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Schoolteachers, Social Control and Professional Conflict: Government Procedures Brought against Schoolteachers in Galicia (1859-1910)

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Title: Schoolteachers, Social Control and Professional Conflict: Government Procedures Brought against Schoolteachers in Galicia (1859-1910)
Language: English
Authors: De Gabriel, Narciso
Source: History of Education. 2018 47(4):466-487.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 22
Publication Date: 2018
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Evaluative
Descriptors: Social Control, Conflict of Interest, Professional Identity, Public School Teachers, Teacher Discipline, Legal Responsibility, Inspection, Administrative Principles, Educational History, Personnel Management, Foreign Countries
Geographic Terms: Spain
DOI: 10.1080/0046760X.2017.1410729
ISSN: 0046-760X
Abstract: This article aims to analyse the disciplinary procedures brought against public schoolteachers in Galicia from 1859 until 1910. The article starts with the presentation of the legal basis for the government inquiries and the administrative framework in which they were implemented. Following is an examination of the evolution of the inquiries, the origin of the complaints, the charges filed against the teachers and the sanctions proposed. Lastly some examples are provided of the most widespread offences, consisting of abandonment of teaching as well as other charges of moral misconduct such as cohabitation and sexual abuse of the children.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2018
Accession Number: EJ1181492
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0129998879;hed01jul.18;2018Jun08.10:16;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0129998879-1">Schoolteachers, social control and professional conflict: government procedures brought against schoolteachers in Galicia (1859-1910) </title> <p>This article aims to analyse the disciplinary procedures brought against public schoolteachers in Galicia from 1859 until 1910. The article starts with the presentation of the legal basis for the government inquiries and the administrative framework in which they were implemented. Following is an examination of the evolution of the inquiries, the origin of the complaints, the charges filed against the teachers and the sanctions proposed. Lastly some examples are provided of the most widespread offences, consisting of abandonment of teaching as well as other charges of moral misconduct such as cohabitation and sexual abuse of the children.</p> <p>Schoolteacher; inspection; social control; abandonment of teaching; immorality</p> <p>The history of primary schoolteachers during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries has attracted special attention from Spanish historians. Research focused initially on the analysis of teacher training, which was carried out at institutions called Normal Schools. The scope of these investigations was gradually broadened to include topics like social background and consideration, socio-economic situation, professional associations and unions, assemblies and conventions, professional and pedagogical journals, the process of feminisation and life stories.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] Browsing through the journal Historia de la Educación. Revista Interuniversitaria, which has been published since 1982, it is possible to follow the evolution and importance of this field of research. Another journal, Historia y Memoria de la Educación, promoted by the Sociedad Española de Historia de la Educación (SEDHE), devoted its first issue (2015) to this subject, which reflects its central role.</p> <p>On the occasion of its fortieth anniversary, History of Education reviewed the publications on many different subjects including this one. David Crook concluded that ‘the theme of teacher education and training was largely absent in the 1970s, grew somewhat in the 1980s, peaked in the 1990s and has maintained interest since that time’.[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>] Research had focused on analysing education policies, institutions, former training models and the life experiences and careers of teachers. The author highlights the growing importance of gender perspective over the past few decades and how it has led to a new approach in terms of concept and methodology in this research field. The significance of this new perspective had been noted a few years earlier by Mineke van Essen and Rebecca Rogers in an international bibliographic review,[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>] and is still referred to in more recent studies, such as the work by Ester de Fort on Italy.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>]</p> <p>The purpose of this paper is to analyse the government inquiries conducted to investigate public schoolteachers in Galicia from 1859 to 1910.[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>] These inquiries refer to the procedure used to determine the existence of offences allegedly committed by teachers and, where appropriate, the sanctions imposed. The gender perspective will also be a major consideration because there are substantial differences in the government inquiries conducted on males as compared with females.</p> <p>Very few research papers focus specifically on this topic.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>] The one that comes closest to ours deals with the university district of Valladolid from 1875 to 1902. The author concludes that these conflicts were largely influenced by the power relations inherent to each particular town.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>] In addition to the investigations that analyse these procedures, there are others that are used as sources. Especially noteworthy is the research carried out by Esther Cortada Andreu, who refers to this documentation to probe - among other issues - the relationship between schoolmistresses in Catalonia and their superiors.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>] This source was also used to reconstruct the story of two Galician schoolmistresses who devised a scheme to contract matrimony in 1901. To do so, one of the women had to adopt male identity.[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>]</p> <p>As far as we know, in other countries this type of research is also scarce, although there are some contributions of a general nature[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>] and others that deal with specific cases.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>] Many more studies allude to the control mechanisms of teachers and their relationships and conflicts with the authorities and the community.[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref12">12</reflink>]</p> <p>Our main source of information is based on the records of the University Council of the University of Santiago de Compostela, whose start and end dates mark the time frame of our study. An analysis of their content has allowed us to create the tables found on the following pages. We also tapped into legislation, statistics, periodical publications and the wealth of documentation on these investigations on file in the Historical Archives of the University of Santiago. We believe that our work can be included in one of the lines of research proposed by David Crook in the bibliographic review mentioned earlier: namely, that which is linked to ‘tradition grounded in the study of documentary sources and materials deposited in national and institutional archives’.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref13">13</reflink>] Our approach takes both a qualitative and a quantitative perspective.</p> <hd id="AN0129998879-2">Legal basis and administrative framework</hd> <p>The historical period examined here (1859-1910) coincides roughly with the Restoration period (1875-1923), during which the Conservative and Liberal parties peacefully alternated in power. This political regime was based on restricted male suffrage, which evolved into universal suffrage starting from 1890. Its inner workings depended largely on the clientelistic relationships that were typical of caciquism, although this phenomenon was not exclusive to Spain.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>] The vast majority of the population still resided in the rural areas. However, with the gradual development of industry - centred mainly in Catalonia and the Basque country - and commerce, the cities began to thrive. Migration to America was also on the rise, and it was especially acute in Galicia. This process of relative modernisation gave rise to new social conflicts led by the workers’ movement. The rising regionalist sentiment in Catalonia, the Basque country and Galicia turned into nationalism at the turn of the century.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>]</p> <p>The education system gained significant momentum during the mid-nineteenth century, coinciding with a government led by moderate liberals. That was when the foundations were laid for the new system of primary[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref16">16</reflink>] and secondary[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>] schools, which would grow only marginally during the rest of the century. This relative stagnation would continue into the beginning of the twentieth century, although the period saw a number of reforms that would contribute to the modernisation of the education system, particularly primary schools. Some of the achievements included the following: the creation of a specific ministry, Public Education and Fine Arts; the inclusion of teachers’ salaries in the national budget (formerly paid by the city councils); the expansion of curricular content; the advocacy of primary school graduation; and increased nation-building measures.[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref18">18</reflink>]</p> <p>During this entire period the Moyano Act, passed in 1857, was in effect. It was essentially a regulation that served to synthesise the previous legislation and remained in force on a structural level until 1970. With regard to the topic under examination, article 170 of this law stipulated that a teacher could only be removed from his or her duties on the basis of a court decision barring the teacher from exercising the profession or by virtue of a government inquiry which provided evidence that the teacher had failed to comply with his or her professional responsibilities, or that he or she was involved in the dissemination of ‘pernicious doctrine’ or exhibited morally inappropriate professional behaviour. According to article 171, it was understood that teachers who did not appear for their designated assignments within the prescribed time limit or were absent from their posts without the appropriate authorisation had relinquished their posts. In the event that the teacher claimed to have good reason to justify his or her conduct, an inquiry would be conducted according to the terms specified in the article above. Lastly, article 172 stated that no teacher could be transferred to another ‘institution or subject’ without prior consultation with the Council of Public Instruction.