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Maintaining the Mother-Child Relationship within the Irish Prison System: The Practitioner Perspective

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Title: Maintaining the Mother-Child Relationship within the Irish Prison System: The Practitioner Perspective
Language: English
Authors: O'Malley, Sinead, Devaney, Carmel
Source: Child Care in Practice. 2016 22(1):20-34.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 15
Publication Date: 2016
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Mothers, Parent Child Relationship, Institutionalized Persons, Correctional Institutions, Foreign Countries, Child Development, Qualitative Research, Semi Structured Interviews, Interaction, Space Utilization, Infants, Children
Geographic Terms: Ireland
DOI: 10.1080/13575279.2015.1054786
ISSN: 1357-5279
Abstract: There is a dearth of research on the experience of motherhood within the Irish prison system. This paper considers the specific issue of facilitating contact between incarcerated mothers and their children. It is based on a study which explores the views of practitioners working directly with mothers in prison on how the mother-child relationship is accommodated and supported. Data presented are based on eight one-to-one interviews with participants from within the prison system and with participants working in an external support agency. The research findings highlight examples of good practice within the prison system with a sense that participants endeavour to support this relationship whenever possible. Suggestions for improved practice and the associated resource needs are also discussed. Internationally there are many exemplars of supportive initiatives promoting relationships between incarcerated mothers and their children. Such models and the relevant research and literature are considered in this paper. The paper concludes with reflections on the findings of this study with reference to this literature.
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 57
Entry Date: 2016
Accession Number: EJ1089857
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0112709157;j2301jan.16;2019Mar06.12:47;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0112709157-1">Maintaining the mother–child relationship within the Irish prison system: the practitioner perspective. </title> <p>There is a dearth of research on the experience of motherhood within the Irish prison system. This paper considers the specific issue of facilitating contact between incarcerated mothers and their children. It is based on a study which explores the views of practitioners working directly with mothers in prison on how the mother–child relationship is accommodated and supported. Data presented are based on eight one-to-one interviews with participants from within the prison system and with participants working in an external support agency. The research findings highlight examples of good practice within the prison system with a sense that participants endeavour to support this relationship whenever possible. Suggestions for improved practice and the associated resource needs are also discussed. Internationally there are many exemplars of supportive initiatives promoting relationships between incarcerated mothers and their children. Such models and the relevant research and literature are considered in this paper. The paper concludes with reflections on the findings of this study with reference to this literature.</p> <p>Keywords: Prison; mother; child; contact; relationship; practice</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Forming a close attachment to a care-giving figure is regarded as the most important early social relationship and a key component of normal child development. The quality of such relationships and attachments inform emotional functioning and personality development throughout childhood, adolescence and on into adult life (Howe, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref1">27</reflink>]). The importance of a close continuous care-giving relationship for long-term emotional development and the impact of loss and separation in early childhood on well-being in later years are widely accepted (Bowlby, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref2">4</reflink>]; Howe, Schofield, Brandon, & Hinings, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref3">28</reflink>]). Of particular relevance to this paper, the significance of the mother–child relationship has been well established in the literature with widespread acceptance of the need to support and maintain this relationship as part of the child's overall development throughout the formative years of a child's life (Bowlby, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>]; Fahlberg, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref5">21</reflink>]; Howe, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref6">27</reflink>]). For incarcerated mothers and their children, maintaining a relationship is a particular challenge. While there is some research on the specific needs of incarcerated mothers in Ireland (Irish Penal Reform Trust [IPRT], [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref7">29</reflink>]; Martyn, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref8">38</reflink>]; Reilly, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref9">46</reflink>]), this remains an area which requires further attention. Regardless of their individual circumstances, incarcerated mothers who wish to have contact with their children rely on the policies and practices within their particular prison to enable contact at any level. This paper presents the perspective of practitioners working with mothers who are in prison in the Republic of Ireland in relation to maintaining contact with their children. Relevant national and international literature is initially described and later reflected on in light of the findings presented.</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-3">Mothers in prison and their children</hd> <p>Motherhood is something that everyone is touched by in some way, shape or form. Consequently, motherhood has been researched via every imaginable theme (O'Reilly, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref10">43</reflink>]). However, motherhood within the prison system has a very specific focus with added complexities. Imprisonment of parents is noted as being harmful to children, even when they come from dysfunctional families (Crawford, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref11">12</reflink>]). Imprisoning parents is seen as more likely to compound, than to mitigate, pre-existing family problems. Children of incarcerated parents experience separation, loss, shame, guilt, worry, confusion, isolation, unhealthy behaviours and financial hardship (Barnardos, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref12">2</reflink>]; Jbara, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref13">31</reflink>]; Martyn, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref14">38</reflink>]; Samuel & Machara, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref15">48</reflink>]). Research also highlights that these children experience reduced education and employment attainment and future relationship and mental health problems (Daly, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref16">13</reflink>]; Kauffman, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref17">34</reflink>]; Sheehan, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref18">50</reflink>]).