitment of study participants began 1 month before the scheduled pretest. Students interested in participating in the research were provided with an informed consent form detailing the study and its requirements. Interested students were required to be available for all testing appointments. Students who were selected to participate in the service-learning project were required to be available for the agency visit, provide their own transportation to the agency, and be willing to bring clothing or personal hygiene items to the agency for the substance-dependent mothers. The pretest, 30-min educational presentation, and agency visit occurred during a 5-day span. The subsequent week (3–4 days later), study participants were given the posttest questionnaire. The questionnaire was scrambled for each administration. After completion of each administration, data were double-entered into an SPSS program by a student researcher and the first author. All data were kept private and confidential on a password-secured personal computer.</p> <p>For this study, we hypothesized that participation in a service-learning project involving substance-dependent mothers would have a positive effect on human services students' attitudes and perceptions of this client population. From the four aforementioned constructs, the hypotheses for this study were that students would (a) increase their general knowledge about substance-dependent mothers as a client population, (b) reduce or resign any preexisting punitive attitudes toward substance-dependent mothers, (c) reduce beliefs or perceptions that children of substance-dependent mothers suffer from increased and persistent developmental deficits, and (d) reduce beliefs or perceptions that the children of substance-dependent mothers suffer from increased child abuse and neglect. We examined these directional hypotheses using one-tailed independent and dependent <emph>t</emph> tests. In addition, we assessed demographic differences by group using chi-square and independent <emph>t</emph> tests. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 14.0 software. There were no missing data.</p> <hd id="AN0055227326-4">RESULTS</hd> <p>The sample of human services undergraduates from this study was predominately female (81.6%) and Hispanic (52.6%); the average age of study participants was 27 years. Most of the students (76.3%) did not have children. On average, study participants reported having taken one previous or concurrent college-level course in substance abuse; 28.9% of the study sample reported previous or concurrent work experience in substance-abuse treatment. Most students (71.1%) knew someone in recovery; however, only 2 students reported being in recovery themselves. There were no significant differences between the experimental and comparison groups on any demographic or substance abuse experience measures (see Table 1).</p> <p>TABLE 1 Demographics, by Group</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Variable</td><td>Experimental group (<italic>n</italic> = 19)</td><td>Comparison group (<italic>n</italic> = 19)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Gender (%)</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Female</td><td char=".">84.2</td><td char=".">78.9</td></tr><tr><td> Average age in years (<italic>SD</italic>)</td><td>27.05 (7.13)</td><td>28.03 (7.78)</td></tr><tr><td>Ethnicity (%)</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Asian/Pacific Islander</td><td char=".">21.1</td><td char=".">15.8</td></tr><tr><td> Caucasian</td><td char=".">31.6</td><td char=".">15.8</td></tr><tr><td> Hispanic</td><td char=".">47.4</td><td char=".">57.9</td></tr><tr><td> Other</td><td char=".">0</td><td char=".">10.5</td></tr><tr><td>Parental status (%)</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Not a parent</td><td char=".">78.9</td><td char=".">73.7</td></tr><tr><td>Average number of substance abuse courses taken (<italic>SD</italic>)</td><td>1.16 (0.98)</td><td>0.95 (0.85)</td></tr><tr><td>Know someone in recovery (%)</td><td char=".">78.9</td><td char=".">63.2</td></tr><tr><td>Worked or interned in a substance-abuse treatment facility (%)</td><td char=".">31.6</td><td char=".">26.3</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Note</italic>. There were no significant demographic differences by group.</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Results indicate that service-learning in substance abuse had a positive effect on the attitudes and perceptions of human services students relative to substance-dependent mothers and their children. At the pretest, there were no significant differences between the experimental and comparison groups on any of the four constructs (significance levels not shown). Following the service-learning experience, students in the experimental group displayed (a) a significant increase in general knowledge about the client population, (b) a marginally significant (<emph>t</emph> = 1.47; <emph>p</emph> =.08) decrease in punitive attitudes toward substance-dependent mothers, (c) a significant decrease in the belief or perception that children of substance-dependent mothers suffer increased or persistent developmental deficits, and (d) a significant decrease in the belief or perception that children of substance-dependent mothers suffer increased child abuse and neglect. There were no significant changes in the attitudes and perceptions of the comparison group between the two tests (see Table 2).