View in EDS HTML Full Text PDF Full Text

Transformational School Leadership Effects on Student Achievement

Saved in:
Bibliographic Details
Title: Transformational School Leadership Effects on Student Achievement
Language: English
Authors: Sun, Jingping, Leithwood, Kenneth
Source: Leadership and Policy in Schools. 2012 11(4):418-451.
Availability: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Physical Description: PDF
Page Count: 34
Publication Date: 2012
Document Type: Information Analyses
Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Academic Achievement, Instructional Leadership, Transformational Leadership, Meta Analysis, Voting, Correlation, Educational Practices
DOI: 10.1080/15700763.2012.681001
ISSN: 1570-0763
Abstract: Based on a synthesis of unpublished transformational school leadership (TSL) research completed during the last 14 years, this study inquired into the nature of TSL and its effects on student achievement using review methods including standard meta-analysis and vote-counting techniques. Results identify a wider range of TSL practices than typically has been measured in previous TSL research. Results also suggest that TSL has small but significant effects on student achievement, some TSL practices are especially powerful explanations of these effects, and a large handful of variables both moderate and mediate TSL effects on students. (Contains 1 note and 6 tables.)
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 51
Entry Date: 2012
Accession Number: EJ982484
Database: ERIC
Full text is not displayed to guests.
FullText Links:
  – Type: pdflink
    Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwGMfsq-_sXyK2-DNhXO-_WLAAAA4TCB3gYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHQMIHNAgEAMIHHBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDDW_QPeAEh4SzenL5wIBEICBmdSp-tjN3mghVgvZ00lO1Zoe_Ng_Q1ryeNs2CFqIOAALfzAPUUTrdX6sCV_ApRWMaMYpBs6BDswkXVMA13pWW6Hs9ViFJ-q5_mNm3VwmYyVIGIE-7hj6MvBooPe5rAgbELD9ehhf_eLOQFpR1CyitxVMKNbts3TdJuKBjBTuBWxNxOrEKOLroOuQAZPBQejNBa3aTn0hZ6-72Q==
Text:
  Availability: 1
  Value: <anid>AN0082474530;o8o01oct.12;2019Mar14.13:37;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0082474530-1">Transformational School Leadership Effects on Student Achievement. </title> <sbt id="AN0082474530-2">INTRODUCTION</sbt> <p>Based on a synthesis of unpublished transformational school leadership (TSL) research completed during the last 14 years, this study inquired into the nature of TSL and its effects on student achievement using review methods including standard meta-analysis and vote-counting techniques. Results identify a wider range of TSL practices than typically has been measured in previous TSL research. Results also suggest that TSL has small but significant effects on student achievement, some TSL practices are especially powerful explanations of these effects, and a large handful of variables both moderate and mediate TSL effects on students.</p> <p>Improving student achievement has become the focus of policymakers in many jurisdictions and the focus of many school leadership scholars who have made substantial efforts to capture approaches to leadership that are effective for this purpose (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref1">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref2">51</reflink>]). Among the handful of leadership models or approaches attracting most of this attention, transformational and instructional models dominate. Empirical evidence of the effects of both approaches is still quite limited, however, and the vast majority of published evidence about transformational leadership's effects has been collected in non-school contexts. This gap in published evidence collected in school contexts has sometimes led to claims about the limited value of this approach to leadership in such contexts (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref3">39</reflink>]), which are at least puzzling and call for more exploration of the sort reported in this article. More specifically, this review investigated the nature of transformational school leadership (TSL), its impact on student achievement, how such impact differed across contexts (e.g., school level) and the extent to which methodological features of the research (e.g., leadership measures) influenced results.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-3">CONCEPTIONS OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP</hd> <p>The concept of transformational leadership, found in [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref4">11</reflink>]) seminal work, views the purpose of leadership as motivating followers to work toward transcendental goals instead of immediate self-interest, and also toward achievement and self-actualization rather than simply safety and security. This focus on the emotional states of followers, from the outset, aligned transformational approaches to leadership with [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref5">49</reflink>]) much earlier concept of "charisma." According to Weber, charismatic leaders use their considerable emotional appeal to direct their followers—ideally for the greater good ("socialized charismatics"), but sometimes in service of their own interests ("personalized charismatics"; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref6">13</reflink>]). Most contemporary accounts of transformational leadership include at least one dimension representing some form of charisma. Encouraged by Burns's seminal efforts, the past three decades have witnessed substantial development of transformational leadership theory and research, the most fully developed body of such work carried out by Bass and his associates (e.g. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref7">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref8">7</reflink>]). Theirs is a "two-factor theory," with transformational and transactional leadership practices conceived of as two ends of a continuum. Most leaders engage in practices at both ends but evidence has suggested that transformational practices augment effects above transactional leadership alone. As [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref9">5</reflink>] explained, "Numerous factorial studies in the 1990s found variations in factor outcome, but basically the transformational factors of idealized influence (Charisma) and inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration held up" (p. 380). Transactional leadership practices in this model included contingent reward, active management-by-exception, and passive management-by-exception and laissez-faire leadership.</p> <p>Examples of other substantial efforts to further transformational leadership theory include, for example:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> • [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>]) focuses on leader behavior strategies (e.g. communication, developing trust, empowering), traits (e.g., confidence, orientation toward empowerment, vision), and organizational culture;</item> <p></p> <item> • [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref11">28</reflink>]) emphasize specific leader behaviors (e.g. challenging the process, inspiring, enabling others to act);</item> <p></p> <item> • Jaques and his colleagues (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref12">24</reflink>]) concern leader cognitive capability and the match between cognitive capability and organizational system or factors;</item> <p></p> <item> • [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref13">27</reflink>]) unpack especially how leaders build and change organizational cultures;</item> <p></p> <item> • [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>]) focuse on charismatic leadership behaviors (e.g. visioning, going against the status quo) and characteristics (e.g. sensitivity to environment and followers' needs, willingness to take risks); and</item> <p></p> <item> • [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref15">42</reflink>] identifies leadership behaviors (i.e. communication, trust building, caring, empowering) and characteristics (e.g. self-efficacy, empowerment).</item> </ulist> <p>Another example of transformational theory development, much more remote from its origin in charisma than that of Bass and his associates, was proposed by [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref16">47</reflink>]), in the context of American corporations. Their reflections on the fall from supremacy of the American position in the world economic structure in the 1970s and 1980s led to their research on competition among companies and their discovery that "the key to global competitiveness will be the widespread capability of institutions around the world to continuously transform" ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref17">47</reflink>], p. iv). These scholars focused on the process of transformation of the organization itself and on how leaders carried out those change process. Organizational transformation, in their view, could "be brought about in terms of a 'three act play.'" This three-act "drama" includes recognizing the need for change (Act I), creating a new vision (Act II), and institutionalizing change (Act III).</p> <p>Developed by many groups of scholars over decades, the various versions of transformational leadership in educational contexts (TSL), especially Leithwood and his colleagues' model ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref18">31</reflink>]), subsume instructional leadership and managerial leadership (see the Managing the Instructional Program dimension of transformational leadership in [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref19">31</reflink>] for an example), ground its roots in moral foundations (see [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref20">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref21">9</reflink>] for detailed arguments), and can be participative (see [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref22">4</reflink>] for details). In other words, the development of TSL has aimed to absorb and integrate many other leadership models, a goal considered worth pursuing by a number of scholars (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref23">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref24">22</reflink>]). The inclusion of these newer dimensions into the transformational leadership model make it a more comprehensive leadership model in different settings. Especially, in educational settings, the inclusion of instructional management dimensions make TSL more relevant for schools. Indeed, hybrid or integrative frameworks (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref25">38</reflink>]) are now often viewed as the most promising direction for new leadership research.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-4">PREVIOUS REVIEWS OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP RESEARCH</hd> <p>This section summarizes the results of four previous reviews of transformational leadership research carried out in educational contexts and briefly alludes to five reviews carried out primarily in noneducational contexts.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-5">Review of Research in School Contexts</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0082474530-6">Leithwood, Tomlinson, and Genge (1996)</hd> <p>[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref26">35</reflink>]) reviewed 34 empirical studies including qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies conducted in elementary and secondary schools. The sources for this review, covering both published research and unpublished dissertations, were largely concerned with school principal leadership, but also district leadership roles including superintendents and other district staff. This review summarized the effects of transformational leadership on 13 types of outcomes including student outcomes. Due to the vote-counting method, however, results did not provide an assessment of the robustness of those claims and the strength or magnitude of the relationships.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-7">Leithwood and Jantzi (2005)</hd> <p>In a follow-up review, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref27">32</reflink>]) examined studies published between 1996 and 2005, including 26 quantitative, one mixedmethod and Five qualitative studies (32 in total). Vote-counting method was used to summarize results. Among other things, this review clarified the nature of transformational school leadership as it is actually measured and identified 41 mediating variables including characteristics of leaders' colleagues (e.g. job satisfaction, teacher commitment), characteristics of students (e.g. prior achievement), organizational structures (e.g. participatory decision-making) and organizational conditions (e.g. school culture, pedagogical quality).</p> <p>Two types of student outcomes were conceptualized as dependent variables in this review. Transformational leadership effects on academic achievement were "mixed but tending toward positive" with a quite promising but limited amount of evidence (p. 23). Also, "the evidence of transformational leadership effects on students' engagement in school, while still modest in amount, is uniformly positive" (p. 24).