</p> <p>In many instances incarcerated mothers are the sole or primary carers for their children, a factor which is noted as contributing to the poor outcomes experienced by these children (Carmody & McEvoy, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref19">9</reflink>]; Robertson, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref20">47</reflink>]). Consequently, an overwhelming 95% of children of incarcerated mothers are displaced from their family home and cared for either by relatives, in state care or with relative foster carers as a direct consequence of their mother's incarceration, from which a disproportionate level of adverse outcomes usually occur (Block & Potthast, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref21">3</reflink>]; Gill, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref22">24</reflink>]; IPRT, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref23">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>Children of imprisoned mothers are also likely to have had a change in their primary caregiver(s) and face particular challenges in attempting to visit their parent in prison, partly due to a lack of accompanying adults such as social workers (SWs; Robertson, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref24">47</reflink>]). Research suggests that only 50% of women who had lived with or been in contact with their children prior to incarceration had received a visit from them since going to prison (Caddle & Crisp, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref25">8</reflink>] as cited in Gill & Deegan, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref26">25</reflink>], p. 7). Further disruptions for children can occur as siblings are often spilt up and cared for by various caregivers (Robertson, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref27">47</reflink>]). In discussing care placements for children of mothers who are awaiting trial or have been sentenced, Katz ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref28">33</reflink>]) argues that, although not current practice, the criminal justice system and child welfare system have shared commitments in this regard. Sheehan ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref29">50</reflink>]) has also emphasised the need to address the instability and disruption to the care these children experience, recommending early intervention and the joint development of child protection service protocols.</p> <p>For children who cannot remain with their mothers, visitation and communication is the most basic method to attempt to maintain a parental role and attachment bonds (Block & Potthast, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref30">3</reflink>]). Gabel and Johnston ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref31">23</reflink>]) assert that the "interlude" time in prison should support the mother–child relationship insofar as that when the mother is released ties are as strong as when she left. European Prison Rules ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref32">11</reflink>]), cited in Council of Europe ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref33">11</reflink>], Part II, 24.4), state that "the arrangements for visits shall be such as to allow prisoners to maintain and develop family relationships in as normal a manner as possible". However, as Byrne, Goshin, and Blanchard-Lewis argue, common methods of visitation are particularly insufficient for infants and toddlers ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref34">6</reflink>], p. 78). Contributing factors include time restrictions, hard-to-reach prison locations, restricted physical contact, visits behind glass, sniffer dogs, unfriendly staff and more generally the non-child friendly physical environment (King, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref35">35</reflink>]; Robertson, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref36">47</reflink>]). Distances families have to travel for visits and the costs involved present as genuine obstacles in maintaining relations (Samuel & Machara, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref37">48</reflink>]; Soltes, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref38">52</reflink>]; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref39">56</reflink>]), particularly for incarcerated mothers and their children due to the fact that women's prisons are fewer in number and therefore more geographically spread (Martyn, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref40">38</reflink>]; Robertson, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref41">47</reflink>]). Additionally, caregivers may not be in a position to bring children to visit their parents in prison possibly due to other work or childcare commitments, financial hardship or familial breakdown (Wolleswinkel, 2002 as cited in Willems, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref42">57</reflink>]).</p> <p>Nonetheless, there is evidence of innovative practice in this regard. Robertson ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref43">47</reflink>]) highlights examples of voluntary, charitable or subsidised schemes globally where in certain circumstances services have been established to enable children to visit imprisoned parents. In Kenya and China, families meet in child-friendly facilities for visits and staff hold non-uniforms days. In certain prisons in Canada, children can stay with their mothers for two days a week with the mothers taking on a full parental role for the duration of the visit. Such initiatives mean children are more inclined to visit and maintain contact (Robertson, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref44">47</reflink>]).