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref19">19</reflink>]</p> <p>The above provisions were aimed at strengthening the position and autonomy of the teaching workforce, providing them with the condition of non-removability in performing their duties - at least in theory. This was especially necessary for schoolteachers who lacked independence and were subjected to pressure and arbitrary measures of many different kinds, as we shall see. Removal or transfer required the start of an investigation wherein the accused offenders would have the opportunity to defend themselves. These actions required the approval of the Council of Public Instruction.</p> <p>In these procedures, virtually all of the school administrative bodies, from the Ministry down to the local boards of primary education, were called upon to take part. Let us take a closer look at these administrative bodies to examine their composition - as designed by the Moyano Act - and the role they played.[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref20">20</reflink>]</p> <p>After being assigned to different ministries, educational issues became the responsibility of the Ministry of Public Works in 1855 and continued under this government body until the Ministry of Public Education and Fine Arts was created in 1900. It was managed by the Directorate General of Public Education, which would be replaced by the Undersecretariat of the Ministry at the beginning of the twentieth century. The consulting body of the central administration was the Council of Public Instruction, set up in 1836, subsequently eliminated in 1868 and re-established in 1874.</p> <p>The local-level administration was headed by the chancellors of each of the 10 university districts, on which all of the districts’ public education institutions depended. The Chancellor of Santiago de Compostela performed his duties in the four provinces of Galicia: A Coruña, Lugo, Ourense and Pontevedra. There was a University Council whose purpose was to advise the chancellor on important decisions, particularly those related to disciplinary procedures to be taken against teachers and students. It was headed by the chancellor and comprised the faculty deans and directors of schools of higher education, as well as directors of vocational and secondary schools in the city where the university was located. The records of this consulting body are the main source of information used in this research paper.</p> <p>The provincial boards of public education were in charge of the school administration in their respective districts. They were headed by the civil governor and made up of a provincial deputy, a provincial councillor, a representative of the provincial statistics commission, a secondary school teacher, a city council representative, a church representative, the primary school inspector and two or more parents.</p> <p>In the towns, the stewardship of the schools and teachers was entrusted to the local boards of primary education. They were composed of a councilman, a church representative and at least three parents, and headed by the mayor. These boards were in charge of budget management, the supervision of the schools and teachers and also the promotion of education.</p> <p>In addition to these bodies, there was another important institution in the administrative structure, which was the provincial inspectorate of primary education. From 1849, the year it was created, until well into the twentieth century, there was only one inspector per province.[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref21">21</reflink>] This circumstance, along with the need to attend to administrative tasks and the limited budget for inspection visits, meant that there was little direct supervision of schools. One example is the period from 1881 to 1885, during which the mean number of schools visited annually by each inspector totalled just over 83 in Galicia, which had 2086 public schools in 1885, while the figure was 95 for the rest of Spain, with 24,529 schools that same year. Based on this average, the time that elapsed between inspections would be six years in the former case and five in the latter.[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref22">22</reflink>]</p> <p>The intervention of each of these bodies in disciplinary procedures was specified in an order from the Directorate General of Public Education issued on 12 April 1876. Inspector Manuel Panero summarised the procedure established by the above order to process these cases as follows:</p> <p>The Provincial Boards of Public Education are the bodies that initiate disciplinary procedures against schoolteachers. A statement of charges is presented to the teacher in question, and once these charges have been reviewed and answered, the document is sent to the Provincial Inspector who then issues an investigative report, which, in serious cases, is released after he conducts a special visit to the school of the teacher involved. The Board issues its decision and along with a reasoned report, submits it to the district Chancellor. After hearing the proposal of the University Council, the Chancellor may impose the appropriate penalty, provided it falls within his sphere of competence. He must also inform the Directorate [General of Public Education]. If the application of the penalty is not within his competence, he will forward the proposal along with a reasoned report to the Ministry so that the latter may decide how to proceed.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref23">23</reflink>]</p> <p>Therefore, the initiative rested with the provincial boards, who ordered the local boards to carry out the investigation. The latter were in charge of gathering information that would come from various sources. Generally, several members of the community were summoned to testify and they would give their opinions as to the veracity of the offences attributed to the teacher. Notable community figures were also asked to provide information, particularly priests. The local board would hold a session to debate the case, pronounce a judgment as they saw fit and, at times, present a motion for resolution.</p> <hd id="AN0129998879-3">Evolution and types of cases</hd> <p>According to the records of the University Council of the University of Santiago de Compostela, a total of 345 investigations were conducted from 1859 to 1910.[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>] None were recorded in 1861, 1862, 1878, 1901 and 1909, as was the case during the Revolutionary Six Year Period (1868-1874), when the school administration was decentralised and underwent major changes. We do know, however, that the autonomy granted to the towns during this Six Year Period was used to close down many of the schools and arbitrarily dismiss a large number of teachers.[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref25">25</reflink>] This prompted the central authorities to decide to ‘revoke the agreements of the Revolutionary Boards, Provincial Governments and Municipalities relating to the removal, transfer or suspension of primary school teachers’.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref26">26</reflink>] The final decision would be made after the cases had been processed according to the required formalities.</p> <p>As can be seen in Table 1, the total number of cases in the nineteenth century came to 179, averaging just over five per year. The year 1867 stands out because 32 cases were filed as a result of a government measure ordering chancellors to make a special visit to teachers who were suspected of having committed some type of offence:</p> <p>The government is well aware, and it is common knowledge in this country, that not long ago in certain communities where associations of a disturbing nature have unfortunately been formed, the schoolteacher has been seen in an agitated state, ranting and raving socialist nonsense, oblivious to his mission and duties. In other towns, the education of our children is in a dire state of neglect, whether it is because of negligence or the teacher’s incompetence or because his reputed conduct has prompted parents to withdraw their children from a school under his direction.[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref27">27</reflink>]</p> <p>Of these 179 cases, 21 pertained to the period from 1881 to 1885. However, we know that over the course of these five years Galician inspectors investigated 156 cases ‘for offences’ of teachers, totalling 1052 in Spain as a whole.[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref28">28</reflink>] The former figure accounts for 7.4% of the public teaching workforce in 1885 and the latter for 4.1%. It would therefore seem that the University Council of Santiago reviewed - at least during this five-year period - a little under 14% of the cases processed by the inspectors. These would generally have been the most serious, although we know for certain that several cases resulting in severe penalties were never seen by the Council.</p> <p>Evolution of the procedures against teachers by gender and type of school.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table border="1" cellpadding="10"><tr valign="top"><td align="left" rowspan="3" /><td align="left" /><td align="center" colspan="4">Teacher gender</td><td align="center" colspan="4">Type of school</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left" /><td align="center" colspan="2">Male</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Female</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Complete</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Incomplete</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">1859-1867</td><td align="char">44</td><td align="char">40</td><td align="char">90.9</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">9.1</td><td align="char">15</td><td align="char">36.6</td><td align="char">26</td><td align="char">63.4</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">1875-1880</td><td align="char">26</td><td align="char">23</td><td align="char">88.5</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">11.5</td><td align="char">9</td><td align="char">60.0</td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">40.0</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">1881-1885</td><td align="char">21</td><td align="char">20</td><td align="char">95.2</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">4.8</td><td align="char">9</td><td align="char">47.4</td><td align="char">10</td><td align="char">52.6</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">1886-1890</td><td align="char">22</td><td align="char">18</td><td align="char">81.8</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">18.2</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">31.8</td><td align="char">15</td><td align="char">68.2</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">1891-1895</td><td align="char">45</td><td align="char">23</td><td align="char">51.1</td><td align="char">22</td><td align="char">48.9</td><td align="char">13</td><td align="char">37.1</td><td align="char">22</td><td align="char">62.9</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">1896-1900</td><td align="char">21</td><td align="char">15</td><td align="char">71.4</td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">28.6</td><td align="char">8</td><td align="char">40.0</td><td align="char">12</td><td align="char">60.0</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">1901-1905</td><td align="char">68</td><td align="char">34</td><td align="char">50.0</td><td align="char">34</td><td align="char">50.0</td><td align="char">10</td><td align="char">30.3</td><td align="char">23</td><td align="char">69.7</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">1906-1910</td><td align="char">98</td><td align="char">35</td><td align="char">35.7</td><td align="char">63</td><td align="char">64.3</td><td align="char">29</td><td align="char">33.7</td><td align="char">57</td><td align="char">66.3</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Total</td><td align="char">345</td><td align="char">208</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">137</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">100</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">171</td><td align="char"> </td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Source: Records of the University Council of the University of Santiago de Compostela. In the incomplete schools, five seasonal schools have been included. The fact that the total number of schools does not coincide with the number of cases is because in some instances the type of school has not been specified. This observation also applies to the variables shown in the rest of the tables.