</p> <p>TABLE 2 Pretest–Posttest Comparisons, by Construct</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Construct</td><td>Pretest</td><td>Posttest</td><td><italic>t</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>General knowledge about substance-dependent mothers (<italic>SD</italic>)</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Experimental group<xref ref-type="fn" rid="TFN2001" /></td><td char=".">30.42 (2.76)</td><td char=".">31.42 (2.80)</td><td char=".">−1.76</td><td char=".">.048</td></tr><tr><td> Comparison group</td><td char=".">30.11 (4.36)</td><td char=".">30.32 (3.99)</td><td char=".">−0.46</td><td char=".">.325</td></tr><tr><td>Punitive attitudes toward substance-dependent mothers (<italic>SD</italic>)</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Experimental group<xref ref-type="fn" rid="TFN2001" /></td><td char=".">19.11 (3.46)</td><td char=".">17.68 (3.16)</td><td char=".">1.47</td><td char=".">.080</td></tr><tr><td> Comparison group</td><td char=".">19.37 (2.83)</td><td char=".">19.05 (3.01)</td><td char=".">0.49</td><td char=".">.315</td></tr><tr><td>Perceived child development problems (<italic>SD</italic>)</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Experimental group<xref ref-type="fn" rid="TFN2001" /></td><td char=".">23.21 (2.88)</td><td char=".">19.53 (5.22)</td><td char=".">2.59</td><td char=".">.009</td></tr><tr><td> Comparison group</td><td char=".">22.68 (2.91)</td><td char=".">23.00 (3.25)</td><td char=".">−0.43</td><td char=".">.336</td></tr><tr><td>Perceived child abuse (<italic>SD</italic>)</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Experimental group<xref ref-type="fn" rid="TFN2001" /></td><td char=".">20.00 (2.79)</td><td char=".">18.42 (3.25)</td><td char=".">1.94</td><td char=".">.034</td></tr><tr><td> Comparison group</td><td char=".">20.68 (1.95)</td><td char=".">20.26 (1.66)</td><td char=".">0.93</td><td char=".">.183</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Note</italic>. Comparisons made using paired-samples <italic>t</italic> test (one-tailed).</td></tr><tr><td><ext-link id="TFN2001" /><sup>+</sup><italic>p</italic> <.10. * <italic>p</italic> <.05. **<italic>p</italic> <.01.</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>There were limitations to this study, including concerns with the study sample, measurement instrument, and consistency of service-learning experience among study participants. The small sample size (<emph>n</emph> = 38) limited the effectiveness of the factor analysis used to identify constructs in the original questionnaire. Ultimately, more than half (54.1%) of the original 48 items designed to gather information about the attitudes and preconceptions of students toward substance-dependent mothers, and we excluded their children from the final analysis. The final sets of statements had good reliability; however, the validity of this resultant instrument was not empirically confirmed or denied against other instruments. Systematic measurement errors related to response bias (i.e., acquiescent response set bias and social desirability bias) among study participants was another area of possible concern.</p> <p>We had some concerns related to the consistency of the service-learning experience for the experimental group. The educational component of the service learning was a 30-min lecture provided by a human services faculty member considered competent in substance abuse education. Originally, one lecture was scheduled so that all the study participants from the experimental group would receive the same information simultaneously. Unfortunately, because of some unforeseen practical issues, not all of the study participants were able to receive the educational component at the same meeting; this resulted in two separate lectures. Because the lectures were oral presentations, some natural variation occurred despite the use of identical lecture outlines and corresponding visual supports. The effect this had on the results is unclear. What became clear to us was the need for a standardized educational component ideally presented to students in a video or Web-based format. This would eliminate any potential inconsistencies in the information presented and allow for multiple sessions of the educational component, when necessary. The inconsistency of the agency experience for study participants was another area of concern; however, variability in this part of the service learning was beyond their control.</p> <p>Last, this sample of human services undergraduate students cannot be interpreted as representative of all human services undergraduates. Southern California has unique social, political, and demographic characteristics that may predispose human services/social work undergraduate students to different attitudes and beliefs about substance-dependent mothers and their children than are present in other regions of the country. For example, the students from this study were predominately young, female, and Hispanic. Because the community-service and client-interaction portions of the service-learning project occurred at a public substance-abuse treatment facility for low-income women, the student demographics and the client demographics were very similar. This may have affected the empathic reactions and responses of study participants. Consequently, the results from this study have limited generalizability.</p> <hd id="AN0055227326-5">DISCUSSION</hd> <p>Despite the limitations to this exploratory study, we were encouraged by the results. Consistent with our predictions and previous reports (Geissinger et al., 1991; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref38">19</reflink>]) a service-learning experience increased the student participants' overall academic knowledge of the target population and related constructs, in this case substance-dependent mothers and negative attitudes and perceptions toward them and their children. Diverging from pervious studies which examined the effect of service-learning as an ongoing component of an existing substance abuse course/curriculum ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref39">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref40">19</reflink>]), the present study examined the efficacy of a brief, one-time, service-learning intervention as part of a contained educational module. In contrast with [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref41">20</reflink>]), results from this study suggest that a brief service-learning experience is an effective pedagogical tool in educating human services/social work students about substance-abusing clients. Given the growing focus on providing services to this client population within the human services and social work disciplines, this brief-intervention model has broad implications for curriculum development that educators may wish to consider when developing undergraduate substance-abuse courses or brief continuing education modules.