</p> <p>Lewis, Bates, and Murray ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref45">37</reflink>]) note that in the United Kingdom there have been numerous developments and initiatives to support the maintenance of family ties. These range from better resources and support in visitors centres and enhanced family visits to parenting programmes. In Northern Ireland, the Family Links programme provided by the Northern Ireland Association for the Care and Resettlement of Offenders provides free transport for families for prison visits (NIACRO, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref46">42</reflink>]). Similarly, the Assisted Prison Visits Unit in England, Wales and Scotland provide assistance with the costs of prison visits for low-income families. This includes covering the costs of an escort for a visiting child or young person (National Offender Management Services, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref47">41</reflink>]). Six of the 13 female prisons in the United Kingdom have mother and baby units accommodating 64 women and 70 babies, allowing for one set of twins in each unit (Justice, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref48">32</reflink>]). In England and Wales, charitable organisations such as Pact provide support programmes which focus on awareness of the effects of imprisonment on children and offer parenting and relationship courses (Pact, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref49">44</reflink>]). Anawim, a charity based in Birmingham, England, provides practical and emotional support for women nearing the end of their prison sentence. This includes support in relation to accommodation, financial or legal issues in addition to support for drug and alcohol abuse. Their "Re-Unite Programme" works with the local housing authority to place women and their children in appropriate housing upon her release from prison (Anawim, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref50">1</reflink>]). In the USA, the Girls Scouts Beyond Bars project is an enhanced visiting programme aimed at tackling some of the issues daughters specifically suffer when their mothers are incarcerated. The Girls Scouts Beyond Bars programme was established in 1992 and its objective is to preserve or enhance the "relationship, to reduce the stress of separation, to enhance the daughter's sense of self, to reduce reunification problems, and ultimately to help decrease the likelihood of the mother's failure in the community" (Block & Potthast, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref51">3</reflink>], p. 567). Evaluations on the programme findings report that the programme improves visitation, the mother–daughter bond, and the daughter's sense of self, reduces a range of separation issues, improves both mother and daughter behaviour and develops healthy leadership skills in the daughters (Block & Potthast, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref52">3</reflink>]; Soltes, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref53">52</reflink>]). In an Irish context, research conducted by Enright, Boyle, and Murphy ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref54">19</reflink>]) noted a number of measures to promote positive mother–child contact and visitation. Mothers can be granted temporary release for special occasions in their child's calendar and family visits can be granted (albeit infrequently). More interestingly, children up to 14 years of age are permitted to sleep over with their mothers in the prison campus. Reilly ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref55">46</reflink>]) also notes the dedicated mother and baby unit within the female prison. This is located within the general prison campus, however, and mothers and babies move freely among the general female prison population—some of whom have committed crimes against children, therefore posing serious child protection concerns.</p> <p>The Mothers and Their Children (MATCH) model in the USA is a positive model of supporting contact between a parent and child. It facilitates lengthy visits in a child-friendly visiting area within the prison (Gabel & Johnston, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref56">23</reflink>]). In some instances the MATCH programme helps to fund travel and accommodation for children who live far from the prison. MATCH also advocates and educates on the particular issues faced by children of incarcerated parents. It offers counselling and parenting skills for inmate-mothers and promotes positive relationships between the prison staff, mothers, children and caregivers (mothersandtheirchildren.org).</p> <p>Studies show that children manage parental imprisonment better when they are able to see their parents (Robertson, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref57">47</reflink>]). Katz ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref58">33</reflink>]) recommends additional support during incarceration for the children and family, and suggests that this support will foster better outcomes for all involved including the incarcerated mother. One example of facilitating communication when this is not possible or not available as frequently as desired is through "Story Book Mums". This programme facilitates prisoners to make audio recordings of children's books to post out to their children. The programme's objective is to "strengthen parent–child attachments and an important means of communication between mothers and their children" (Solinger, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref59">51</reflink>], p. 98). Additionally, prisoners reported their own literacy skills improved through the programme. Children reported finding comfort and reassurance in listening to their parent's voice. For children who are too young to read letters, the programme offers an age-appropriate alternative. It also provides families with a fun child-friendly topic to talk about during visits. Finally, it can combat the burden of costly telephone calls and postage, especially for international prisoners (Solinger, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref60">51</reflink>]).</p> <p>Block and Potthast recognise and highlight the difficulties faced by child welfare professionals in working with children who have mothers in prison, including the distance, untimely visiting schedules, the difficulties in preparing for and supporting visits and the negatives effects of a mother's imprisonment on her child (1998, p. 561). Nonetheless, children have a right to a relationship with their parents, and when this is ignored it impacts on the right to family life as outlined in Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref61">20</reflink>], Article 8). As noted, the importance of this relationship is widely accepted with a corresponding need to support and promote it with reference to the rights of parents and the needs of children. Quinlan ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref62">45</reflink>]) highlights how mothers who do receive visits spend a great deal of their time in prison preparing for these. Programmes such as the aforementioned MATCH model and Girls Scouts Beyond Bars are accompanied by compulsory parenting classes and counselling which help to prepare and support mothers participating in such visiting programmes (Block & Potthast, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref63">3</reflink>]; Soltes, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref64">52</reflink>]). There is also significant preparatory work carried out by support agencies with the children in advance of attending for a prison visit (Barnardos, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref65">2</reflink>]; Gill, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref66">24</reflink>]; Gill and Deegan, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref67">25</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-4">Methodology</hd> <p>The data on which this paper is based are taken from a wider study into the experiences of mothers in the Irish prison system. The focus of this paper is on how the mother–child relationship is accommodated and supported within the prison system. A purposive sampling approach was used in this study. This involves the researcher seeking out participants with the most valuable data (Denscombe, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref68">16</reflink>]). The sample group included staff members in one prison in the Republic of Ireland where female prisoners are accommodated and with staff working in an external agency that support these families. This prison is a medium-security closed facility for females over 18 years of age. The sample group therefore included the prison governor and probation officers (PS) based within the host prison and a SW and project workers (PW) from an external support agency whose role is to support female prisoners with their needs both while in prison and when they leave. A qualitative method was employed in the research with the findings based on data collected through semi-structured one-to-one interviews (<emph>n</emph> = 8). Question areas included: the visitation and contact arrangements for mothers and their children; the physical space available within the prison for visits; specific needs of mothers of babies and young children; and procedures in relation to mothers involved with child protection and welfare services. Ethical approval was granted by the relevant university and by the prison authorities. Each interview was audio-recorded and immediately transcribed.</p> <p>A thematic analytical approach was applied to the findings. This involves examining the data "to extract core themes that could be distinguished between and within transcripts" (Bryman, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref69">5</reflink>], p.13). Although thematic analysis is recognised as a more time-consuming process, its ability to identify both explicit and implicit ideas makes it a worthwhile approach (Namey, Guest, Thairu, & Johnson, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref70">40</reflink>], p. 138). Thus, the data relating to the theme of supporting and facilitating the mother–child relationship were extracted and analysed. In order to validate the findings, an overview of the analysed data and the associated findings was forwarded electronically to each respondent with a request for feedback on the content. Respondents were satisfied with the findings presented to them and agreed with the interpretation of their interviews.</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-5">Limitations</hd> <p>As with any research there are limitations to this study. The sample size is relatively small and is not a complete representation of the practitioners who work with mothers in prison. The time available and the scale of this study did not allow for saturation in terms of including all practitioners who work with women prisoners. However, the sample does include the main practitioners involved directly in efforts to maintain the mother–child relationship in this specific prison. Finally, given that the sample group was made up of professionals only, the voice of the mother, her child(ren) and other family members or carers is not included in this paper. Furthermore, the paper does not consider the father–child relationship and the experience of maintaining this while fathers are incarcerated. The perspective provided is that of a small number of practitioners in relation to the mother–child relationship only.</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-6">Findings: Maintaining the mother–child relationship</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0112709157-7">Admission to Prison</hd> <p>On arrival at the prison all females are questioned as to whether they have children or not and if so what the arrangements are for their care. According to participants this would ideally have been discussed at an earlier point when the woman is first given her sentence, but this is not guaranteed to happen. As one participant explained:</p> <p>You would presume that this would have happened at court. That if there was a crisis the solicitor or someone would have notified a relative, or the mother herself would have spoken up and got things sorted. But I don't think they have an automatic protocol on this. (PS)</p> <p>All respondents highlighted that this aspect of the admissions process is in need of improvement as they rely on the prisoner to provide accurate information. One participant expressed her concerns:</p> <p>This policy is very loose and needs to be tightened up. It's very important that policies are implemented, so that everybody knows what to do at committal, at induction and who to contact. (PW)</p> <p>There is also no way of knowing or verifying whether a mother is involved with the statutory child protection and welfare services at this point. Supports such as these which can be used to support the mother–child relationship may only be realised if a statutory child protection and welfare SW makes himself/herself known to the prison authorities.</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-8">Visiting arrangements</hd> <p>All adult prisoners are entitled to one 30-minute visit per week, which can involve up to three adults and an unlimited amount of children. Prisoners who are still on remand and awaiting sentencing are allowed up to five 15-minute visits a week (IPRT, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref71">29</reflink>], p. 15). Additional visits and time are at the discretion of the prison governor.</p> <p>Participants explained how female prisoners are generally allowed a second weekly visit with flexibility allowed in terms of days and timing:</p> <p>So we facilitate as much as we can ... particularly if someone is coming from far away in the country, they need extra time, a morning or an afternoon or both. (PS)</p> <p>Mothers are also occasionally allowed an additional outing with their children:</p> <p>If a woman wants a day out at the zoo with her kids or whatever, there isn't a huge amount of resources for every woman and every case, but it does happen occasionally. (PW)</p> <p>Furthermore, mothers are allowed what are termed "welfare visits" when their children and their carers cannot attend the prison itself. In such circumstances, mothers are escorted by prison staff to a suitable neutral venue to meet their children. Such visits are dependent on prison resources but according to participants are facilitated where possible.