</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-8">Leithwood and Sun (2009)</hd> <p>A third review carried out by [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref28">34</reflink>]) provided a comprehensive synthesis of unpublished research examining the effects of transformational leadership practices on four sets of outcomes—teachers' emotions and beliefs, teachers' practices, school conditions, and student achievement. Based on a sample of dissertations about transformational leadership in education completed between 1996 and 2004, this study identified 13 sets of transformational leadership practices involved in and measured by six TSL models or instruments.</p> <p>Nineteen studies provide evidence about TSL effects on five different types of student outcomes—achievement, attendance, college-going rates, dropout rates, and graduation rates. In this review, evidence about TSL effects on student achievement was thin. This evidence does suggest, however, that studies using research designs incorporating measures of both moderating and mediating variables, along with the use of sophisticated statistical modeling, are much more likely to contribute to an understanding of how TSL influences student achievement.</p> <p>In sum then, these three reviews contribute to the development of TSL and synthesize the effects of TSL on a large array of school, teacher, and student outcomes. The robustness of conclusions from these reviews, however, is limited by the vote-counting methods used.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-9">Chin (2007)</hd> <p>[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref29">12</reflink>] meta-analyzed results from 28 unpublished studies conducted in the United States and Taiwan. These results concerned the overall relationship between TSL and three measures of school outcomes. Results indicated that TSL had positive and very large effects on student achievement (mean effect size =.49). School level and location (U.S. vs. Taiwan) were found to be significant moderators of these TSL effects and the correlation between TSL and three school outcomes was significantly higher in the U.S. than in the Taiwan studies. Results of this review are limited by the sample size, restriction of studies to those using only one type of TSL concept and measure (i.e., Bass's MLQ), interest in overall effects alone, and a focus on only direct TSL effects on student learning.</p> <p>There have been five reviews of transformational leadership research conducted in largely non-school contexts (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref30">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref31">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref32">37</reflink>]). Compared with the reviews conducted by Leithwood and his colleagues, these reviews are much more focused and less overarching, but provide statistically more robust claims due to the use of meta-analytic methods. These reviews suggest positive effects of transformational leadership on a wide variety of organizational outcomes.</p> <p>In summary, then, the limitations of most previous reviews of TSL research concern small sample sizes and the use of vote-counting methods. Some of those reviews also have a potential "publication bias" since research that yields significant results is more likely to be published. These limitations have informed the design of this study, a systematic inquiry into the nature and effects of transformational leadership behaviors on student learning; the study reports the magnitude of these relationships, explains "conflicting" results, tests the robustness of the claims made by previous reviews, and addresses other limitations associated with the previous reviews.</p> <p>More specifically, this study aimed to identify the full range of TSL practices actually used in previous research and estimate the direct effects of TSL as a whole, and each set of TSL practices separately, on student achievement. The review also estimates the indirect impact of TSL by examining the influence of a large handful of variables both mediating and moderating TSL effects on student achievement.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-10">METHODS</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0082474530-11">Research Design</hd> <p>There is widespread agreement among leadership researchers that much of the influence of school leadership on students is indirect. For example, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref33">18</reflink>]) argue that "although it is theoretically possible that principals do exert some direct effect on students' achievement, the linkage between principal leadership and student achievement (as measured by school outcomes) is inextricably tied to the actions of others in the school" (p. 24). To analyze TSL's contribution to (association with) student achievement, the effect sizes reported by the original studies included in our review were grouped based on whether they examined direct or indirect effects. Studies using direct-effects designs examined the relationship between TSL and student achievement only, while indirect-effects designs also included either mediating or moderating variables.</p> <p>For examining the indirect effects, the original studies and the effect sizes they reported were classified into three categories for analysis:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> • Studies that incorporated moderating variables,</item> <p></p> <item> • Studies that incorporated mediating variables, and</item> <p></p> <item> • Studies that incorporated both types of variables.</item> </ulist> <p>This classification was informed by a previous review ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref34">34</reflink>]), which revealed this pattern when mapping empirical research in this area. For purposes of this study mediating and moderating variables were defined, after [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref35">48</reflink>]), as follows:</p> <p>A mediating variable X2 is an intervening variable; if X1 causes X2, which in turn leads to Y, then X2 is the mediator. In other words, X1 may influence Y through its effects on X2.</p> <p>A moderating variable X2 is said to moderate the relationship between X1 and Y if the slope to predict Y from X1 differs significantly across groups that are formed by looking at scores on the X2 control variable. In this case, we can also say that X1 and X2 show an interaction as predictors of Y.</p> <p>A further clarification about moderating variables needs to be made. In this study, "moderators" can be of two types. One is the kind of moderating variables examined and/or controlled in the original studies included in this review, as defined above. The other is the kind of moderating variables involved in meta-analysis. In meta-analysis, moderating variables are features of the sample studies that moderate the effects examined and reported by the original studies included in the meta-analysis. These moderating variables correspond to two general areas: contextual information related to where the original research was conducted, such as school level and school type, and methodological features related to the study design such as variable measures. Potential differences in leadership effects as represented by the values of effect sizes may be related to these contextual and/or methodological factors. In our study, these were called "moderators," in that they moderate the effects of TSL on examined outcome variables.</p> <p>This study examined the moderating effects of three variables, school level, school type, and leadership measure, using standard meta-analysis. The choice of these moderators was informed by previous studies as reviewed in the last section, but was also determined by the data available for this study. This will be illustrated in detail in the section of results. Bear in mind that, in this study, "moderating variables" may refer to different types of variables when used in different contexts. Although there are different types of moderating variables referred to in this study, conceptually they are the same thing—variables that moderate the relationship of interest. They can be the features of the subjects or contexts involved and controlled in the original studies, or they can be the study features examined when reviewing and meta-analyzing the results of those original studies.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-12">Analytic Techniques</hd> <p>Methods used for this review included meta-analysis, supplemented by vote-counting and narrative reviews when meta-analysis was not possible. We assume that narrative and vote-counting methods need no further explanation and restrict our account here to our meta-analytic techniques. Standard meta-analysis techniques were used to analyze effect-size distributions and variances, calculate effects, test effect differences caused by contextual or methodological factors, and identify effective leadership practices in influencing student achievement. Indirect impacts were estimated using meta-analytic methods to calculate the effect size of TSL impacts when controlling other variables that contribute to student achievement. Both vote-counting and narrative review methods were used to better understand TSL's indirect effects on achievement.</p> <p>Compared with traditional qualitative reviews, meta-analytic procedures display the landscape of a research domain ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref36">41</reflink>]); they not only summarize results but also classify and summarize study characteristics such as methodological, procedural, and theoretical variables ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref37">45</reflink>]). Meta-analytic reviews keep statistical significance in perspective, minimize wasted data, become intimate with the data summarized, ask focused research questions, and find moderator variables ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref38">41</reflink>]). Other claimed advantages of meta-analysis include theory-building and detecting statistical interaction ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref39">15</reflink>]), testing the plausibility of hypotheses that have not been tested in single studies, "constructing" variables and testing their relationship to study outcomes, and predicting study outcomes using statistical procedures such as regression analysis ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref40">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>The designation "meta-analysis" typically refers to quantitative syntheses of empirical results. Nonetheless, there remains considerable variation among scholars in selecting and sampling research studies, combining data, calculating effect sizes, and exploring moderators and mediators to explain the effects of interest. For example, to Rosenthal, the term "meta-analysis" broadly refers to the use of statistical techniques either to combine or compare effect size measures or probability levels from either two studies or more than two studies. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref41">17</reflink>]), however, emphasizes objective methods of finding studies for a review, calculation of effect sizes (not just statistical significance), and the use of statistical techniques to relate study features to study outcomes.</p> <p>Regarding the calculations of the mean of effect size of correlation coefficients <emph>r</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref42">43</reflink>]) have argued that few statisticians would advocate the use of untransformed correlations unless sample sizes are very large because standard errors, confidence intervals, and homogeneity tests can be quite different. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref43">23</reflink>]) have argued that the average <emph>z</emph> transformation is positively biased, so they have preferred combining correlations without <emph>z</emph> transformation. In spite of these differences, a common understanding of the major components or steps involved in conducting meta-analysis include:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> 1. An exhaustive search for relevant literature and the selection of a body of studies to be analyzed using appropriate inclusion criteria;</item> <p></p> <item> 2. Systematic coding of the characteristics of studies, effect sizes, and related statistics;</item> <p></p> <item> 3. Calculation of the mean effect size;</item> <p></p> <item> 4. The conduct of homogeneity and heterogeneity analysis of the effect size distribution variances and moderators testing.</item> </ulist> <p>This study followed these steps. We chose Pearson correlation coefficient <emph>r</emph> as the basic form of effect size, representing the correlational relationship between TSL and school conditions. Other statistics reported by the original studies, such as <emph>t</emph> or <emph>F</emph> as the results of T-test or ANOVA, were converted to effect size <emph>r</emph>'s using formulae provided by [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref44">36</reflink>]). Weighted means ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref45">36</reflink>]) were calculated to reduce sampling error. Fisher <emph>z</emph> transformations were conducted to adjust the effect sizes. The achieved sample of schools was used as the sample size for each study.