</p> <p>Referring again to Table 1, we have found that during the first decade of the twentieth century there were 166 cases and the annual average increased more than threefold, although variations were significant. Therefore, we may conclude that during this period the administrative authorities stepped up control over teachers. As mentioned earlier, the decision to include teachers’ salaries in the national budget, thus providing them with wages paid on a regular basis and improving their standard of living, would seem to have made the administration more demanding of them.</p> <p>The disciplinary actions taken against men greatly outnumbered those against women until 1890, and the ratio was much higher than that of their presence in the public school network, which was 79.2% in 1885.[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref29">29</reflink>] As of that date and coinciding with the preference given to female teachers to run coeducational schools,[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref30">30</reflink>] the differences decreased and the ratio was even reversed despite the fact that there were still fewer women than men in the teaching profession. Between 1901 and 1910, 58% of accused offenders were women, although their presence in the public schools accounted for only 39.6% in 1903.[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref31">31</reflink>]</p> <p>If we differentiate the cases in terms of the type of school, during the early years the teachers who were in charge of complete elementary schools were subject to more disciplinary procedures than those teaching at incomplete schools, considering the total number of schools of both types.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref32">32</reflink>] Starting in the late nineteenth century the percentages tend to adjust to the figures in both categories in the composition of the school network. For example, in 1903, the higher schools accounted for 0.6% in Galicia, complete schools, 35.1%, incomplete schools, 55.6% and seasonal schools, 8.7%. These figures are similar to those presented in Table 1 for 1901-1905, when incomplete and seasonal schools are grouped together.[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref33">33</reflink>]</p> <p>Over the whole period under consideration, the number of complaints originating from local authorities, community residents and the inspectorate was practically the same, roughly 29% each (see Table 2). If we focus on the nineteenth century, the situation is very different, since most of the complaints came from residents, who would generally oversee the performance of the schoolteacher. On occasion, they would act in association with the mayor or priest. This prominent role would diminish during the decade from 1901 to 1910, when the number of complaints made by the community halved. The opposite was true for the inspectorate, which saw a 15% increase in complaints received, as well as the local authorities, with a 7% rise. Intervention by the parish priest was less explicit, although he was often the one who initiated the complaints filed from other bodies. Included in the category of other complaints are the Chancellor’s Office, provincial authorities and the press. The latter would pay increasing attention to school issues and their publications would often denounce the inappropriate behaviour of schoolteachers.</p> <p>Origin of the complaints against teachers.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table border="1" cellpadding="7"><tr valign="top"><td align="left" rowspan="2" /><td align="center" colspan="2">1859-1900</td><td align="center" colspan="2">1901-1910</td><td align="center" colspan="2">1859-1910</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Local authorities </td><td align="char">20</td><td align="char">26.0</td><td align="char">25</td><td align="char">32.9</td><td align="char">45</td><td align="char">29.4</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Community residents</td><td align="char">29</td><td align="char">37.7</td><td align="char">15</td><td align="char">19.7</td><td align="char">44</td><td align="char">28.8</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Inspectorate </td><td align="char">16</td><td align="char">20.8</td><td align="char">27</td><td align="char">35.5</td><td align="char">43</td><td align="char">28.1</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Priest</td><td align="char">8</td><td align="char">10.4</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">5.3</td><td align="char">12</td><td align="char">7.8</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Other</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">5.2</td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">6.6</td><td align="char">9</td><td align="char">5.9</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Total</td><td align="char">77</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">76</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">153</td><td align="char"> </td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 Source: Records of the University Council of the University of Santiago de Compostela.</p> <p>Most significant of all is the increasingly prominent role played by the inspectorate and the waning importance of the community, which would suggest that, at least in principle, the complaints were based more and more on professional motivations and less conditioned by the dynamics and conflicts inherent to each community. This evolution also highlights the beginning of the transition of the status of schoolteachers from ‘local’ to ‘national’.</p> <p>Over the course of the nineteenth century, schoolteachers were largely dependent on the local community where they practised their profession. It was the mayor who paid their salaries, provided them with lodging and authorised sick leave. They were also dependent on the parish priest who exercised de facto control and supervised the teaching of Christian doctrine in the schools as well as the moral and religious conduct of the teachers. Moreover, the community members themselves could report inappropriate behaviour if it did not meet their own particular criteria. Often, teachers were forced to adapt their educational programmes and teaching methodology to the demands of the community, thus risking censorship by the inspectorate.</p> <p>A complaint was lodged against Luis Carmelo S.,[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref34">34</reflink>] a schoolteacher at the incomplete school of Santa Cecilia de Valadouro (Foz-Lugo), by several residents in 1870. The accusation did not go forward since the parish priest managed to have it withdrawn ‘in view of the submissive attitude’ that the teacher had adopted, to the satisfaction of the community. The teacher did in fact sign an affidavit witnessed by several townspeople in which he promised to exercise his duties in keeping with their demands. At the end of document there was an open-ended clause subject to the inclusion of any other demands that they should see fit to make in the future: ‘and lastly I bind myself to anything and everything else that is not expressed here’.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref35">35</reflink>] They could not have asked for anything more.</p> <p>The inclusion of teachers’ salaries as part of the national budget, better training programmes and the start of professional associations forged the way to helping teachers achieve a certain degree of autonomy from the local powers, and led to their gradual transformation into national teachers.[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref36">36</reflink>] However, their battle for autonomy from the local authorities was not easy, as described in the novel Entre montañas, published by the primary school inspector, Antonio J. Onieva, in 1920 and set in Asturias.[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref37">37</reflink>]</p> <p>Focusing now on the complaints leading to an investigation, the most common is, without a doubt, abandonment of teaching, which took various forms. It is mentioned in a little over 90% of the cases and accounts for 39.6% of the 707 charges brought against teachers. Both the former and latter percentages are higher among women than men. The average number of charges per investigation is significantly higher among male teachers (see Table 3).</p> <p>Types of conduct by teachers resulting in disciplinary procedures.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table border="1" cellpadding="19"><tr valign="top"><td align="left" rowspan="3" /><td align="center" colspan="6">1859-1900</td><td align="center" colspan="6">1901-1910</td><td align="center" colspan="6">1859-1910</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="center" colspan="2">Men</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Women</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Total</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Men</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Women</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Total</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Men</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Women</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Total</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td><td align="center">No.