</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-9">Mother and children visiting space</hd> <p>Participants described the space for children to interact with their mothers in this prison as quite limited. The indoor visiting area is described as small and lacking in natural daylight; however, it is reported to be clean, pleasant and quite bright in colour in comparison with the rest of the prison. The same space is also used as a dining area when visits are over. There are no outdoor play areas. One participant reflected on this area:</p> <p>Visits are okay, they are family friendly, but more could be done. I would hope that the numbers will go down and that would help. (PS)</p> <p>There is also a small private room available which is made available by request. Participants outlined circumstances when use of that room is essential:</p> <p>When there is a sensitive issue and a visit would need to take place, or there are things going on for children that need to be discussed. Life is complex and there can be difficulties in relationships too, especially when someone is in prison, you would need a space apart from the general visiting area. (SW)</p> <p>Participants also described how they would like to be able to replicate normal family life more, with kitchen facilities available for mothers to cook and eat a meal with their children. However, the capacity for this type of facility is diminished because of the large numbers accommodated within the prison.</p> <p>We did it before, where a mother could have her child in and they could cook a meal together. At the moment we cannot have that facility because we have way too many people. (PS)</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-10">Facilitating babies</hd> <p>Babies are allowed to reside with their mothers in the prison until they reach 12 months of age with all respondents acknowledging the importance of this time to develop the mother–child relationship. After this point children are cared for by extended family members or by foster carers. One participant reflected this viewpoint:</p> <p>I am 100 per cent behind it. It is where the baby should be the only time I question that is where there are child protection issues ... no case is the same. And we will be guided by the [then] HSE[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref72">1</reflink>] ... I think it is so important for the child to be with the mother; full stop. And I will do all I can under the guidance of our child protection agency. (PS)</p> <p>The positive impact of having to care for your baby was also emphasised and viewed as part of the rehabilitation of those particular prisoners:</p> <p>If a mother can keep her child with her it would work as beneficial for the rehabilitative process for that mother. (SW)</p> <p>Nonetheless, participants highlighted that many mother–child relationships and bonds are already strained or non-existent due to the chaotic lifestyles of mothers. Stable relationships are necessary, however, as a basis to any rehabilitative effort and the child's best interest are always viewed as of paramount importance.</p> <p>At the time of the research there were three babies residing in the prison with another two women pregnant. The possibility of another pregnant prisoner arriving was quite high. An accommodating approach to these mothers and their babies was emphasised:</p> <p>That is the potential ... and we'll look after them, we have six cots, six buggies and six of everything that there is. (PS)</p> <p>It was, however, noted that caring for your baby within the prison system can be extremely stressful and all-consuming and that after a certain age the environment within prison is deemed unsuitable for young children. As highlighted:</p> <p>There is no crèche or other supports in here, it's full on—they have to mind their own babies. (PS)</p> <p>Its fine when they're a little baby but once a baby begins to walk and be more aware of their surroundings, when they get bigger, it is a prison, with all that prison brings. (PW)</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-11">Additional challenges with children's visits</hd> <p>A number of additional challenges were described by participants in relation to children's visits. One such concern is that women convicted of harming children are accommodated alongside women who are having their children visit and this brings anxiety for the mothers in relation to their children's welfare. Mothers of newborn babies can have unease about other prisoners physically touching their baby. Finally, it can be difficult for women whose own children are in care to be around other mothers and their children.</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-12">Other contact opportunities</hd> <p>Along with direct contact visits there are additional contact opportunities for mothers and children within the prison. In the main this takes the form of telephone contact or letters. According to participants, all adult prisoners are permitted at least one telephone call per week with women prisoners permitted one six-minute telephone call every day. Telephone calls can be made to a maximum of six telephone numbers, one of which must be their solicitor. In addition, a newly implemented "Incentivised Regime" allows that, following a period of six to eight weeks in prison, women can be awarded an extra daily six-minute telephone call. Participants explained how this additional call is vital for maintaining mother–child contact particularly in situations where mothers have more than one child who may be looked after by a number of different carers:</p> <p>The child would know that at a particular time on a particular day their parent would call. Although calls are only six minutes, at least it is regular and it's the child's time with their parent. (SW)</p> <p>There are circumstances where mothers have a larger number of children that require special arrangements, which the prison facilitate where possible. One such instance was described:</p> <p>While she [the mother] was still on basic grade, we arranged that she made two additional phone calls a week through the Chaplain's office to speak to the younger children on their own. They visited her regularly as well. But this was a standard thing that this is my time with mammy each week. We try to facilitate what we can. (PS)</p> <p>However, at an overall level the process of communicating with children over the telephone is described as problematic:</p> <p>Such communication is very difficult considering incarceration is focused on containment and security. Moreover, children do not communicate the way that adults do ... there is also the added concern when the contact does not go well, who is there to pick up the pieces? (SW)</p> <p>Mothers also use letters as a means of maintaining contact with their children. Participants explained how there is a charge for sending over seven letters per week; however, the policy and practice within the system is that all national and international letters and telephone calls are free. All prisoners are eligible for a gratuity payment, with a small percentage of this recently cut to offset the cost of telephone calls and letters.