</p> <p>Macros for SPSS written by Wilson ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref46">36</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref47">50</reflink>]) were used to perform meta-correlation computations. Both fixed effects models (FEM) and mixed models (MEM) or random effect models (REM) were used. Three methods of estimating mixed effects (namely, method-of-moments random effects, full-information, and restricted-information maximum likelihood) were applied. The findings from the best models were reported, as well as those from the full-maximum likelihood method because the results are very close and the confidence intervals yielded by this method are often more precise than the other two.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-13">Sources of Evidence and Data Characteristics</hd> <p>Evidence for our study was provided by 79 unpublished theses or dissertations obtained from the largest online database for doctoral dissertations, Proquest Dissertation & Theses (see Appendix). This online data was searched for all dissertations about transformational leadership in education completed between 1996 and 2008. A total of 200 theses were identified initially. In order to be selected from this set for the review, a thesis had to:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> • Report quantitative data;</item> <p></p> <item> • Investigate the relationship between transformational leadership and at least one school, teacher, or student outcome;</item> <p></p> <item> • Use at least one of the following types of statistical analyses—correlation, regression, ANOVA, SEM, T-Test, and HLM;</item> <p></p> <item> • Achieve a minimum sample size; for example, a few studies initially identified were omitted from further analysis because they involved surveys and case studies in only one or two schools, and other studies were eliminated because they achieved responses from only a few participants in each selected school.</item> </ulist> <p>Our choice of unpublished studies for review was a response to four issues not adequately addressed by previous reviews of TSL research—minimizing publication bias, reducing the mix of studies of different qualities, mining insights from ignored and yet-to-be published research, and maximizing the inclusiveness of the research. On publication bias, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref48">44</reflink>])has pointed out that "a constant problem in all research synthesis is publication bias, also known as the 'file-drawer' problem" (p. 9). Published research is biased in favor of significant findings because non-significant findings are rarely published even when they are replications of earlier studies reporting significant results ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref49">29</reflink>]); this in turn leads to biased meta-analysis results. Rosenthal has argued that "the journals are filled with the 5% of the studies that show Type I errors while the file drawers back at the lab are filled with the 95% of the studies that show non-significant (e.g., <emph>p</emph> >.05) results" (1979, p. 638).</p> <p>A second challenge concerns the synthesizing of studies varying widely in terms of methodological quality ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref50">36</reflink>]), as results of meta-analyses can be uninterpretable because results from "poorly" designed studies are included along with results from "good" studies. However, Slavin has argued that journal publication is not a reliable indication of methodological quality. "[I]t may sometimes be easier to get a poorly designed study into a low quality journal than to get it past a dissertation committee" (1995, p. 14). The body of unpublished dissertations or theses is characterized by a fairly standard and defendable methodological quality as a result of the passing of thesis committees. Admittedly, even within the population of thesis research, the issue of methodological quality still exists (some are "good" theses while some are not). We address this issue further as part of the description of inclusion criteria later in this section.</p> <p>A third issue addressed through our methods was the lack of attention to the significant sources of knowledge found in theses, which make up a substantial proportion of the whole population of studies inquiring into almost any given hypothesis. Results of some theses may be published in journals at a later time; some are not. Some may be presented at conferences and the findings of some may be included in book chapters or reports. Thus, the body of unpublished dissertations, as the original source from which various types of later literature stem, maximizes the inclusiveness of the literature used in an analysis. Unpublished dissertations are a source of data largely ignored by previous reviews of transformational leadership effects.</p> <p>Seventy-nine studies that met our inclusion criteria were selected for this study. They were conducted primarily in North America, but also in England, Hong Kong, Korea, the Philippines, and Tanzania. Most were conducted in a range of rural, urban, and suburban public schools. These studies were carried out in elementary, middle, or high schools, or in mixed samples of schools.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-14">TRANSFORMATIONAL SCHOOL LEADERSHIP PRACTICES</hd> <p>The six different models or approaches to TSL evident in the literature that we reviewed included overlapping sets of TSL practices. The six approaches included:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> • [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref51">3</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref52">6</reflink>]) two-factor model (transformational and transactional leadership conceptualized as two ends of an approach to leadership based on dramatically different theories of human motivation) with the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) as its primary measuring instruments;</item> <p></p> <item> • [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref53">30</reflink>] transformational school leadership model measured using the Nature of School Leadership survey (NSL);</item> <p></p> <item> • [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref54">28</reflink>] model measured with the Leadership Practices inventory (LPI);</item> <p></p> <item> • [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref55">42</reflink>] visionary leadership model measured with the Leadership Behavior Questionnaire (LBQ);</item> <p></p> <item> • A model developed by Chong-Hee No (1994, in Ham, 1999) and measured with the Principal's Transformational Leadership Questionnaire, and</item> <p></p> <item> • A transformational leadership model and measure developed by Wiley (1998).</item> </ulist> <p>These six models included a total of 33 specific leadership practices, which we reduced to 11 by eliminating differently worded but substantially similar practices (see Table 1) as follows:</p> <p>TABLE 1 Transformational School Leadership Practices</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Transformational School Leadership Dimensions</td><td>Frequency of Analyses</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Developing a shared vision and building goal consensus</td><td>94</td></tr><tr><td>Providing intellectual stimulation</td><td>93</td></tr><tr><td>Providing individualized support</td><td>87</td></tr><tr><td>Modeling behavior</td><td>83</td></tr><tr><td>Holding high performance expectations</td><td>47</td></tr><tr><td>Contingent reward</td><td>43</td></tr><tr><td>Management by exception</td><td>28</td></tr><tr><td>Building collaborative structures</td><td>27</td></tr><tr><td>Strengthening school culture</td><td>19</td></tr><tr><td>Engaging communities</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Improving the instructional program</td><td>0</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> 1. <emph>Developing a shared vision and building goal consensus.</emph> Involved in the various conceptualizations of developing a shared vision and building goal consensus are the identification, development, and articulation of a shared vision that is appealing and inspiring to staff; achieving goal consensus among staff; motivating staff with challenging but achievable goals; communicating optimism about future goals; and giving staff an overall sense of purpose for their work and monitoring and referring to school goals when staff are making decisions.</item> <p></p> <item> 2. <emph>Providing intellectual stimulation</emph>. Involved in the various conceptualizations of this practice are leaders challenging staff's assumptions; stimulating and encouraging their creativity; and providing information to staff to help them evaluate their practices, refine them, and carry out their tasks more effectively.</item> <p></p> <item> 3. <emph>Providing individualized support</emph>. This practice involves leaders listening and attending to individual opinions and needs, acting as mentors or coaches to staff members, treating them as individuals with unique needs and capacities, and supporting their professional development.</item> <p></p> <item> 4. <emph>Modeling behavior.</emph> This set of practices entails leaders "walking the talk," providing a role model of ethical behavior; instilling pride, respect and trust in staff; symbolizing success; and demonstrating a willingness to change one's own practices as a result of new understandings.</item> <p></p> <item> 5. <emph>Holding high performance expectations.</emph> This practice includes leaders demonstrating through their behaviors that they expect a high level of professionalism from staff, hold high expectations for students, and expect staff to be effective innovators.</item> <p></p> <item> 6. <emph>Providing contingent rewards</emph>. Leaders enacting this practice reward followers for completing agreed-upon work.</item> <p></p> <item> 7. <emph>Management by exception.</emph> Leaders monitor the work of followers but intervene only when followers' performance deviates from the norm or from the leaders' expectations.</item> <p></p> <item> 8. <emph>Building collaborative structures.</emph> This practice entails leaders ensuring that staff have adequate involvement in decisions about programs and instruction, establishing working conditions that facilitate staff collaboration for planning and professional growth, and distributing leadership broadly among staff.</item> <p></p> <item> 9. <emph>Strengthening school culture.</emph> Leaders enacting this practice promote an atmosphere of caring and trust among staff, build a collaborative school culture that reflects the school vision, and encourage ongoing collaboration for program implementation.</item> <p></p> <item> 10. <emph>Engaging communities.</emph> Conceptualized and included only in Leithwood's model of TSL, leaders demonstrate sensitivity to community aspirations and requests, incorporate community characteristics and values in the school, and actively encourage parents and guardians to become involved in their children's education</item> <p></p> <item> 11. <emph>Improving the instructional program.</emph> This practice, conceptualized in both Leithwood's and Willey's models of TSL, includes leaders planning and supervising instruction, providing instructional support, frequent and regular monitoring of school progress, and buffering staff from district or state initiatives that are potential distractions from school priories. The inclusion of this set of practices is a significant addition to transformational leadership models originally developed in non-school contexts (such as Bass's model) and reflects many practices associated with models of "instructional leadership." As yet, however, there is little empirical evidence of its effects on student achievement.</item> </ulist> <p>As Table 1 indicates, the most frequently examined leadership practices by the 79 studies are developing a shared vision and building goal consensus (94 analyses), and providing intellectual stimulation (93 analyses). Providing individualized support (87 analyses) and modeling behaviors (83 analyses) ranked next. The least frequently examined TSL practice, while a very important component of school administrators' leadership, was improving the instructional program. Wiley's (1998) study included attention to instructional development and was conceptualized as one of the three key components of transformational leadership but the impact of this leadership dimension was not examined by Wiley.