</p> <p>Traditionally, one goal of human services and social work curricula has been to ameliorate social stigma and prejudice toward disadvantaged populations, such as substance abusers ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref42">14</reflink>]). Too often, human services providers have succumbed to the negative rhetoric associated with this population ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref43">6</reflink>]). Substance-dependent mothers are a particularly vulnerable group for public consternation. As a result of the social opprobrium toward this client group, the children of substance-dependent mothers have been regarded as having a higher risk for negative outcomes than those of other at-risk populations ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref44">21</reflink>]). Although it cannot be denied that maternal substance abuse/use is one risk factor associated with potential child maltreatment and increased risk of developmental delay in children, evidence indicates that substance dependence is only one of several salient predictors of these outcomes, and it does not represent the primary causal factor in every case ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref45">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref46">12</reflink>]). Yet, given the persistent nature of preconceived negative attitudes toward this population, communicating this concept to predisposed students is not always successfully accomplished ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref47">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref48">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>While reducing human services and social work students' stereotypical negative perceptions of stigmatized client populations is an important curricular goal, it is often difficult to implement in a traditional classroom given the lack of direct client contact available in this forum. Consistent with [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref49">1</reflink>]) assertion that community engagement experienced through a neutral service-learning-based modality increases students' abilities to form their own unique attitudes and generate empathy for community members, our findings suggest that providing a single, high-quality, service-learning experience is an effective way to engender students to think critically and explore their preconceived perceptions of substance-abusing clients. It is likely that the service-learning experience, balancing student learning needs and community needs in a neutral, largely observational setting, allowed students to connect and critically evaluate both the academic and humanistic components related to working with substance-dependent mothers. As such, from a student's perspective, directly interacting with clients in a community-based agency setting humanized the clients, in essence, putting a tangible face on what was previously an abstract population-related concept. This suggests that the humanization of negatively stigmatized client populations is likely a critical component of creating the empathy necessary to reduce students' persistent negative attitudes toward client populations such as substance-dependent mothers. Hence, the implications for service learning as a mechanism of reducing negative, stigmatized attitudes are pedagogically worthwhile and warrant further investigation. If nothing else, these preliminary findings generate a starting point from which the very important curricular objective of reducing punitive attitudes of human services/social work students toward marginalized populations can be further explored.</p> <p>Future directions of this research include expanding on the existing pilot study in several key areas. Methodologically, we plan to extend their service-learning experience to include graduate social work students; a standardized educational component; a more refined measurement instrument, including qualitative and quantitative items; and the use of a switching replications research design. Study participants will also have the opportunity to process and reflect on their experiences in written assignments and open discussions.</p> <hd id="AN0055227326-6">CONCLUSION</hd> <p>The results from this exploratory study indicate that service learning may have an effective role in the substance abuse education of human services and social work students. Classroom education alone may not be sufficient to positively effect attitudinal change in human services/social work students with regard to substance-abusing clients. Personal interaction and service may be required to mediate internalized negative and punitive attitudes generated by long-established social stigma and prejudice toward this specific client population. If human services and social work students are to become effective service providers, education coupled with client interaction and service (i.e., service learning) may be the most efficacious pedagogical technique.</p> <hd id="AN0055227326-7">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>The authors acknowledge the contributions of student researchers Keira Membreno, Jacqueline Huerta, Julianna Taillon, Denese Boyer, and Issac Contreras, as well as the staff and clients of Little House in Bellflower, California.</p> <hd id="AN0055227326-8">APPENDIX</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0055227326-9">Questionnaire Statements by Construct</hd> <p>On a scale ranging from 1 (<emph>strongly disagree</emph>) to 5 (<emph>strongly agree</emph>), please circle the response that best fits with your view of the following statements. If you neither agree nor disagree with a question, then circle the <emph>neutral</emph> response.</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>General knowledge about substance-dependent mothers</td><td>Load factor</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1.</td><td>Substance-dependent mothers are more likely to start using alcohol and drugs at an earlier age than other women.</td><td char=".">.447</td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td>Substance-dependent mothers are more likely to become pregnant at a younger age than other women.</td><td char=".">.477</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td>Substance-dependent mothers are more likely to come from abusive homes than other women.</td><td char=".">.196</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td>Substance-dependent mothers are more likely to be unemployed than other women.