</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-13">Support for practitioners</hd> <p>The general view expressed by participants is one of wanting to support the mother–child relationship whenever possible. An embargo on hiring of staff due to an economic recession has resulted in no new prison staff being recruited; this was noted as a significant positive factor in this regard:</p> <p>Because we've had no recruits everybody has been here for over a year or more and they have nothing to prove any more. We have great experienced officers here now. (PS)</p> <p>All prison officers are receiving Children First training[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref73">2</reflink>] for the first time and child protection issues are very much on the agenda within the prison system. Prison officers have also recently received Marte Meo training. The Marte Meo approach involves supporting positive interactions and interventions between children and their carers (Early Childhood Ireland, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref74">18</reflink>]). This training is reported by respondents as being very beneficial. Adult retrospective disclosure is noted as being extremely prevalent in prison as people have time to reflect on their past and officers are also receiving training in how to deal with and process this information. Prison staff also reported participating in a Women Awareness Staff Programme. This programme aims to raise awareness of gender-specific issues such as abuse, trauma and self-harm. It offers workers the knowledge and skills to identify, cope and manage such issues. Additionally, prison officers with an interest in child care and child welfare are being invited to train and specialise in the area. This is viewed as a very welcome initiative:</p> <p>It is much needed and would be a huge support to the women here as well as to the individual officer. (PS)</p> <p>Although the prison system does not employ SWs directly, a number of mothers are involved with external statutory and non-statutory social work services. In such circumstances the PS liaise with the SWs on all issues concerned with the mother–child relationship. One participant described how this works:</p> <p>We would be on the phone a lot with social workers and the community agencies around that whole piece. A lot of it would be around the practical element, such as visits, access, what's going on with the children, what going on with mum. (PS)</p> <p>For other mothers where there is no social work involvement or where the SW is not in contact while the mother is in prison, the PS or the community-based workers support and facilitate the contact between the mother and her child(ren). This is an additional task for the PS, however, and not necessarily their main role or priority. The following quote emphasises this issue:</p> <p>I think it's important in the sense well, who's going to do it if we're not doing it ... But I'm at the stage now where we can't be all things to all people and we can't take on all of that role. (PS)</p> <p>The final issue raised by participants in relation to maintaining contact involved the varying length of sentences that mothers receive and the transitory nature of their stay in prison. Participants described how it can be difficult to fully support a mother's relationship with her children during a short stay in the prison as it can take some time to become familiar with individual family circumstances.</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-14">Discussion</hd> <p>A women's sense of motherhood gives her life meaning while in prison. Maintaining the mother–child relationship is seen as beneficial for mothers while in prison with positive outcomes for all involved (Shamai & Kochal, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref75">49</reflink>]). This paper highlights the supportive endeavours and "good will" present amongst the participants in this study in order to maintain contact and relationships between mothers in the Irish prison system and their children. In the absence of a clear policy on maintaining the mother–child relationship, this element of "good will" is a critical component in this process. Shamai and Kochal outlined how incarcerated women in their study explained that motherhood offered them a "reason to get up in the morning", protected them against insanity, offered something positive to think about and provided a reason to plan for the future (2008, pp. 327–339). Their research affirms the efforts of the practitioners involved in this study and highlights how supporting the mother–child relationship can be included as part of the overall rehabilitative effort with prisoners. It would seem self-evident that if there are positive outcomes for the children and mothers involved, there will also be positive outcomes for the prison system itself.</p> <p>Studies specifically concerned with babies and young children have shown that those who stay with their mothers in prison have healthier attachments than their counterparts who leave soon after birth (Byrne, Goshin, & Joestl<emph>,</emph>[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref76">7</reflink>]; Catan, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref77">10</reflink>]; Jbara, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref78">31</reflink>]; Kubiak, Kasiborski, & Schmittel, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref79">36</reflink>]). While efforts are made in the prison in this study, where appropriate, to facilitate young babies staying with their mothers, the seemingly large numbers accommodated in the prison may impact on the possibility of this option being available for all mothers. For those children who cannot remain with their mothers, such periods of incarceration are disruptive to the mother–child bond. Once attachments have been disrupted, particularly at a vulnerable age and for long periods of time, it is extremely arduous, if not impossible, to re-establish (Fahlberg, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref80">21</reflink>]). Researchers have focused on the use of prison nurseries as a way to promote positive secure attachments (Davis, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref81">14</reflink>]; Goshin & Byrne, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref82">26</reflink>]). Davis ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref83">14</reflink>]) claims that prison nurseries give mother and baby an opportunity to remain together during the crucial child development stages, while at the same time offering the mother the experience of intense motherhood. While participants in this study exhibit good intentions in this regard, it seems apparent that a more robust policy-driven directive accompanied by the necessary resources is required to support the