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-15">THE EFFECTS OF TSL ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT</hd> <p>Ninety-three analyses involved in thirty-one studies examined the effects[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref56">1</reflink>] of TSL on student achievement, variously measured. Table 2 summarizes the nature of these studies and their results. Except as noted in the far right column, the student outcome variables used by the studies were measured by academic performance indexes, usually statewide academic achievement tests in one or more of mathematics, reading, science, writing, language arts, and social studies. One study (Wiley, 1998) used student scores on the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS: 88) database. Most studies used average annual student achievement scores while a few used growth or gains in student achievements as their dependent variables.</p> <p>TABLE 2 The Direct and Indirect Impacts of TSL on Student Achievements</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Studies</td><td>Samples (Schools)</td><td>Leadership Impacts on Student Achievements</td><td>Mediating Variables</td><td>Moderating Variables</td><td>Total Effects on Student Achievements</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>Direct Effect</td><td>Indirect Effect</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Hedges (1998)</td><td char=".">21</td><td>.10 Mixed<italic>T</italic>-test</td><td /><td /><td /><td>Attendance + student achievement</td></tr><tr><td>Fisher (2003)</td><td char=".">34</td><td>N. S. Reg.</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Le Clear (2005)</td><td char=".">12</td><td>N.S., Reg.</td><td /><td /><td /><td>Students with disabilities</td></tr><tr><td>Kiper (2007)</td><td char=".">7</td><td>.48 Mixed</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Bonaros (2006)</td><td char=".">21</td><td>.80 (+), Reg.</td><td /><td /><td /><td>School accountability report scores</td></tr><tr><td>Di Vincenzo (2008)</td><td char=".">212</td><td>−.02</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Truitt (2002)</td><td char=".">6</td><td>.68</td><td /><td /><td /><td>Student academic improvement</td></tr><tr><td>Dickerson (2003)</td><td char=".">158</td><td>.02 ANOVA</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Holloway (2006)</td><td char=".">10</td><td>N.S. MANOVA</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Ross (1998)</td><td char=".">150</td><td>−.11</td><td>N.S. Reg.</td><td>Teacher efficacyTeacher empowerment</td><td /><td>Reg <italic>R</italic> total =.16</td></tr><tr><td>Floyd (1999)</td><td char=".">69</td><td>.20</td><td>N.S. Reg.</td><td>Shared school mission</td><td /><td>Performance growth</td></tr><tr><td>Gepford (1996)</td><td char=".">45</td><td /><td>−.01, ANOVA</td><td /><td>Low SES</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Konkle (2007)</td><td char=".">19</td><td /><td>.11</td><td /><td>Low SES</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Gulbin (2008)</td><td char=".">112</td><td /><td>.02</td><td /><td>Low SES</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Layton (2003)</td><td char=".">125</td><td>.03ANOVA</td><td>.08 High SES.04 Low SES</td><td /><td>SES</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Philbin (1997)</td><td char=".">42</td><td>.06ANOVA</td><td>Mixed, ANOVA.19 (+).08</td><td /><td>High SES & cognitive abilityLow SES & cognitive ability</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Hoernemann (1998)</td><td char=".">131</td><td>.01</td><td>ANOVA.03.02</td><td /><td>High SES & cognitive abilityLow SES & cognitive ability</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Verona (2001)</td><td char=".">57</td><td /><td>Mixed</td><td /><td>Type of schools</td><td>Passing rate</td></tr><tr><td>Gunigundo (1998)</td><td char=".">36</td><td>.03</td><td>N. S.</td><td /><td>Teacher education Background student populationLow SES</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Bannon (2000)</td><td char=".">29</td><td>.18 (+)</td><td>N.S. Reg.</td><td /><td>Student teacher ratioSESEthnic diversityStudent enrollment</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Niedermeyer (2003)</td><td char=".">37</td><td /><td>Mixed, Reg.High achiev. Low SES −.22;Low achieve.Low SES.55**</td><td /><td>Prior achievementLow SES</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Stobaugh (2003)</td><td char=".">40</td><td>.29</td><td>N. S. Reg.</td><td /><td>SES (+)Principal genderPrincipal tenure</td><td>Reg. Total <italic>R</italic> =.75 (+)</td></tr><tr><td>Prater (2004)</td><td char=".">131</td><td /><td>MixedReg.</td><td /><td>Gender (mix)Total experienceBuilding experienceEducation (+)EnrollmentSES (mix)Community typeManagerial leadershipInstructional leadership</td><td>Reg. Total <italic>R</italic> =.42 (+)</td></tr><tr><td>Daniels (2005)</td><td /><td char=".">N.S. ANOVA</td><td>Mixed</td><td /><td>SES (+)Racial composition (+)Teacher genderTeacher ageTeacher's experienceTeacher time working with principalTeacher's time at schoolPrincipal genderPrincipal's agePrincipal's administrative experiencePrincipal's time at schoolPrincipal's education</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Odegaard (2008)</td><td char=".">4131</td><td>.11−.21</td><td>N.S., Reg.</td><td /><td>Enrollment (+)SESAttendance (+)</td><td>Reg. Total <italic>R</italic> =.61 (+)Improvement in student achievement</td></tr><tr><td>Freeland (2006)</td><td char=".">11</td><td>.02</td><td>Mixed, Reg.</td><td /><td>SESSchool sizeSchool configuration</td><td>Reg. <italic>R</italic> =.03Reg. <italic>R</italic> =.46 (+)Reg. <italic>R</italic> =.47 (+)</td></tr><tr><td>Wiley (1998)</td><td char=".">214</td><td /><td>Mixed, HLM</td><td>Professional community</td><td>SESMinorityPrior achievement</td><td /></tr><tr><td>J. Nicholson (2003)</td><td char=".">31</td><td>.03</td><td>N. S.Reg</td><td>Teacher job satisfaction</td><td>SES (+)</td><td>Reg. Total <italic>R</italic> =.62 (+)</td></tr><tr><td>M. Nicholson (2003)</td><td char=".">146</td><td>.12 Mixed</td><td>N. S.Reg. & SEM</td><td>Collective teacher efficacy</td><td>SES (+)Prior achievement (+)</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Witmer (2005)</td><td char=".">70</td><td>N.S., SEM</td><td>Small effect(SEM indirect total + <italic>r</italic> =.13)</td><td>Teacher commitmentEffective schools(small effects)</td><td>Parent education (strong)SES% English learners</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Solomon (2007)</td><td char=".">138</td><td>.15</td><td>Mixedpartial <italic>r</italic> =.21 R<sub>2</sub> change =.01</td><td>Teacher commitment.24(+)Teacher collective efficacy.39 (+)</td><td>SES.73 (+)</td><td>Reg. Total <italic>R</italic> =.79 (+)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Among the 31 studies, 24 examined the direct effects of TSL on student achievement. Twenty-three of these studies also took into account other factors that interact with or moderate the influence of TSL on students (i.e., examined the "indirect effect" of TSL on student achievement).</p> <p>Studies that used indirect-effects designs assessed the combined effects on achievement of TSL with moderators, mediators, or with both. Among the 23 studies that used indirect-effect designs:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> • Two studies incorporated mediating variables, both reporting non-significant indirect effects of TSL on student achievements;</item> <p></p> <item> • Fifteen studies incorporated moderating variables; six of these studies reported mixed results, while nine reported non-significant results;</item> <p></p> <item> • Five studies incorporated both mediating and moderating variables. Of these studies, two reported mixed results, two reported non-significant results, and one reported small positive effects.</item> </ulist> <p>These results indicate that studies using direct-effect designs usually failed to detect significant effects of TSL on student achievement. Studies that incorporated both mediating and moderating variables, however, most often did find significant effects. Direct and indirect effects of TSL on student achievement were examined separately by using meta-analysis and narrative review techniques.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-16">Direct Effects of TSL on Student Achievement</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0082474530-17">Vote-counting Results</hd> <p>Twenty-four studies tested the direct effects of TSL on student achievement (most also examined indirect effects, as well). Among these studies:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> • Three reported mixed results;</item> <p></p> <item> • Two reported significant, positive effects; and</item> <p></p> <item> • Nineteen reported non-significant effects.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0082474530-18">Results of Meta-analysis</hd> <p>Among the 24 studies that examined the direct effects of TSL on student achievement, 20 reported correlation coefficients or allowed us to calculate effect sizes in the form of correlation coefficients. Results indicated that TSL had small but significant, positive direct effects on student achievement; the weighted mean <emph>r</emph> was.09. Table 3 shows the overall results of descriptive and homogeneity analysis of the effect sizes of TSL effects on student achievement based on a fixed effects model (FEM). The resulting <emph>Q</emph> value of 34.48 with 19 degrees of freedom is significant (<emph>p</emph> =.02). The variance in this sample of effect sizes is demonstrably greater than would be expected from sampling error alone. Thus, the hypothesis of homogeneity at α =.05 was rejected.</p> <p>TABLE 3 Impacts of TSL on Student Achievement: Descriptions of Effect Size Distribution Based on FEM</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>95% Confidence Interval</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Overall Effect</td><td><italic>N</italic> of <italic>ES</italic></td><td>Weighted Mean <italic>r</italic></td><td>Standard Error for <italic>z<sub>r</sub></italic></td><td>Lower End <italic>r</italic></td><td>Upper End <italic>r</italic></td><td><italic>Q</italic></td><td><italic>df</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Fixed model</td><td>45</td><td>309</td><td>.03</td><td>.04</td><td>.14</td><td>34.48*</td><td>19</td><td>.02</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>When the Total <emph>Q</emph> is significant based on a fixed effects model, a random effects model (REM) is recommended (Wilson, 2009). Table 4 shows the results obtained from a random effects model. The weighted mean <emph>r</emph> is.12, indicating that the effect of TSL on student achievement is small, but positive. But the resulting <emph>Q</emph>-value of 23.86 with 19 degrees of freedom is not significant (<emph>p</emph> =.20). This suggests that variability in the population of effects (the unique differences of school culture in the set of true population-effect sizes of which the sample of this study was a part) plus sampling error sufficiently account for the excess variances of the sampled effect sizes.</p> <p>TABLE 4 Impacts of TSL on Student Achievement: Descriptions of Effect Size Distribution Based on REM</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>95% Confidence Interval</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Overall Effect</td><td><italic>N</italic> of <italic>ES</italic></td><td>Weighted Mean <italic>r</italic></td><td>Standard Error for <italic>z<sub>r</sub></italic></td><td>Lower End <italic>r</italic></td><td>Upper End <italic>r</italic></td><td><italic>Q</italic></td><td><italic>df</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Random model</td><td>45</td><td>.12</td><td>.04</td><td>.04</td><td>.20</td><td>23.86</td><td>19</td><td>.20</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>It is possible that the significant, positive effects were largely due to a few studies that reported unusually large TSL effects on student achievements. A separate meta-analysis was conducted with the two outliers detected by the boxplots excluded from the distribution. The weighted mean <emph>r</emph> was still significant (<emph>p</emph> =.01) but decreased to.07. The resulting <emph>Q</emph>-value of 14.17 with 19 degrees of freedom was not significant (<emph>p</emph> =.66), indicating a homogeneity of the remaining effect sizes when the two outliers were excluded.</p> <p>A third round of meta-analysis was conducted excluding studies that used growth or gain scores (versus one-time scores) when measuring student achievement. The weighted mean <emph>r</emph> was still significant (<emph>p</emph> =.01) at.07. The resulting <emph>Q</emph>-value of 10.86 with 15 degrees of freedom was also not significant (<emph>p</emph> =.76), indicating homogeneity of the remaining effect sizes. These results demonstrate that the direct effects of TSL on student achievements were significant and positive, but small. Separate analyses of TSL's impacts on student achievement in reading (.15) and math (.18) yielded larger, significant positive effect sizes, comparable to the effect size of executive business leaders on corporate performance reported by [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref57">2</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-19">Indirect Effects of TSL on Student Achievement</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0082474530-20">Vote-counting Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0082474530-21">Studies incorporating mediating variables</hd> <p>Seven studies incorporated mediating variables in their research designs, including teacher commitment, teacher collective efficacy, professional community, teacher efficacy, teacher empowerment, shared school mission, teacher job satisfaction, and teacher commitment. Among these mediators, collective teacher efficacy and teacher commitment were positively and significantly related to student achievement in most studies, although Nicholson (2003) found no significant effects of TSL on collective teacher efficacy, and hence, no indirect effects of TSL on student achievement.