</td><td align="center">%</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Abandonment of teaching </td><td align="char">119</td><td align="char">85.6</td><td align="char">35</td><td align="char">87.5</td><td align="char">154</td><td align="char">86.0</td><td align="char">47</td><td align="char">94.0</td><td align="char">79</td><td align="char">97.5</td><td align="char">126</td><td align="char">96.2</td><td align="char">166</td><td align="char">87.8</td><td align="char">114</td><td align="char">94.2</td><td align="char">280</td><td align="char">90.3</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Poor learning outcome </td><td align="char">37</td><td align="char">26.6</td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">12.5</td><td align="char">42</td><td align="char">23.5</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">6.0</td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">7.4</td><td align="char">9</td><td align="char">6.9</td><td align="char">40</td><td align="char">21.2</td><td align="char">11</td><td align="char">9.1</td><td align="char">51</td><td align="char">16.5</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Irregular administration of the budget </td><td align="char">26</td><td align="char">18.7</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">17.5</td><td align="char">33</td><td align="char">18.4</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">14.0</td><td align="char">11</td><td align="char">13.6</td><td align="char">18</td><td align="char">13.7</td><td align="char">33</td><td align="char">17.5</td><td align="char">18</td><td align="char">14.9</td><td align="char">51</td><td align="char">16.5</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Repeated offences </td><td align="char">30</td><td align="char">21.6</td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">12.5</td><td align="char">35</td><td align="char">19.6</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">1.2</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">0.8</td><td align="char">30</td><td align="char">15.9</td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">5.0</td><td align="char">36</td><td align="char">11.6</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Low enrolment and/or attendance </td><td align="char">21</td><td align="char">15.1</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">7.5</td><td align="char">24</td><td align="char">13.4</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">6.0</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">4.9</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">5.3</td><td align="char">24</td><td align="char">12.7</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">5.8</td><td align="char">31</td><td align="char">10.0</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Incompetence </td><td align="char">22</td><td align="char">15.8</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">7.5</td><td align="char">25</td><td align="char">14.0</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.0</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">1.2</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">1.5</td><td align="char">23</td><td align="char">12.2</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">3.3</td><td align="char">27</td><td align="char">8.7</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Illicit sexual relations or sexual abuse </td><td align="char">19</td><td align="char">13.7</td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">15.0</td><td align="char">25</td><td align="char">14.0</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.0</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">1.2</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">1.5</td><td align="char">20</td><td align="char">10.6</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">5.8</td><td align="char">27</td><td align="char">8.7</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Drunkenness</td><td align="char">18</td><td align="char">12.9</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">7.5</td><td align="char">21</td><td align="char">11.7</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.0</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">1.2</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">1.5</td><td align="char">19</td><td align="char">10.1</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">3.3</td><td align="char">23</td><td align="char">7.4</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Poor administrative management </td><td align="char">11</td><td align="char">7.9</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">10.0</td><td align="char">15</td><td align="char">8.4</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.0</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">4.9</td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">3.8</td><td align="char">12</td><td align="char">6.3</td><td align="char">8</td><td align="char">6.6</td><td align="char">20</td><td align="char">6.5</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Immoral conduct </td><td align="char">14</td><td align="char">10.1</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">5.0</td><td align="char">16</td><td align="char">8.9</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.0</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">2.5</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">2.3</td><td align="char">15</td><td align="char">7.9</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">3.3</td><td align="char">19</td><td align="char">6.1</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Non-fulfilment of religious duties </td><td align="char">11</td><td align="char">7.9</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">10.0</td><td align="char">15</td><td align="char">8.4</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.0</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">0.8</td><td align="char">12</td><td align="char">6.3</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">3.3</td><td align="char">16</td><td align="char">5.2</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Corporal punishment </td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">3.6</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">7.5</td><td align="char">8</td><td align="char">4.5</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">4.0</td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">6.2</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">5.3</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">3.7</td><td align="char">8</td><td align="char">6.6</td><td align="char">15</td><td align="char">4.8</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Conflicts with the local authorities </td><td align="char">10</td><td align="char">7.2</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.5</td><td align="char">11</td><td align="char">6.1</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">4.0</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">1.5</td><td align="char">12</td><td align="char">6.3</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">0.8</td><td align="char">13</td><td align="char">4.2</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Poor management of school premises </td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">5.0</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">3.9</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">4.0</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">3.7</td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">3.8</td><td align="char">9</td><td align="char">4.8</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">2.5</td><td align="char">12</td><td align="char">3.9</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Inadequate school organisation </td><td align="char">10</td><td align="char">7.2</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">10</td><td align="char">5.6</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.0</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">1.2</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">1.5</td><td align="char">11</td><td align="char">5.8</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">0.8</td><td align="char">12</td><td align="char">3.9</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Inappropriate treatment of children </td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">5.0</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">3.9</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">4.0</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">3.7</td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">3.8</td><td align="char">9</td><td align="char">4.8</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">2.5</td><td align="char">12</td><td align="char">3.9</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Wayward conduct </td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">4.3</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.5</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">3.9</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">3.7</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">2.3</td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">3.2</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">3.3</td><td align="char">10</td><td align="char">3.2</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Family conflicts </td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">3.6</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">5.0</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">3.9</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.0</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">1.2</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">1.5</td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">3.2</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">2.5</td><td align="char">9</td><td align="char">2.9</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Vulgar language </td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">5.0</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.5</td><td align="char">8</td><td align="char">4.5</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">3.7</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">0.8</td><td align="char">8</td><td align="char">2.6</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Participation in political activities </td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">4.3</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">3.4</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.0</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">0.8</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">3.7</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">2.3</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Lack of respect for superior authorities </td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">3.6</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">2.8</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">2.6</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">1.6</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Other</td><td align="char">21</td><td align="char">15.1</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.5</td><td align="char">22</td><td align="char">12.3</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">2.0</td><td align="char">0</td><td align="char">0.0</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">0.8</td><td align="char">22</td><td align="char">11.6</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">0.8</td><td align="char">23</td><td align="char">7.4</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Total</td><td align="char">417</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">86</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">503</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">78</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">126</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">204</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">495</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">212</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">707</td><td align="char"> </td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Cases with specific charges </td><td