implementation of such arrangements on a routine basis for all who require them. It is also worth noting the need to involve children in an age-appropriate manner in facilitating contact between the mother and child. Best practice in child welfare terms involves children's participation at an individual level and hearing their views on matters which affect them (United Nations, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref84">55</reflink>]; Ferguson, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref85">22</reflink>]). The welfare of the child must be the paramount consideration at all times (The Child Care Act, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref86">53</reflink>]), with the unique needs of each child and family requiring consideration on an individual basis. As with all considerations with regard to child welfare, a balance is necessary between the rights of parents and the needs of children (Davis, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref87">15</reflink>]). Supports are also necessary for children when contact visits do not proceed as planned or are upsetting for those involved (Ferguson, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref88">22</reflink>]).</p> <p>On a related point, the issue of prisoners convicted of very different crimes being accommodated together does impact on the experience of children visiting. As Reilly ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref89">46</reflink>]) notes, high-risk women prisoners are accommodated with women prisoners posing little or no risk. Any potential risk to children visiting the prison needs to be carefully managed with measures in place to ensure their safety at all times. The anxiety felt by mothers in these circumstances has the potential to negate the positive impact of a visit from their children. Again, this is a policy and resource-based decision that impacts on the maintenance and development of the mother–child relationship. On a wider level, a more focused approach and risk assessment of the population of prisoners who have contact with the babies and children could have additional benefits. The literature highlights that the opportunity for prisoners to help mothers (who have their babies with them) offered added meaning to their daily life while missing their own children (Shamai & Kochal, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref90">49</reflink>]).</p> <p>In terms of older children, as Block and Potthast ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref91">3</reflink>]) note, most incarcerated mothers attempt to remain close to their children through letters and telephone calls. These methods are particularly vital when location and cost of travel is an obstacle for regular visits. This reflects the findings of this study which highlights the provision and use of free telephone calls (in particular) and letters by mothers to maintain contact with their children. Supporting the need for this contact within the Irish prison system, Reilly ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref92">46</reflink>], pp. 12–13) states that women who have children who live long distances from the prison and cannot visit regularly should be permitted longer visits or extra telephone calls. Participants in this study did, however, note that as far as possible direct contact visits including outings and "welfare visits" are supported and facilitated. Improved amenities to accommodate children's visits are necessary in order to allow "normal" family time to occur where meals are cooked and eaten and games are played.</p> <p>Incarceration of mothers can potentially be used as an opportunity to promote and develop the mother–child relationship. As Kauffman points out, rather than "crippling the mother-child bond, a prison sentence or residential treatment program can provide an opportunity to strengthen it" ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref93">34</reflink>], p. 65). However, this is not the main role or remit of the practitioners working within the prison system, and training and resources are required if staff members are to support prisoners in this regard. European Prison Rules ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref94">11</reflink>]), cited in Council of Europe ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref95">11</reflink>], Part V, 89.1), state that prison staff "shall include a sufficient number of specialists such as ... social and welfare workers". However, as is evident in this study, practitioners in the Irish prison system are supporting mothers with their relationships with their children largely because of their good intentions and willingness. It is very welcome that training for prison staff in relation to child care, child protection and gender-specific issues has recently been introduced.</p> <p>Imprisonment for women has been identified as a route to homelessness, unemployment, lone parenthood and re-offending (Donson & Parkes, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref96">17</reflink>]; IPRT/Katherine Howard Foundation, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref97">30</reflink>]; Reilly, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref98">46</reflink>]). Such post-release struggles create additional barriers to regaining the custody and care of children. Furthermore, it is extremely difficult for mothers to see out their sentences with minimal contact with their children, and then to re-establish relationships post release (Kauffman, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref99">34</reflink>]). However, research has shown that programmes which support the mother–child relationship while the mother is incarcerated can have very positive effects on recidivism rates and the mothers' overall well-being. Meadows and Sheff-Cahan ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref100">39</reflink>]) report on a programme which facilitates mothers in keeping their children from age zero to six years. This is the first of its kind in the USA and it set up for "non-violent" female offenders. It provides parenting classes, drug therapy and educational courses six days per week. The children attend daycare and education and child-rearing is the main focus of the rehabilitation process. Recidivism rates are reported as being three times lower than their equivalent group. Jbara ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref101">31</reflink>]) also asserts that lower recidivism rates are a consequence of a prisoner's stronger sense of attachment to their families. Thompson and Harm ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref102">54</reflink>]) explored a 15-week parenting programme in women's prisons also in the USA. The programme aims to address the disruption of the mother–child relationship and the detrimental effects on the child's emotional development as a consequence of their mother's incarceration. Findings revealed the mother–child relationship improved as well as attitudes towards self-esteem, children, prison and the family unit. It is worth considering the potential of such support programmes with mothers within the Irish prison system.