</td><td char=".">.423</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>Substance-dependent mothers are more likely to have less income than other women.</td><td char=".">.643</td></tr><tr><td>6.</td><td>Substance-dependent mothers are more likely to have more education than other women.</td><td char=".">.373</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Cronbach's alpha =.703</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Punitive attitudes toward substance-dependent mothers</td><td>Load factor</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1.</td><td>Prenatal exposure to alcohol should be considered a form of child abuse.</td><td char=".">.782</td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td>Prenatal exposure to illicit drugs should be considered a form of child abuse.</td><td char=".">.778</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td>Exposing a child to illegal drug activity in a home should be considered a form of child abuse.</td><td char=".">.659</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td>Children of substance-dependent mothers should be placed in foster care.</td><td char=".">.224</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>The use of illicit drugs by substance-dependent mothers should be considered a crime.</td><td char=".">.447</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Cronbach's alpha =.737</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Perceptions of increased or persistent developmental deficits among children of substance-dependent mothers</td><td>Load factor</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1.</td><td>Children of substance-dependent mothers are more likely to have been born premature than other children.</td><td char=".">.529</td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td>Children of substance-dependent mothers are more likely to develop mental health disorders than other children.</td><td char=".">.807</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td>Children of substance-dependent mothers are more likely to have poorer social skills than other children.</td><td char=".">.623</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td>Children of substance-dependent mothers are more likely to have poorer learning skills than other children.</td><td char=".">.606</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>Children of substance-dependent mothers are more likely to have poorer communication skills than other children.</td><td char=".">.406</td></tr><tr><td>6.</td><td>Children of substance-dependent mothers are more likely to have speech and language delays than other children.</td><td char=".">.563</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Cronbach's alpha =.796</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Perceptions of increased child abuse and neglect among children of substance-dependent mothers</td><td>Load factor</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1.</td><td>Children of substance-dependent mothers are at higher risk for neglect than other children.</td><td char=".">.555</td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td>Children of substance-dependent mothers are more likely to have poorer hygiene skills than other children.</td><td char=".">.604</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td>Children of substance-dependent mothers are more likely to lack proper nutrition than other children.</td><td char=".">.548</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td>Children of substance-dependent mothers are at higher risk for physical abuse than other children.</td><td char=".">.751</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>Children of substance-dependent mothers are at higher risk for sexual abuse than other children.</td><td char=".">.710</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Cronbach's alpha =.812</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ref id="AN0055227326-10"> <title> REFERENCES </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref11" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Abel, C. F.2004. "A justification of the philanthropic model". In Service-learning: History, theory and issues, Edited by: Speck, B. W. and Hoppe, S. L.45–57. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref34" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Amodeo, M.2000. The therapeutic attitudes and behavior of social work clinicians with and without substance abuse training. Substance Use and Misuse, 35: 1507–1536.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref39" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Averill, N. J., Sallee, J. M., Robinson, J. T., McFarlin, J. M., Montgomery, A. A.Burkhardt, G. A.2007. A first-year community-based service learning elective: Design, implementation and reflection. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 19: 47–54.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref1" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Billig, S. H. and Welch, M.2004. 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  Data: Service Learning as a Mechanism for Change in Attitudes and Perceptions of Human Services Students toward Substance-Dependent Mothers
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Teaching+in+Social+Work%22"><i>Journal of Teaching in Social Work</i></searchLink>. 2010 30(4):420-434.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: The purpose of the study was to explore the potential effectiveness of service learning as a pedagogical technique for providing substance abuse education to human services/social work students. Using a quasi-experimental design, the authors assigned 38 human services undergraduate students to experimental and comparison groups on the basis of their availability to attend a service-learning project in substance abuse. The service learning consisted of a 30-min educational presentation followed by a visit to a residential substance abuse treatment facility for women. Results indicated that service learning in substance abuse had a positive effect on the general knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes of human services students toward substance-dependent mothers and their children. The findings from this exploratory study support future research in this area. (Contains 2 tables.)
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