</p> <p>Two studies in this set took into account mediating effects without controlling for moderators. Both studies reported non-significant effects of TSL on student achievement. Ross (1998) regressed state assessments of fourth grade student achievement on measures of teacher empowerment, teacher efficacy, and transformational leadership. The regression model yielded no significant predictors of student achievement. However, the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients identified two subscales that significantly correlated with student achievements: personal teaching efficacy (<emph>r</emph> =.20; <emph>p</emph> <.05) and holding high expectations for staff performance (<emph>r</emph> =.21; <emph>p</emph> <.05). Using regression models, Floyd (1999) examined the individual and combined impacts of North Carolina teachers' perceptions of their principal's leadership behavior and shared school mission on both elementary and middle school student achievement. None of these relationships was significant.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-22">Studies incorporating moderating variables</hd> <p>Twenty studies incorporated moderators either in their statistical analyses or through their sampling procedures (e.g., selecting schools serving students with similar social economic status (SES) profiles. These moderators included:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> • Student characteristics: SES, prior achievement, attendance, minority percentage, enrollment, student cognitive abilities, percentage of English learners, and student population;</item> <p></p> <item> • School characteristics: school type, community type, school size, school configuration, and student-teacher ratio;</item> <p></p> <item> • Teacher background characteristics: education background, gender, age, experience, time working with principal, and time at school;</item> <p></p> <item> • Principal background characteristics: gender, age, administrative experience, building experience, tenure, and educational level; and</item> <p></p> <item> • Parent education.</item> </ulist> <p>Among these moderators, student SES, principal education level, parent education, student racial composition, enrollment, prior achievement, and student attendance were reported as being positively related to student achievement; SES had the largest association with student achievement. In one study, principal gender had mixed effects on student achievement. Fifteen of these 20 studies examined moderating effects without considering the interacting effects of TSL and mediating variables. The combined effects of TSL and moderators on student achievement were usually significant, with the total <emph>R</emph> ranging from.42 to.75.</p> <p>Exemplifying studies of this type, Verona (2001) examined the influence of principals' TSL on high school proficiency test results (HSPT) in New Jersey comprehensive and vocational-technical high schools. Results of this study "strongly suggest that a school having a principal with a high transformational score would be likely achieve higher test passing rates particularly on all three sections of the HSPT combined rather than any one section alone" (Verona, 2001, p. 227). In this study, transformational leadership did interact with school type. To achieve the same HSPT passing rates for the reading section, mathematics section, writing section, and all sections combined, stronger transformational leadership is needed in vocational high schools compared to comprehensive high schools and this differentiated effect of principal transformational leadership in vocational schools was most significant for HSPT passing rates for all sections combined, followed by the writing section, the reading section, and the mathematics section.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-23">Studies incorporating both mediating and moderating variables</hd> <p>Five studies took into account the effects on student achievement of both moderating and mediating variables. These studies reported generally larger effects of TSL on achievement than was reported in studies with simpler designs. For example, Solomon's (2007) study reported a very large regression total <emph>R</emph> of.79 between TSL, teacher commitment, teacher collective efficacy, SES and student achievement. The effects of TSL on student achievement seemed contingent upon which moderating and mediating variables were taken into account.</p> <p>As a second example, Nicholson's (2003) study in 146 Ohio elementary schools examined the influence of TSL on student achievement mediated by teacher collective efficacy. Teacher collective efficacy was positively related to student achievement even when controlling for SES and prior achievement. This study did not find a significant association between TSL and collective teacher efficacy. However, structural equation modeling demonstrated that the TSL practice "intellectual stimulation" was directly related to math achievement; this relationship was not mediated by teacher collective efficacy.</p> <p>A more detailed analysis (Sun, 2010) found that TSL effects on student achievement are not moderated by either school level (elementary, middle, secondary) or instruments used to measure TSL (see Table 6).</p> <p>TABLE 5 Effects on Student Achievement of Individual TSL Practices</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>TSL Practices</td><td><italic>N</italic> of Studies</td><td>Weighted Mean <italic>r</italic></td><td>Standard Error for <italic>z<sub>r</sub></italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Building collaborative structures</td><td>3</td><td char=".">.17</td><td>.07</td></tr><tr><td>Providing individualized support</td><td>6</td><td char=".">.15</td><td>.05</td></tr><tr><td>Holding high performance expectations</td><td>7</td><td char=".">.08</td><td>.05</td></tr><tr><td>Modeling behaviur</td><td>7</td><td char=".">.08</td><td>.05</td></tr><tr><td>Providing intellectual stimulation</td><td>8</td><td char=".">.05</td><td>.04</td></tr><tr><td>Developing a shared vision and building goal consensus</td><td>7</td><td char=".">.03</td><td>.05</td></tr><tr><td>Strengthening school culture</td><td>1</td><td char=".">.03</td><td>−</td></tr><tr><td>Providing contingent rewards</td><td>1</td><td char=".">.01</td><td>−</td></tr><tr><td>Management by exception</td><td>1</td><td char=".">−.05</td><td>−</td></tr><tr><td>*<italic>p</italic> <.05; **<italic>p</italic> <.01; ***<italic>p</italic> <.001.</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>TABLE 6 A Summary of Weighted Mean Effect Sizes of TSL Impacts on Student Achievement and Homogeneity Analyses in Subgroups Based on MEMs</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>95% Confidence Interval</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td><italic>N</italic> of <italic>ES</italic></td><td>Weighted Mean <italic>r</italic></td><td>Standard Error for <italic>z<sub>r</sub></italic></td><td>Lower End <italic>r</italic></td><td>Upper End <italic>r</italic></td><td><italic>Q<sub>w</sub></italic></td><td><italic>Df</italic> for <italic>Q</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>School level</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Elementary</td><td /><td char=".">.17</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.29</td><td>15.96</td><td char=".">8</td><td char=".">.04</td></tr><tr><td> Secondary</td><td /><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">−.06</td><td char=".">.19</td><td char=".">4.09</td><td char=".">7</td><td char=".">.77</td></tr><tr><td>Leadership instrument</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> MLQ</td><td /><td char=".">.14</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.25</td><td char=".">16.25</td><td char=".">10</td><td char=".">.09</td></tr><tr><td> NSL</td><td /><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">−.11</td><td char=".">.27</td><td char=".">3.38</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">.64</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0082474530-24">Results of Meta-analysis</hd> <p>The majority of studies examining the indirect effects of TSL on student learning used multiple regressions and more sophisticated techniques such as structural equation modeling. Because of the variety of variables involved in these studies and the different nature or types of effect sizes reported by these studies, the types of meta-analyses conducted above were not possible for these studies. However, several meta-analyses were conducted for a small number of studies that controlled the same variables and that used the same type of statistical analyses and sequentially comparable effect sizes.</p> <p>TSL did not have significant effects on student achievement when controlling for both socioeconomic status (SES) and students' cognitive abilities. Meta-analyses of the indirect impacts of TSL on student achievement scores in both math and reading resulted in the same non-significant effects. The TSL practice Management-by-Exception was found to be significantly correlated with student achievement when controlling for SES and student cognitive abilities.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-25">Effects of Individual TSL Practices</hd> <p>Of the 11 sets of TSL practices summarized in Table 1, sufficient data were available for nine to calculate effect sizes (according to [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref58">40</reflink>], one can perform meta-analyses on even two studies). The weighted mean of the effect sizes of the extent to which each set of TSL practices influences student achievement was calculated and these impacts were compared (see Table 5). Findings show that Building Collaborative Structures and Providing Individualized Support are the most influential sets of practices; their direct effects are significant but small with weighted means <emph>r</emph> ranging from.15 to.17). The five remaining sets of leadership practices subject to meta-analysis had no significant, direct effects on students' achievement.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-26">DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS</hd> <p>Evidence from this study leads us to four primary conclusions, each of which has implications for one or more of theory, practice, and future research.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> 1. <emph>Most studies of TSL effects on student achievement, to date, have been based on narrow conceptions of transformational leadership, conceptions that do not acknowledge leaders' organizational contexts.</emph> Our synthesis of leadership practices (11 sets) indicates considerable development of transformational leadership theory since [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref59">3</reflink>], for example, first proposed his model. This extended set of practices indicates that many recent TSL scholars largely accept, as necessary, the original emotional and inspirational purpose of TSL but consider them to be insufficient because they do not acknowledge the context in which leaders work. In the case of school leaders, accountability demands at the core of their policy contexts sometimes make "transactional" practices unavoidable, for example. In addition, leaders are almost always responsible for improving the technical core of their organizations' work; in the case of school leaders, an unrelenting demand to focus on improving the achievement of all students make contemporary school leaders' attention to instructional quality the highest priority for their work.</item> <p></p> <item> No model of leadership ignoring the context in which leaders work can expect to explain the amount of variation in organizational outcomes produced by successful, "real" leaders. This has implications for both theory and future research. First, transformational leadership theory needs to be extended to acknowledge the organizational context in which leaders work; at minimum, there needs to be a set of practices (which may vary by sector or organization) associated with "improving the technical core" of leaders' organizations. Our synthesis of TSL practices is essentially the "integrated" model (transformational plus instructional) advocated by some educational leadership theorists (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref60">38</reflink>]) and an important implication of [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref61">39</reflink>] comparison of transformational and instructional leadership effects. Future research would do well to measure more comprehensive conceptions of transformational leadership addressing the limitations of existing theory alluded to above.