</p> <hd id="AN0112709157-15">Conclusion</hd> <p>This small-scale study into the experience of maintaining the mother–child relationship within the Irish prison system has revealed many examples of good practice in this regard. The research and literature clearly highlights the positive outcomes for all involved from the efforts in place to facilitate regular contact and to develop positive relationships between mothers and their children. However, in the main, the exemplars of good practice noted in this paper appear to be driven by the intentions of individual practitioners. It is evident that if such endeavours are to become standard practice for mothers who are in prison, there is a need for accompanying policy measures and resources. The importance of maintaining contact between family members in these circumstances is accepted with many exemplars of such practices available internationally. This study has highlighted the need for further research within the Irish context to consider fully the needs of incarcerated parents and their children and to identify an appropriate response to such need.</p> <ref id="AN0112709157-16"> <title> Notes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref50" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> At the time of the research, the HSE referred to the statutory child protection and welfare service in the Republic of Ireland. This service is now an independent agency called TUSLA, the Child and Family Agency.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref12" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Children First National Guidance for the Protection and Welfare of Children, 2011 provides the guidelines on responding to and reporting child abuse in the Republic of Ireland.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0112709157-17"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Anawim. (2015). Women working together. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Maintaining the Mother-Child Relationship within the Irish Prison System: The Practitioner Perspective
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22O'Malley%2C+Sinead%22">O'Malley, Sinead</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Devaney%2C+Carmel%22">Devaney, Carmel</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Child+Care+in+Practice%22"><i>Child Care in Practice</i></searchLink>. 2016 22(1):20-34.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
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  Data: 15
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2016
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mothers%22">Mothers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Child+Relationship%22">Parent Child Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Institutionalized+Persons%22">Institutionalized Persons</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correctional+Institutions%22">Correctional Institutions</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Child+Development%22">Child Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Qualitative+Research%22">Qualitative Research</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Semi+Structured+Interviews%22">Semi Structured Interviews</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interaction%22">Interaction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Space+Utilization%22">Space Utilization</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Infants%22">Infants</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Children%22">Children</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ireland%22">Ireland</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/13575279.2015.1054786
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1357-5279
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: There is a dearth of research on the experience of motherhood within the Irish prison system. This paper considers the specific issue of facilitating contact between incarcerated mothers and their children. It is based on a study which explores the views of practitioners working directly with mothers in prison on how the mother-child relationship is accommodated and supported. Data presented are based on eight one-to-one interviews with participants from within the prison system and with participants working in an external support agency. The research findings highlight examples of good practice within the prison system with a sense that participants endeavour to support this relationship whenever possible. Suggestions for improved practice and the associated resource needs are also discussed. Internationally there are many exemplars of supportive initiatives promoting relationships between incarcerated mothers and their children. Such models and the relevant research and literature are considered in this paper. The paper concludes with reflections on the findings of this study with reference to this literature.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: Ref
  Label: Number of References
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  Data: 57
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2016
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1089857
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        Value: 10.1080/13575279.2015.1054786
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 15
        StartPage: 20
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Mothers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Child Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Institutionalized Persons
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correctional Institutions
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
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      – SubjectFull: Child Development
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      – SubjectFull: Qualitative Research
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Semi Structured Interviews
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      – SubjectFull: Interaction
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      – SubjectFull: Space Utilization
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      – SubjectFull: Infants
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Ireland
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Maintaining the Mother-Child Relationship within the Irish Prison System: The Practitioner Perspective
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            NameFull: O'Malley, Sinead
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            NameFull: Devaney, Carmel
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            – TitleFull: Child Care in Practice
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