align="char">139</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">40</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">179</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">50</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">81</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">131</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">189</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">121</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">310</td><td align="char"> </td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Mean number of charges per case </td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">2.15</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">2.8</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">1.6</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">1.6</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">1.6</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">2.6</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">1.8</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">2.3</td><td align="char"> </td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">% of abandonment/total charges </td><td align="char">28.5</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">40.7</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">30.6</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">60.3</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">62.7</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">61.8</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">33.5</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">53.8</td><td align="char"> </td><td align="char">39.6</td><td align="char"> </td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 Source: Records of the University Council of the University of Santiago de Compostela.</p> <p>Ranking second, although trailing far behind, is poor learning outcome. This depended on widely diverse circumstances, especially related to children’s attendance, which was highly irregular and seasonal. But school performance was also conditioned by the ability, skills and diligence of the teachers.[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref38">38</reflink>]</p> <p>Each school was allocated a certain amount of money - equivalent to 25% of the teacher’s salary - for the purchase and maintenance of furniture and teaching materials.[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref39">39</reflink>] These funds were assigned by the town councils directly to the teachers, although compliance was irregular and payments were often delayed. Alleged irregularities in the management of these resources and the suspicion that the teacher was pocketing some of these funds share second place with the previous charge. However, some inspectors excused these irregularities. José Seara, inspector of the province of Ourense, described one of the teachers, whose husband not only physically abused her but also stole the money that had been allocated for teaching supplies, as being ‘pitiful’.[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref40">40</reflink>] He also sympathised with a teacher who used the monetary allocation to buy bread for his children: ‘The schoolteacher has no other livelihood than the yearly allocation of one thousand “reales” that he is given for the school. He has a wife and children, and it is more than likely that the money he should be spending on supplies is being used to buy bread for his family.’[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref41">41</reflink>]</p> <p>Repeated offences, particularly common in men, rank fourth on the list of charges, followed by low enrolment and/or attendance. The latter was due mainly to child labour, which was a widespread and common practice in both rural and urban areas.[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref42">42</reflink>] Therefore, many families did not enrol their children in school and those who did - at least in the rural areas - would send them to school only when the workload was lighter. But the truth is that, if enrolment and attendance were low, the teacher was considered to bear great responsibility for this.</p> <p>Six charges are mentioned in 5% to 8.7% of cases: three were related to moral offences (illicit sexual relations or sexual abuse of girls, drunkenness and immoral conduct), two had to do with professional duties (teacher incompetence[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref43">43</reflink>] and failure to keep administrative records or inadequate administration) and one was a religious offence (failure to observe religious practices). More male teachers than women were involved in all of these charges except the one related to administrative records.</p> <p>Many of the charges with an occurrence of under 5% are professional offences (the application of excessively severe punishments,[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref44">44</reflink>] poor management of school premises, inadequate school organisation), or have to do with relationships (disputes with the local authorities, disrespect for superiors, inappropriate treatment of children), personal shortcomings (a wayward nature, family conflicts), moral conduct (vulgar language) and political activity. Apart from corporal punishment and wayward nature, the rest of the charges are typically attributed to men. The same is true of the category ‘other’ (lack of character, unkempt or ridiculous appearance, practice of usury, violent behaviour, etc.).</p> <p>A comparison of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries allows us to draw several conclusions, some of which we have highlighted below (see Table 3):In terms of sanctions, the Public Instruction Regulation of 1859, mentioned earlier, stipulated that the university councils could impose warnings or reprimands and penalties of suspension without pay for up to one month and suspension from duties for up to three months. Dismissal and transfer required a report from the Council of Public Instruction. In both cases the final decision rested with the central government and the university councils were only allowed to make proposals.[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref45">45</reflink>]</p> <p>To expedite the processing of cases, which often could take years, the Royal Order dated 21 July 1864 granted chancellors the power to transfer teachers whom they had appointed. This could be done when ‘so required for the good of education’, after prior consultation with the provincial board or university council. Teachers who had been penalised were given the possibility of making an appeal to the government.[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref46">46</reflink>] This provision was repealed in 1883, as it was considered to contradict article 172 of the Moyano Act, which in fact it did.[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref47">47</reflink>]</p> <p>During the early twentieth century successive reforms were carried out, affecting the disciplinary procedures and changing the framework of the penalties. We shall briefly discuss those adopted up to 1910.[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref48">48</reflink>]</p> <p>The range of penalties established in 1901 considered five possibilities: censure, transfer to a similar type of school in a different location, suspension from duties for a period ranging from 15 days to three months, removal from duties for a period of between six months and two years, and disqualification from exercising the teaching profession, either on a temporary basis - a minimum of three years - or permanently.[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref49">49</reflink>] Four years later transfer was scrapped as a disciplinary measure, since the circumstances under which it could be applied were unclear, the effectiveness of this corrective action was questionable and it represented ‘an unfair imposition of punishment on the towns or schools where the penalised teacher would be sent’. Once this penalty was eliminated,[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref50">50</reflink>] six types of penalties were considered: private reprimand, public reprimand, unpaid suspension for a period of eight days to three months, temporary removal from duties, disqualification from promotions, and permanent removal from duties.[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref51">51</reflink>] Finally in 1907, in addition to granting the provincial boards the power to impose certain penalties (private reprimand, public reprimand and unpaid suspension for five to 10 days), a new framework of penalties was established: public rebuke, unpaid suspension for 11 days to three months, temporary suspension of duties for six months to two years, and permanent removal. The imposition of the first two penalties rested with the Chancellor’s Office and the last two with the Ministry.[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref52">52</reflink>]</p> <p>Table 4 shows that two out of every 10 cases were resolved without the proposal of any penalty, although the percentage was notably lower in the nineteenth versus the twentieth century. During the former period, it was more common for procedures against female teachers to be dropped than those against male teachers, whereas in the latter period the opposite occurred.</p> <p>Sanctions proposed by the University Council of the University of Santiago de Compostela: men (M), women (W) and total (T).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table border="1" cellpadding="10"><tr valign="top"><td align="left" rowspan="2" /><td align="center" colspan="3">1859-1900</td><td align="center" colspan="3">1901-1910</td><td align="center" colspan="3">1859-1910</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="center">M</td><td align="center">W</td><td align="center">T</td><td align="center">M</td><td align="center">W</td><td align="center">T</td><td align="center">M</td><td align="center">W</td><td align="center">T</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Case dismissed </td><td align="char">16</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">23</td><td align="char">22</td><td align="char">23</td><td align="char">45</td><td align="char">38</td><td align="char">30</td><td align="char">68</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Reprimand </td><td align="char">10</td><td align="char">4</td><td align="char">14</td><td align="char">17</td><td align="char">30</td><td align="char">47</td><td align="char">27</td><td align="char">34</td><td align="char">61</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Unpaid temporary suspension </td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">1</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">10</td><td align="char">16</td><td align="char">12</td><td align="char">11</td><td align="char">23</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Transfer </td><td align="char">40</td><td align="char">14</td><td align="char">54</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">6</td><td align="char">8</td><td align="char">42</td><td align="char">20</td><td align="char">62</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Removal</td><td align="char">60</td><td align="char">12</td><td align="char">72</td><td align="char">16</td><td align="char">24</td><td align="char">40</td><td align="char">76</td><td align="char">36</td><td align="char">112</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Other</td><td