</item> <p></p> <item> 2. <emph>Some TSL practices make much larger contributions to student achievement than do others.</emph> Building Collaborative Structures and Providing Individualized Consideration made the largest of those contributions (Weighted mean <emph>r</emph> =.17 and.15 respectively). The remaining sets of transformational practices accounted for much smaller amounts (weighted mean <emph>r</emph> ranges from.03 to.08) of achievement variation while the two transactional practices had either no (Contingent Reward) or small negative (Management-by-Exception) effects on achievement. These results should be viewed as an important reminder to school leaders not to neglect or downplay the importance of these practices in their own work. But these results should not be viewed as a recommendation for school leaders to "do less" for several reasons.</item> <p></p> <item> First, considerable evidence from other sources has found important effects for most of the transformational practices associated with weak results in our review. Close approximations to Developing a Shared Vision and Building Goal Consensus, for example, have often been cited as among the most consequential of leadership practices (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref62">19</reflink>]); ours is neither the only evidence nor the last word on which practices have the greatest effects. Second, there is considerable interdependence among most of the 11 sets of practices. For example, the main purpose for Building Collaborative Structures is to enable networking, collaboration, and collective staff learning, all part of what is entailed in Strengthening School Culture.</item> <p></p> <item> Future research, these results also suggest, would do well to focus on how the influence of each set of leadership practices finds its way to student achievement.</item> <p></p> <item> As [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref63">33</reflink>]) have argued, it is likely that the influence of different leadership practices travel different routes (influence different mediators) in order to improve student outcomes. Theoretically, for example: goal-setting practices should have indirect effects on students through the direct effects they have on teacher motivation; building collaborative cultures should have indirect effects on students through their direct effects on teacher collective capacity; and providing individualized support should have indirect effects on students through the direct effects of individual teacher capacities and commitments. Results of such research would represent a considerable deepening of our understanding of TSL and its effects.</item> <p></p> <item> 3. <emph>Even narrowly conceived models of TSL, using direct effects designs, have demonstrated small but positive and practically meaningful effects on student achievement.</emph> The size of the effects resulting from direct effects designs varied slightly depending on the area of student achievement measured (e.g., <emph>r</emph> =.15 in math; <emph>r</emph> = 18 in reading), with aggregated direct effects across all measured areas of achievement in the <emph>r</emph> =.09 range. These results are stronger than some other syntheses of direct effects school leadership research have suggested (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref64">51</reflink>]) but largely in line with [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref65">39</reflink>] findings.</item> <p></p> <item> 4. <emph>Studies using indirect designs reported mixed results.</emph> We had to rely on narrative methods when reviewing most of these studies. Nonetheless, results were clearly mixed. These mixed results, emerging from studies that incorporated one or both of mediators and moderators, are relatively puzzling and unexpected—except for the strong and entirely predictable moderating effects of SES. Researchers have developed a strong logical and empirical case for the greater power of indirect effects designs ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref66">18</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref67">33</reflink>]) and a handful of recently published studies using such designs have resulted in quite useful insights (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref68">26</reflink>]).</item> </ulist> <p>These mixed results may be a function of the choices made when researchers design their indirect-effects studies. The choices of mediators, for example, often seems not to be based on the vast storehouse of evidence (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref69">20</reflink>]) about which school and classroom factors have the most significant influence on student learning. Future research, we believe, should incorporate in their designs mediators (and moderators) known through previous research to have significant effects on student achievement. Designed in this way, these studies need to ask what leaders do in order to improve the status of these significant variables and what are the combined effects on achievement of the selected mediators, moderators, and TSL practices.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-27">APPENDIX: DISSERTATIONS REVIEWED</hd> <p>Abu-Tineh, A. M. (2003). Exploring the relationship between the perceived leadership style of principals and their teachers' practice of the five disciplines of achievement schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(02)A, AAI3081429.</p> <p>Amoroso, P. F. (2002). The impact of principals' transformational leadership behaviors on teacher commitment and teacher job satisfaction. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>63</emph>(09)A, AAI3066129.</p> <p>Banki, S. (2006). <emph>Effect of transformational leadership behaviour on teachers' citizenship behaviour</emph> (master's thesis). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses. (Publication No. AAT MR21428).</p> <p>Bankowski, B. J. (2002). A study of the relationship between transformational leadership and teacher motivation in New York City elementary schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>63</emph>(<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref70">11</reflink>)A, AAI3069574.</p> <p>Bannon, K. C. (2000). Principals' and teachers' perceptions of the extent to which principals exercise transformational leadership in schools and the relationship of these leadership perceptions to teachers' perceptions of the extent of shared school goals and teacher commitment in these schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>61</emph>(04)A, AAI9968759.</p> <p>Blasius, T. (2007). <emph>Comparison of moral reasoning and transformational leadership of public school principals using inclusive education in Michigan</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3290057).</p> <p>Blatt, D. A. (2002). A study to determine the relationship between the leadership styles of career technical directors and school climate as perceived by teachers. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>63</emph>(<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref71">12</reflink>)A, AAI3076358.</p> <p>Bonaros, D. J. (2006). <emph>A study of transformational leadership and student achievement in inner-city elementary schools.</emph> (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3207798).</p> <p>Booker, J. E. G. (2003). Teachers' and principals' perceptions of leadership styles and their relation to school climate. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(05)A, AAI3089826.</p> <p>Brown, L. I. (2001). A <emph>meta-analysis of research on the influence of leadership on student outcomes</emph> (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.</p> <p>Conners, R. T. (2003). Leadership styles of Ohio community school principals, 2002--2003: An exploratory study. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(05)A, AAI3092080.</p> <p>Copeland, J. A. (1997). <emph>Transformational leadership and participation in decision-making in public schools</emph>. (Unpublished master's thesis). University of New Brunswick, Moncton, NB: Canada.</p> <p>Cormier, S. F. (1997). School restructuring, transformational leadership, and teacher participation in decision-making. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>58</emph>(07)A, AAI9803580.</p> <p>Daniels, K. N. (2005). <emph>The influence of principal's leadership style on school variables in urban middle schools</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3200632).</p> <p>Dickerson, P. L. (2003). Principal leadership style and the dimensions of teacher leadership in Texas public schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(06)A, AAI3094644.</p> <p>Di Vincenzo, R. J. (2008). <emph>School leadership and its relation to school performance</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text.</p> <p>Dono-Koulouris, M. J. (2003). Leadership style, teacher empowerment, and job satisfaction in selected Catholic elementary schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(09)A, AAI3107132.</p> <p>Ejimofor, F. (2007). <emph>Principals' transformational leadership skills and their teachers' job satisfaction in Nigeria</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3298282).</p> <p>Estep, T. A., III. (2000). A study of the relationships between transformational leadership, transactional leadership and specified demographic factors as enablers of teacher empowerment in rural Pennsylvania school districts in Appalachia intermediate unit 8. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>61</emph>(01)A, AAI9959142.</p> <p>Evans, T. J. (1996). Elementary teachers' and principals' perceptions of principal leadership style and school social organization. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>57</emph>(07)A, AAI9639808.</p> <p>Fernandez, S. A. (2002). Leadership style and staff motivation: A study of transformational leadership and its impact on New York City public middle and intermediate schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>63</emph>(<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref72">12</reflink>)A, AAI3073663.</p> <p>Fisher, M. W. (2003). Effects of principal leadership style on school climate and student achievement in select Idaho schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(05)A, AAI3091403.</p> <p>Fleming, S. S. (1996). Leadership for teacher empowerment: The relationship between the communication skills of principals, transformational leadership, and the empowerment of teachers. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>57</emph>(08)A, AAI9701556.</p> <p>Floyd, J. E. (1999). An investigation of the leadership style of principals and its relation to teachers' perceptions of school mission and student achievement. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>60</emph>(09)A, AAI9946412.</p> <p>Freeland, J. (2006). <emph>The relationship of transformational leadership and reading achievement in Broward County, Florida charter schools</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3240596).</p> <p>Gepford, J. D. (1996). <emph>The relationship between school success and the leadership style of the principal in low socio-economic schools</emph>. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC.</p> <p>Gulbin, K. M. (2008). <emph>Transformational leadership: Is it a factor for improving student achievement in high poverty secondary schools in Pennsylvania?</emph> (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text.</p> <p>Gunigundo, M. S. T. (1998). An exploration of the relationship between principal leadership style and student academic achievement in the Philippines. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>59</emph>(08)A, AAI9902636.</p> <p>Ham, S. (1999). A study of the relationship between principal leadership and school climate in Korean secondary schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>60</emph>(08)A, AAI9945411.</p> <p>Hedges, B. J. (1998). Transformational and transactional leadership and the school principal: An analysis of Catholic K–8 school principals. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>59</emph>(06)A, AAI9836413.</p> <p>Hill, M. (2005). <emph>Prevalent leadership characteristics among principals/lead teachers in alternative education programs for at-risk youth</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3318956).</p> <p>Hoernemann, M. E. (1998). Transformational leadership and the elementary school principal. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>60</emph>(07)A, AAI9939358.</p> <p>Holloway, T. M. (2006). <emph>The effect of principals' leadership style on student growth and teacher behavior in the accountability era</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3225222).</p> <p>Johnson, M. (2007). <emph>Essential leadership: The real wave of school reform</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3269083).