align="char">7</td><td align="char">2</td><td align="char">9</td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">3</td><td align="char">8</td><td align="char">12</td><td align="char">5</td><td align="char">17</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Total</td><td align="char">139</td><td align="char">40</td><td align="char">179</td><td align="char">68</td><td align="char">96</td><td align="char">164</td><td align="char">207</td><td align="char">136</td><td align="char">343</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left"> </td><td align="center" colspan="9">Percentage</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Case dismissed </td><td align="char">11.5</td><td align="char">17.5</td><td align="char">12.8</td><td align="char">32.4</td><td align="char">24.0</td><td align="char">27.4</td><td align="char">18.4</td><td align="char">22.1</td><td align="char">19.8</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Reprimand </td><td align="char">7.2</td><td align="char">10.0</td><td align="char">7.8</td><td align="char">25.0</td><td align="char">31.3</td><td align="char">28.7</td><td align="char">13.0</td><td align="char">25.0</td><td align="char">17.8</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Unpaid temporary suspension </td><td align="char">4.3</td><td align="char">2.5</td><td align="char">3.9</td><td align="char">8.8</td><td align="char">10.4</td><td align="char">9.8</td><td align="char">5.8</td><td align="char">8.1</td><td align="char">6.7</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Transfer </td><td align="char">28.8</td><td align="char">35.0</td><td align="char">30.2</td><td align="char">2.9</td><td align="char">6.3</td><td align="char">4.9</td><td align="char">20.3</td><td align="char">14.7</td><td align="char">18.1</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Removal</td><td align="char">43.2</td><td align="char">30.0</td><td align="char">40.2</td><td align="char">23.5</td><td align="char">25.0</td><td align="char">24.4</td><td align="char">36.7</td><td align="char">26.5</td><td align="char">32.7</td></tr><tr valign="top"><td align="left">Other</td><td align="char">5.0</td><td align="char">5.0</td><td align="char">5.0</td><td align="char">7.4</td><td align="char">3.1</td><td align="char">4.9</td><td align="char">5.8</td><td align="char">3.7</td><td align="char">5.0</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>4 Source: Records of the University Council of the University of Santiago de Compostela.</p> <p>This relatively high percentage shows that in many cases the accusations proved to be unfounded and stemmed from disputes between the teacher and the members of the community, the clergy or the local authorities.[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref53">53</reflink>] At that time, Spain was dominated by a clientelistic political system, which essentially consisted of exchanging votes and deference for protection and favours.[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref54">54</reflink>] Therefore, if the teacher was on good terms with the local authorities, he or she could expect their support and even rely on the possibility that any offences committed by the teacher while exercising the profession would be covered up. On the other hand, if the relationship with the authorities was bad, the teacher could be reported without any justification simply because harm was intended or because their intention was to benefit another party. Both cases occurred frequently. Moreover, it is hard to find any cases of investigations that were not somewhat tainted by spurious motivations.</p> <p>The lightest penalty was the reprimand, and its application increased from 1901 to 1910, because the administrative reforms carried out during that period fostered this measure.[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref55">55</reflink>] It was used when the offence was considered to be minor and was imposed more frequently on women than men. It sometimes included a warning that if the reprimand did not produce the desired effects, more serious actions would be taken.</p> <p>Temporary unpaid suspension from duties or only the suspension of pay also increased over time and affected more male than female teachers in the first period, while the opposite occurred during the second. The maximum duration was three months.</p> <p>The decision to transfer a teacher was the most controversial, since this measure was used both to punish certain offences and to resolve the teacher’s ‘incompatibility’ with the community or at least some of its members.[<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref56">56</reflink>] This action was the best example of the local nature of the primary schools and those who were in charge of them, since ultimately the local communities had the power to rid themselves of a teacher even if he or she had not committed any punishable offence. This solution was proposed in roughly one out of three cases in the nineteenth century, while it accounted for only 4.9% in the twentieth century.</p> <p>Even so, the most common proposal was the removal of the teacher from performing his or her duties, which prior to 1900 was definitive and required the teacher to seek rehabilitation to be able to resume teaching. As of that date, it was usually a temporary removal, with a maximum duration of two years.</p> <p>Other proposals included the compulsory retirement of the teacher or his or her replacement with a substitute due to temporary disability. The teacher’s resignation was also a possibility as was disqualification from teaching, although there is only one case on record of the latter decision.</p> <p>In Spain as a whole, during the period from 1871 to 1880, a total of 1356 teachers received reprimands, 314 were temporarily suspended, 222 were transferred and 725 were removed. Of the latter, 555 were dismissed for abandonment of assignment, 126 for failure to perform professional duties, 42 for moral misconduct and two for instilling ‘pernicious doctrine’ in the students. The Ministry considered these figures to be ‘insignificant’ for a profession consisting of approximately 23,000 individuals.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref57">57</reflink>] In any case, the total number of teachers who received reprimands and sanctions over the course of this decade accounted for 11.4% of the teaching workforce in 1880.</p> <hd id="AN0129998879-4">Abandonment of teaching</hd> <p>The term ‘abandonment’ was used to designate different practices: simply relinquishing the assignment of the post; providing the school with an illegally contracted substitute for either an indefinite or specified period of time; failure to comply with the statutory calendar and/or timetable; or leaving the children alone and unattended in the classroom while school was in session.</p> <p>As we have already seen, this charge was recorded in 280 procedures, but the number of cases was much higher. Focusing on only one of the Galician provinces (Pontevedra), and one of these practices (illegal substitution), Inspector Federico Soriano was aware of 65-70 cases in 1887, which meant that it affected over 10% of the public schools.[<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref58">58</reflink>] Seven years later, Inspector Salvador de J. Ponsoda, reporting in the same province, confirmed that there were ‘a great many’ teachers who failed to perform their professional duties.[<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref59">59</reflink>] The Chancellor’s Office of the University of Santiago received ‘repeated’ complaints regarding the ‘abandonment’ of schools by Galician teachers.[<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref60">60</reflink>] The Directorate General of Public Education, aware that this practice was widespread throughout Spain, threatened the inspectors with unpaid suspension if they did not report these offences.[<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref61">61</reflink>]</p> <p>For male teachers, the main cause of failure to perform teaching duties stemmed from their dedication to other jobs. The most common occupation among teachers who administered incomplete schools was agriculture, since the more fortunate ones owned a bit of land and some livestock, which helped to supplement their meagre wages; 250 pesetas a year was the usual salary in the nineteenth century. Added to this were the fees paid to teachers by students who could afford it. This income was not enough for the sustenance of one person, as was often admitted by the inspectors who therefore justified the practice whereby teachers carried out other supplementary work activities, as long as they did not neglect their teaching duties.</p> <p>Teachers assigned to the complete elementary schools, and whose annual wages were usually around 625 pesetas, also did agricultural work on occasion. But these teachers generally dedicated themselves more to other occupations such as tutoring, retail work, surveying, administrative jobs in the town councils and tax collection.[<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref62">62</reflink>]</p> <p>According to the school statistics from 1885, in Galicia there were only 18 male teachers (1.1%) who held other ‘positions’, whereas in Spain as a whole the percentage rose to 12.2%.[<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref63">63</reflink>] We assume that they would have been official occupations, since there were undoubtedly far more teachers who took on additional work to earn supplementary income, particularly in Galicia.</p> <p>There follow a few examples of abandonment, starting with the case of Domingo M. This schoolteacher was in charge of the incomplete coeducational school - nearly all of the incomplete schools accepted both girls and boys - in Carpazás (Bande-Ourense). In 1894 the town’s mayor lodged a complaint against the teacher with the Provincial Board of Ourense, which ordered the inspector to visit this community to gather information. The residents who were called upon to declare confirmed some of the main charges against the teacher, listed as follows:</p> <olist> <item> In this community, school has not been in session for many years now, except in the dead of winter, for approximately three months. 2. The teacher does not give classes because he is incompetent. 3. This teacher is a man of evil ways and habits; he doesn’t live with his wife and has illicit relations with other women, who have borne him children. It is public knowledge that he is currently living in cohabitation. 4. He has amassed a good amount of money from the practice of usury. 5. He is known to blaspheme [and] to usurp other people’s property, for which he resorts to despicable means, such as using false witnesses and 6. He has demoralised the community and during said teacher’s stay here, no one has learned to read or write.