</p> <p>Kiper, R. (2007). <emph>Teachers' perceptions of principals as transformational leaders and AYP testing mandates for the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001: A correlational study using Minnesota Comprehensive Assessments</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3303743).</p> <p>Konkle, C. (2007). An examination of leadership styles of school principals and student effectiveness in urban elementary schools in the State of Ohio. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3264459).</p> <p>Kristoff, B. L. (2003). Transformational leadership, professional school culture, and perceived effectiveness in specialized programs for students with disabilities. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(04)A, AAI3088477.</p> <p>Layton, J. K. (2003). Transformational leadership and the middle school principal. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref73">10</reflink>)A, AAI3108364.</p> <p>Le Clear, E. A. (2005). <emph>Relationships among leadership styles, school culture, and student achievement</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3204426).</p> <p>Lee, Y. Y. (2005). <emph>Teachers' perceptions of principals' transformational leadership and teachers' job satisfaction and school commitment</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3178858).</p> <p>Lentz, M. B. (1997). Transformational leadership of principals in a district grounded in shared decision making. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>63</emph>(<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref74">12</reflink>)A, AAI3074542.</p> <p>Lucks, H. J. (2002). Transformational leadership and teacher motivation across New York City public schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>63</emph>(06)A, AAI3058275.</p> <p>Mannion, P. T. (1999). The relationship of principal transformational leadership characteristics to principal trust characteristics, colleague trust characteristics, and organization trust characteristics. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>60</emph>(05)A, AAI9929712.</p> <p>Marks, D. E. (2002). A study of two leadership styles and school cultural norms in small middle schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>63</emph>(02)A, AAI3041397.</p> <p>Martino, A. M. (2003). Leadership style, teacher empowerment, and job satisfaction in public elementary schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(09)A, AAI3104415.</p> <p>Mascall, M. B. (2003). Leaders helping teachers helping students: The role of transformational leaders in building teacher efficacy. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>65</emph>(05)A, AAINQ91890.</p> <p>McHugh, K. J. (1999). Exploring the relationship between perceptions of principals' leadership behaviors and potency of teaching teams at the middle level. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>60</emph>(06)A, AAI9935171.</p> <p>Meier, A. (2007). <emph>The leadership strategies of high school principals in relationship to organizational structure</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3275078).</p> <p>Michael, C. M. (2003). The relationship of the transformational leadership of the administrators in America's middle college high schools and their feeder institutions to selected indicators of effectiveness. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(07)A, AAI3098049.</p> <p>Miles, M. T. (2002). The relative impact of principal instructional and transformational leadership on school culture. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>63</emph>(05)A, AAI3052200.</p> <p>Mooney, M. P. (2003). A study of the relationship between transformational leadership and organizational climate of elementary schools in western Pennsylvania. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(02)A, AAI3081035.</p> <p>Mosbacker, B. L. (2005). <emph>An investigation of technology and school leadership in Christian schools in the United States</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3161849).</p> <p>Nader, J. M. (1997). The value of transformational leadership in an exemplary school district in Ohio: Examination of conditions, processes and practices associated with school improvement. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>58</emph>(05)A, AAI9732753.</p> <p>Nguni, S. (2005). <emph>Transformational leadership in Tanzania education: A study of the effects of transformational leadership on teachers' job satisfaction, commitment and organizational citizenship behaviour in Tanzania primary and secondary schools.</emph> (Doctoral thesis). Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.</p> <p>Nicholson, J. L. (2003). An exploration of the ability to predict student achievement from leadership behaviors, teacher job satisfaction, and socioeconomic status. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(03)A, AAI3083806.</p> <p>Nicholson, M. R. (2003). Transformational leadership and collective efficacy: A model of school achievement. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(06)A, AAI3093682.</p> <p>Niedermeyer, B. H. (2003). The relationship of principal leadership style and student achievement in low socio-economic schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref75">11</reflink>)A, AAI3113852.</p> <p>O'Connor, G. J. (2001). A study of leadership styles and school climate. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>62</emph>(<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref76">11</reflink>)A, AAI3032711.</p> <p>Odegaard, L. (2008). <emph>The relationship between teacher-identified principal leadership behavior and effectiveness and student achievement in South Dakota secondary schools</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3318826).</p> <p>Palczewski, S. (1999). A study of the relationship between transformational leadership and teacher attitudes. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>60</emph>(06)A, AAI9935411.</p> <p>Philbin, L., III. (1997). Transformational leadership and the secondary school principal. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>58</emph>(09)A, AAI9808502.</p> <p>Piderit, M. A. (1999). The effects of principal leadership on teacher loyalty in urban and suburban catholic elementary schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>62</emph>(<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref77">12</reflink>)A, AAI3038211.</p> <p>Prater, M. E. (2004). The relative impact of principal managerial, instructional, and transformational leadership on student achievement. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>65</emph>(06)A, AAI3137738.</p> <p>Ross, A. T. (1998). Exploring connections among teacher empowerment, teacher efficacy, transformational leadership, and student achievement. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>59</emph>(09)A, AAI9906642.</p> <p>Roth, W. B. (2002). The effect of principal's leadership style on school council members' perceptions of empowerment. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>63</emph>(04)A, AAI3050353.</p> <p>Rugg, L. J. (2005). <emph>Teacher satisfaction with principal transformational leader behavior.</emph> (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3210777).</p> <p>Schooley, M. L. (2005). <emph>An analysis of the relationship between transformational leadership and school culture</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3235157).</p> <p>Small, S. K. M. (2003). The relationships of transformational/transactional leadership behavior of elementary school principals with teacher outcomes: Extra effort, effectiveness and satisfaction. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>64</emph>(08)A, AAI3099650.</p> <p>Smith, J. (2005). <emph>The relationship between North Carolina elementary principals' and teachers' perceptions of principals' leadership styles and the social organization of the school.</emph> (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3287784).</p> <p>Solomon, C. (2007). <emph>The relationships among middle level leadership, teacher commitment, teacher collective efficacy, and student achievement</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3322742).</p> <p>Stasny, K. M. (1996). The effects of dimensions of transformational leadership on the conditions for organizational achievement and sources of knowledge utilization in restructuring schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>57</emph>(08)A, AAI9701572.</p> <p>Stobaugh, R. R. (2003). School reform, transformational leadership, and student achievement. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>65</emph>(01)A, AAI3120082.</p> <p>Timmerman, A. (2007). <emph>Examining the relationship between teachers' perception of the importance of the transformational individual consideration behaviors of school leadership and teachers' perception of the importance of the peer cohesion of school staff.</emph> (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3306649).</p> <p>Truitt, J. L. (2002). Effective principal leadership practices as perceived by teachers in schools demonstrating continuous student academic improvement. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>63</emph>(04)A, AAI3050327.</p> <p>Verona, G. S. (2001). The influence of principal transformational leadership style on high school proficiency test results in New Jersey comprehensive and vocational-technical high schools. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>62</emph>(03)A, AAI3009382.</p> <p>Wiley, S. D. (1998). School leadership and professional community: Effects on student achievement. <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>59</emph>(<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref78">10</reflink>)A, AAI9910535.</p> <p>Wipf, D. A. (1998). <emph>Transformational leadership and teachers' tendency to take risks</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text database. (Publication No. AAT 9840733).</p> <p>Witmer, M. L. (2005). <emph>Relationships among transformational leadership, family background, teachers' commitment to change, effective schools' characteristics, and student achievement in California public comprehensive high schools: A structural equation model</emph>. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3160499).</p> <p>Yu, H. (2000). Transformational leadership and Hong Kong teachers' commitment to change (China). <emph>Dissertation Abstracts International</emph>, <emph>61</emph>(<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref79">11</reflink>)A, AAINQ53883.</p> <hd id="AN0082474530-28">Notes</hd> <ref id="AN0082474530-29"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref23" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> 1. Although we use the words "impact" or "effect" throughout the text, the relationships reported in this study are correlational in nature.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0082474530-30"> <title> REFERENCES </title> <blist> <bibtext> Antonakis , J. , Cianciolo , A. T. and Sternberg , R. J. 2004. " Leadership: Past, present and future ". In The nature of leadership , Edited by: Antonakis , J. , Cianciolo , A. T. and Sternberg , R. J. 3 – 13. Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref57" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Barrick , M. , Day , D. , Lord , R. and Alexander , R. 1991. Assessing the utility of executive leadership. Leadership , 2 (1) : 9 – 22.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref7" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Bass , B. M. 1985. Leadership and performance beyond expectations , New York , NY : The Free Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref20" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Bass, B. M. (1997). The ethics of transformational leadership. KLSP: Transformational Leadership, Working Papers. Academy of Leadership Press. <ulink href="http://www.academy.umd.edu/publications/klspdocs/bbass%5fp1.htm">http://www.academy.umd.edu/publications/klspdocs/bbass%5fp1.htm</ulink> (<ulink href="http://www.academy.umd.edu/publications/klspdocs/bbass%5fp1.htm">http://www.academy.umd.edu/publications/klspdocs/bbass%5fp1.htm</ulink>)</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref9" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Bass , B. M. 2002. " Forecasting organizational leadership: From back (1967) to the future (2034) ". In Transformational and charismatic leadership: The road ahead , Edited by: Avolio , B. J. and Yammarino , F. J. 375 – 384. Boston , MA : Elsevier Science.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref52" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Bass , B. M. and Avolio , B. 2000. Multifactor leadership questionnaire: Technical report , 2nd , Menlo Park , CA : Mind Garden.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref8" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Bass , B. M. and Avolio , B. J. 1993. " Transformational leadership: A response to critiques ". In Leadership theory and research , Edited by: Chemers , M. M. and Ayman , R. 49 – 80. Toronto , , Canada : Academic Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Bass , B. M. and Avolio , B. J. 1994. Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref21" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Bass, B. M., & Steidlmeier, P. (1998, September 24) Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership. <ulink href="http://cls.binghamton.edu/BassSteid.html">http://cls.binghamton.edu/BassSteid.html</ulink> (<ulink href="http://cls.binghamton.edu/BassSteid.html">http://cls.binghamton.edu/BassSteid.html</ulink>)</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bennis , W. and Nanus , B. 1985. Leaders: The strategies for taking charge , New York , NY : Harper & Row.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Burns , J. M. 1978. Leadership , New York , NY : Harper and Row.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Chin , J. P. 2007. Meta-analysis of transformational school leadership effects on school outcomes in Taiwan and the USA. Asia Pacific Education , 8 (2) : 166 – 177.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Conger , J. 1999. Charismatic and transformational leadership in organizations: An insider's perspective on these developing streams of research. Leadership Quarterly , 10 (2) : 145 – 79.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Conger , J. A. and Kanungo , R. 1988. Charismatic leadership in organizations , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cook , T. D. and Levition , L. C. 1980. Reviewing the literature: A comparison of traditional methods with meta-analysis. Journal of Personality , 48 (4) : 449 – 472.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Dumdum , U. R. , Lowe , K. B. and Avolio , B. J. 2002. " A meta-analysis of transformational and transactional leadership correlates of effectiveness and satisfaction: An update and extension ". In Transformational and charismatic leadership: The road ahead , Edited by: Avolio , B. J. and Yammarino , F. J. 35 – 66. New York , NY : Elsevier Science.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Glass , G. V. 1976. Primary, secondary, and meta-analysis of research. Educational Researcher , 5 : 3 – 8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hallinger , P. and Heck , R. H. 1996. Reassessing the principal's role in school effectiveness: A review of empirical research. Educational Administration Quarterly , 32 : 5 – 44.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hallinger , P,. and Heck , R. H. 1998. Exploring the principal's contribution to school effectiveness, 1980–1995. School Effectiveness and School Improvement , 9 (2) : 157 – 191.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hattie , J. A. C. 2009. A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievements , New York , NY : Routledge.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Heck , R. H. and Hallinger , P. 2010. Collaborative leadership effects on school improvement: Integrating unidirectional- and reciprocal-effects models. The Elementary School Journal , 111 (2) : 226 – 252.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hunt , J. G. 1999. Transformational/charismatic leadership's transformation of the field: An historical essay. Leadership Quarterly , 10 (2) : 129 – 144.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hunter , J. E. and Schmidt , F. L. 1990. Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings , Newbury Park , CA : Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Jaques , E. and Clement , S. D. 1991. Executive leadership: A practical guide to managing complexity , Arlington , VA : Cason Hall.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Judge , T. A. and Piccolo , R. F. 2004. Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology , 89 (5) : 755 – 768.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kelowna , B. , Heck , R. and Moriyama , K. 2010. Examining relationships among elementary schools' contexts, leadership, instructional practices and added-year outcomes: A regression discontinuity approach. School Effectiveness and School Improvement , 21 (4) : 377 – 408.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kotter , J. P. and Heskett , L. 1992. Corporate culture and performance , New York , NY : Free Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kouzes , J. M. and Posner , B. Z. 1995. The leadership challenge: How to keep getting extraordinary things done in organizations , San Francisco , CA : Jossey-Bass.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kraemer , H. C. and Andrews , G. 1982. A nonparametric technique for meta-analysis effect size calculation. Psychological Bulletin , 91 : 404 – 412.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Leithwood , K. , Aitken , R. and Jantzi , D. 2001. Making school smarter: Leading with evidence , 1st , Thousand Oaks , CA : Corwin Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Leithwood , K. , Aitken , R. and Jantzi , D. 2006. Making school smarter: Leading with evidence , 3rd , Thousand Oaks , CA : Corwin Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Leithwood , K. and Jantzi , D. April 2005. A review of transformational school leadership research , April , Montreal , , Canada : Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Leithwood , K. , Patten , S. and Jantzi , D. 2010. Testing a conception of how leadership influences student learning. Educational Administration Quarterly , 46 (5) : 671 – 706.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Leithwood , K. and Sun , J. P. 2009. " Transformational school leadership effects on schools, teachers and students ". In Research and theory in educational administration: Vol. 8. Studies in school improvement programs , Edited by: Hoy , W. and Dipaola , M. 1 – 22. Charlotte , NC : Information Age.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Leithwood , K. , Tomlinson , D. and Genge , M. 1996. " Transformational school leadership ". In International handbook of educational leadership and administration , Edited by: Leithwood. 785 – 840. Dordrecht, The Netherlands : Kluwer Academic.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lipsey , M. W. and Wilson , D. B. 2001. Practical meta-analysis , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lowe , K. B. , Kroeck , K. G. and Sivasubramaniam , N. 1996. Effectiveness correlates of transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic review of the MLQ literature. Leadership Quarterly , 7 (3) : 385 – 425.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Marks , H. M. and Printy , S. M. 2003. Principal leadership and school performance: An integration of transformational and instructional leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly , 39 (3) : 370 – 397.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Robinson , V. M. J. , Lloyd , C. A. and Lloyd , K. J. 2008. The impact of leadership on student outcomes: An analysis of the differential effects of leadership types. Educational Administration Quarterly , 44 (5) : 635 – 674.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rosenthal , R. 1991. Meta-analytic procedures for social research , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rosenthal , R. and DiMatteo , M. R. 2001. Meta-analysis: Recent developments in quantitative methods for literature reviews. Annual Review Psychology , 5 : 59 – 82.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sashkin , M. 1990. The visionary leader: Leadership behavior questionnaire , Amherst , MA : Human Resource Development Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shadish , W. R. and Haddock , C. K. 1994. " Combining estimates of effect size ". In Handbook of research synthesis , Edited by: Cooper , H. M. and Hedges , L. V. 261 – 281. New York , NY : Russell Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Slavin , R. E. 1995. Best evidence synthesis: An intelligent alternative to meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Epedemiology , 48 : 9 – 18.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Strube , M. J. and Hartmann , D. P. 1983. Meta-analysis: Techniques, applications, and functions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 51 (1) : 14 – 27.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sun , J. P. 2010. A review of transformational leadership research: A meta-analytic approach (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) , Toronto , , Canada : University of Toronto.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Tichy , N. M. and Devanna , M. A. 1990. The transformational leader , Toronto , , Canada : John Wiley and Sons.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Warner , R. M. 2008. Applied statistics: From bivariate through multivariate techniques , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Weber , M. 1947. The theory of social and economic organization , Edited by: Henderson , A. M. and Parsons , T. New York , NY : The Free Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wilson, D. B. (2009). Meta-analysis stuff. <ulink href="http://www.mason.gmu.edu/~dwilson/ma.html">http://www.mason.gmu.edu/~dwilson/ma.html</ulink> (<ulink href="http://www.mason.gmu.edu/~dwilson/ma.html">http://www.mason.gmu.edu/~dwilson/ma.html</ulink>)</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Witziers , B. , Bosker , R. J. and Krüger , M. L. 2003. Educational leadership and student achievement: The elusive search for an association. Educational Administration Quarterly , 39 (3) : 398 – 425.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Jingping Sun and Kenneth Leithwood</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref69"></nolink>
Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ982484
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Report
PubTypeId: report
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Transformational School Leadership Effects on Student Achievement
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sun%2C+Jingping%22">Sun, Jingping</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Leithwood%2C+Kenneth%22">Leithwood, Kenneth</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Leadership+and+Policy+in+Schools%22"><i>Leadership and Policy in Schools</i></searchLink>. 2012 11(4):418-451.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: PhysDesc
  Label: Physical Description
  Group: PhysDesc
  Data: PDF
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 34
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2012
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Information Analyses<br />Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Achievement%22">Academic Achievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Instructional+Leadership%22">Instructional Leadership</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Transformational+Leadership%22">Transformational Leadership</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Meta+Analysis%22">Meta Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Voting%22">Voting</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Practices%22">Educational Practices</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/15700763.2012.681001
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1570-0763
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Based on a synthesis of unpublished transformational school leadership (TSL) research completed during the last 14 years, this study inquired into the nature of TSL and its effects on student achievement using review methods including standard meta-analysis and vote-counting techniques. Results identify a wider range of TSL practices than typically has been measured in previous TSL research. Results also suggest that TSL has small but significant effects on student achievement, some TSL practices are especially powerful explanations of these effects, and a large handful of variables both moderate and mediate TSL effects on students. (Contains 1 note and 6 tables.)
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: Ref
  Label: Number of References
  Group: RefInfo
  Data: 51
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2012
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ982484
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ982484
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/15700763.2012.681001
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 34
        StartPage: 418
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Academic Achievement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Instructional Leadership
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Transformational Leadership
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Meta Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Voting
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Practices
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Transformational School Leadership Effects on Student Achievement
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Sun, Jingping
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Leithwood, Kenneth
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2012
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1570-0763
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 11
            – Type: issue
              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Leadership and Policy in Schools
              Type: main
ResultId 1