[<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref64">64</reflink>]</item> </olist> <p>In this case abandonment consisted of not complying with the school calendar, since classes were limited to the winter months. Moreover, the lessons were not given by the teacher himself, but by an illegal substitute. One of the witnesses admitted that he had himself actually been hired for 50 pesetas to take charge of the school from mid-December to mid-April, while for the other months the school remained closed. In his own defence, Domingo M. argued that the children only attended school during the winter, since their parents had them occupied doing fieldwork the rest of the year and the reason why he had designated a substitute was that he had been ill. He also admitted that he did not live with his wife because she was ‘very rich’ and quite difficult to get along with. In view of the investigation carried out and considering that most of the charges had been verified, the inspector proposed that the teacher be removed from the profession. The proposal was ratified by the Provincial Board and the University Council.</p> <p>As regards schoolmistresses, sometimes abandonment was due to their dedication to other tasks, such as tutoring or retail work. This was the case of Josefa Soledad C., who took over the school of San Clemente de César (Caldas de Reis-Pontevedra) on 1 January 1900. Six years later, when the Chancellor’s Office found out that she was not in charge of the school, they asked the mayor and parish priest to look into this.</p> <p>The representative of the clergy reported that, since November 1905, Manuel Silva had been in charge of the school and that he had started out giving only three hours of class, but that he had written to the schoolmistress to remind her that it was necessary to comply with the timetable. She then ‘contracted the substitute for six hours’. He added that the community members had already filed a complaint against her in 1903, but to no avail, given the ‘great influence’ of Mrs C. So, the townspeople were left to await an ‘answer from Heaven’. However, as a result of the complaint, the teaching duties were taken over by the mother of the schoolmistress at first, and then a young woman from the town, even though neither one was trained to do so. He ended the letter saying that he trusted that the ‘integrity of the Chancellor’s Office’ would not let itself be influenced by considerations that did not work towards the good of education.</p> <p>The mayor, the inspector - in his second report - and the Provincial Board held that the schoolmistress had not been able to return to her teaching job after the summer break as she had been ill, without taking into consideration her previous trajectory, and they proposed that the charges be dropped. However, the University Council understood that Mrs Josefa Soledad C. had not taken charge of the school from the time of her appointment, since ‘she owns a shop in Vigo and it is common knowledge that said schoolmistress spends her time there; a circumstance of which both the Inspectorate and the Provincial Board should be aware, as is the Chancellor’s Office’. As a result, this Office proposed the removal of the teacher from the profession for a period of two years and that a reprimand be issued to the mayor and the inspector for covering up the abandonment.[<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref65">65</reflink>]</p> <p>But the main cause of abandonment by female teachers was the fact that these schoolmistresses had great difficulty adapting to the conditions of life in rural areas, which is where most of the schools were located. Unlike the schoolmasters, many of whom came from rural environments - in fact those assigned to incomplete schools were usually natives of the communities where they taught - a large number of the female teachers belonged to the petite bourgeoisie of urban settings and when they arrived at their teaching post they had to get used to a new way of life. This situation became more widespread as of 1888, the year that priority was granted to women to teach at incomplete coeducational schools located in the more remote and isolated areas. With this provision, in addition to broadening the professional horizon of women, the professional qualification of the teaching workforce greatly improved. Unlike male teachers, who had been in charge of these schools until then and whose qualifications consisted only of a certificate of competence, the female teachers who replaced them usually had a basic or advanced degree.[<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref66">66</reflink>] Therefore the ‘feminisation’ of the teaching workforce, which largely started in 1888, did not entail the lowering of teachers’ qualifications, as appears to have occurred in other countries; rather it led to improved professional competence.</p> <p>Since many female teachers found it hard to adjust to their new environment, they would accept the assignment and promptly turn it over to a substitute who was appointed, as a rule, in collusion with the local authorities. In most cases, the substitute was a man without any professional qualifications, which would be a violation of the legal provision granting preference to schoolmistresses.</p> <p>Real or alleged cases of illness and deficiencies in the houses they were assigned to live in - a right to which all public teachers were entitled - or in the premises used as the school - at that time practically no school had its own ad hoc building and they were set up in precarious premises - were two of the factors most commonly cited to try and justify abandonment. In the opinion of the University Council it was of utmost urgency to put an end to these practices, since there were ‘quite a few’ schoolmistresses who abandoned the schools after taking up their posts, often giving pretexts that were unconvincing.[<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref67">67</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0129998879-5">Immoral conduct</hd> <p>Teachers were required to exhibit impeccable moral conduct, as their role was not limited to transmitting knowledge and skills, but they were also expected to instil a specific set of values. Moreover, in some social sectors the latter mission was more important than the former. So much so that a term was proposed, ‘moral curricular code’, to define the set of principles governing the selection, organisation and transmission of school subjects over the course of the nineteenth century.[<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref68">68</reflink>] And since education begins by setting good examples, if the teacher’s conduct ‘is immoral in words and deeds, he or she will transmit the devouring fire of vice’ to the students.[<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref69">69</reflink>]</p> <p>Table 3 shows that the main charge of moral misconduct was cohabitation - that is, ‘the unlawful and habitual relationship between a man and a woman’, according to the definition of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language in 1899. This accusation, which was quite common in the nineteenth century, was only recorded twice in the twentieth century. A few examples follow.</p> <p>Alerted by the Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela on 24 June 1895, the Chancellor wrote to the Inspector of the province of Pontevedra to ask him to investigate the behaviour of Vicente C. P., the schoolteacher in San Vicente do Grove (O Grove-Pontevedra). According to the information that had been relayed to him, this teacher neither went to confession nor took communion when required by the Church and he was allegedly living in cohabitation with two women, both of whom had borne him children. If these accusations prove to be true, wrote the Chancellor, this man would be the antithesis of a person ‘living an impeccable life of exemplary customs’, a standard all teachers were required to live up to.</p> <p>At the request of the Chancellor, the Provincial Board ordered the Local Board to initiate a formal procedure. The seven community members called upon to declare all did so in favour of Vicente C. P. They praised his professional conduct and claimed that he complied with his religious duties at another parish church, since he was not on good terms with the local parish priest. They rejected the charge that he was living in cohabitation, some of them adding that ‘he doesn’t even have a maid’. Only one resident confirmed that some time ago he had had a relationship with María C. L., who bore him a child, but that he had never lived with her. One of the priests who had been summoned to declare said that he was unaware of the facts, since he resided in another parish. However, he did say that the schoolmaster had gone to confession with him. The other priest claimed that Vicente C. P. was living in cohabitation with two women, one of whom had two children, and that his moral conduct ‘could not be more reprehensible and in dire need of remediation’.</p> <p>María C. L., 30 years old, single and dedicated to ‘chores befitting her sex’, declared that she had never been in a cohabitation relationship with Vicente C. P., since he resided in the town of San Vicente and her residence was in San Martín where she lived with her parents. She did, however, admit that they had been sweethearts and that:</p> <p>… as a result of this love affair, and carried away by human weakness, she had given birth to a child, who was recognised by C. But since time had passed and they had not contracted marriage [which] he had promised, the relationship waned and finally ended … and only the child, when he got a little older, would meet his father in the street and they would go to the inn to share meals. She was unaware of any relationship or that he lived in cohabitation.</p> <p>Considering that the charges had not been proven, the Provincial Board notified the Chancellor’s Office to request that the procedure be rendered null and void.[<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref70">70</reflink>] It was true that cohabitation did not exist, but there had been a child born out of wedlock. This situation was quite widespread in Galicia, where the percentage of illegitimate children was especially high.[<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref71">71</reflink>] In the case at hand, illegitimacy was not considered to be deserving of any type of sanction and in view of the statements made by the witnesses, it appeared to be accepted quite naturally.</p> <p>In the case of Bernardo F., the schoolteacher in Mandiá (Serantes-A Coruña), the University Council concluded that he had ‘separated from his wife and lived in scandalous cohabitation’. Neither the written answer to this charge nor the confrontation with his wife, to which he was subjected by the Inspector, served to dispel the accusations. Therefore, it was proposed that he be removed from the profession since ‘it is not possible to allow people who live openly in cohabitation to belong to the teaching profession’.[<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref72">72</reflink>]</p> <p>Balbina L. C., the schoolmistress in Boimorto (A Coruña) and a widow, had given birth to three children in 1894, 1896 and 1898. The members of the community and the local authorities testified in favour of the teacher and attributed the complaint to local squabbles, and more specifically to the parish priest’s professed hostility towards her. The accused only acknowledged the maternity of the child born in 1894, as a result of her relations with a doctor, who had promised to marry her. However, a lady from A Coruña declared that she had rented an apartment to the schoolteacher, where she had allegedly given birth to a child, whom she subsequently left at an orphanage. The director of this institution confirmed that she had received a baby boy in 1896, whose father later acknowledged paternity, although the identity of the mother was unknown. The director of the orphanage in Santiago also confessed that on 3 March 1898 a baby boy was admitted and ‘that by a recommendation contained in an accompanying note, he was named Ismael José López, and that this child died of syphilis on June 22 of the following year’.</p> <p>The University Council esteemed that the ‘proven facts’ were ‘serious’ and were covered under article 170 of the Moyano Act, which entailed removal from the practice of the profession as proposed by the Inspector. Nevertheless, the Council simply requested the transfer of the teacher to another town far from Boimorto. If she were to commit the same offence again at her new assignment, a new procedure would be initiated against her, which would include the charges pressed in the previous case.[<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref73">73</reflink>]</p> <p>Although we have included cohabitation and sexual abuse in the same category, the latter numbered only two cases.[<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref74">74</reflink>] One of them involved Ignacio B. G., a schoolteacher at an incomplete coeducational school in Santa Comba (Maside-Ourense).</p> <p>On the occasion of a routine school visit in November 1876, the Inspector of the province of Ourense learned that this schoolteacher was accused of ‘raping’ a female student who was 10 or 11 years old. The girl’s father had filed a complaint with the court, which ordered that an inquiry be carried out although the charges were eventually dropped. The accused offender denied the charge of alleged sexual abuse before the Inspector and attributed the complaint to personal feuds, ‘but he hesitated before answering the questions and appeared to be quite disturbed and even his facial expression revealed that his conscience was far from being at ease’. The judge who received the complaint said that ‘he was close to having the moral conviction that the act had been committed’, although he did warn that he had made this statement as a personal, not as an official observation. Parents, for their part, were reluctant to send their daughters to school, ‘claiming that the act in question was not the first of this kind that he had committed’. So, to ‘safeguard the interests of the teaching profession and the decency of teachers’, the best thing, continues the Inspector, would be to dispense with the formalities of a procedure, ‘which would cause a great scandal, possibly without progressing in the most important aspect’ and transfer the teacher to another school. ‘It is possible that he might not accept because he owns some property in the region, but this is precisely what we want, since the class would lose nothing by getting rid of an individual with such a background’.[<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref75">75</reflink>] The Provincial Board agreed with this proposal.</p> <p>The members of the University Council were surprised that the Inspector ‘would be satisfied with the proposal of simply transferring a man who was unworthy of the teaching profession’. They agreed to advise the Chancellor to order the immediate suspension with half pay of Ignacio B. G. and they recommended that the government dismiss him from his professional duties.[<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref76">76</reflink>] The Chancellor moved the proposal to the Directorate General of Public Instruction in view of the seriousness of the offence: ‘the rape of a ten-year-old student; although said charge has not been proven, there are certain data that demonstrate that it had in fact been committed’.[<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref77">77</reflink>]</p> <p>The Directorate General informed the Chancellor to initiate a formal procedure, in keeping with all of the legal requirements, which should include hearing the views of the interested party, something that had been overlooked. The Chancellor responded that nothing would be gained by adding new evidence to the case, ‘given the interest there was in favouring the teacher and the difficulty entailed in clearly proving that he committed the offence he has been accused of’, and he insisted on the proposal of dismissal without any further formalities.[<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref78">78</reflink>] So the Ministry agreed to request the advice of the Council of Public Instruction, whose judgment was clear-cut. The proposal made by the Chancellor of Santiago could not be accepted for the following reason: the law cannot be violated to dismiss a schoolteacher, for to do so would legitimise arbitrary action in future disciplinary procedures.[<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref79">79</reflink>]</p> <p>Once the formal deficiencies had been rectified - the teacher responded by denying the charges and insisting that the criminal complaint had been withdrawn - the University Council agreed to propose, once again, that Ignacio B. G. be removed from his teaching duties. The Council acted on the conviction that ‘there was glaring evidence that, if the act had not been committed [the offence of rape], there were attempts to do so’.[<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref80">80</reflink>] The Chancellor informed the Directorate General, who, again on this occasion, did not consider that this was proof of the perpetration of the crime. As a result, what would be in order was not the removal of the teacher, but his transfer to a school far away from Maside, which is what occurred. In his new assignment he would be under special surveillance by the Inspectorate, and would face a more severe sanction if his public or private conduct so warranted.[<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref81">81</reflink>]</p> <p>Other charges related to moral misconduct were drunkenness, a type of behaviour that was also commonly punished in the teaching profession in France[<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref82">82</reflink>] and Luxembourg[<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref83">83</reflink>]; ‘immoral conduct’, without any further specification, although it often appeared to refer to sexual relations or alcohol abuse; failure to comply with religious duties; and the use of offensive language, especially blasphemy.[<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref84">84</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0129998879-6">Conclusions</hd> <p>The number of government procedures processed between 1859 and 1910 most certainly exceeded the 345 cases registered in the records of the University Council of Santiago de Compostela. In any event, the frequency of the cases increased substantially during the first decade of the twentieth century, which would indicate that teachers were under greater supervision by the authorities.</p> <p>The main structural cause of the conflict and disputes described in the previous pages was probably the precarious professional situation of a large part of the teaching workforce. Most teachers received very low wages, which meant that they were forced to do other jobs, thus neglecting their teaching duties. In the case of female teachers, abandonment appears to be related more to the difficulty they had in adapting to a new way of life in the rural areas where most of the schools were located. In fact, conflict-ridden situations involving schoolmistresses outnumber those involving male teachers as of the end of the nineteenth century, which coincided with the preference given to women to take charge of coeducational rural schools.</p> <p>In addition to the lack of full-time employment, the teachers’ level of training was often very limited, especially in the case of men. Most of them had no professional qualifications, which is why many of the complaints referred to the poor academic results they achieved with their students, incompetence, or their lack of knowledge of school organisational schemes. These charges were less common among female teachers, the great majority of whom had completed professional studies.</p> <p>Charges of a moral nature are especially significant in view of the role that primary schools play in moral education and the exemplary conduct required of schoolteachers. It is also rather surprising to find that the most common charge was cohabitation, which often led to the birth of children considered to be illegitimate.</p> <p>Although most of the complaints lodged in the nineteenth century came from community residents, during the first decade of the twentieth century community accusations decreased while professional supervision carried out by the primary school inspectorate took on greater importance. The direct intervention of the ecclesiastical authorities diminished as well. These two circumstances appear to show that some progress was being made in the modernisation and secularisation of the education system.</p> <p>One in every three cases concluded with the dismissal of the teacher from the profession and in one out of every five cases the charges were dropped. Transfer as a disciplinary measure tended to decrease, but the fact that it continued to be implemented serves to remind us of the hardships teachers had to overcome to acquire ‘national’ status.</p> <hd id="AN0129998879-7">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.</p> <hd id="AN0129998879-8">Notes on contributor</hd> <p>Narciso de Gabriel is a professor of History of Education in the Faculty of Sciences of Education at the University of A Coruña (Spain). His most recent books are Escolantes e escolas de ferrado (Vigo: Xerais, 2001); Ler e escribir en Galicia. A alfabetización dos galegos e das galegas nos séculos XIX e XX (A Coruña: Servizo de Publicacións da UDC, 2006); Elisa y Marcela. Más allá de los hombres (Barcelona: Libros del Silencio, 2010) and 25 anos de UDC: A universidade na Coruña e Ferrol (A Coruña, Servizo de Publicacións da UDC, 2015). He has published articles in journals such as Historia de la Educación, Historia y Memoria de la Educación, History of Education, Revista de Educación, Ricerche Pedagogiche, Paedagogica Historica, Revista Galega de Educación or Eduga. Revista Galega do Ensino. He currently heads the journal Sarmiento. Anuario Galego de Historia da Educación.</p> <ref id="AN0129998879-9"> <title>Footnotes</title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext>Cándido Ruiz Rodrigo, ‘Referencias bibliográficas y documentales en torno a la problemática profesional del magisterio’, Historia de la Educación. Revista Interuniversitaria, 16 (1997): 531-41; Aida Terrón Bañuelos, ‘Estatuto socioeconómico y activismo sindical del profesorado’, in Nuevas miradas historiográficas sobre la educación en la España de los siglos xix y xx, ed. J. L. Guereña, J. Ruiz Berrio and A. Tiana Ferrer (Madrid: Ministerio de Educación, 2010), 185-208. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext>David Crook, ‘Teacher Education as a Field of Historical Research: Retrospect and Prospect’, History of Education 41, no. 1 (2012): 58. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref3" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext>Mineke van Essen and Rebecca Rogers, ‘Écrire l’histoire des enseignantes. Enjeux et perspectives internationales’, Histoire de l’éducation, 98 (2003): 3-35. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref4" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext>Ester de Fort, ‘Maestri e maestre in Italia dalla fine dell’Antico Regime alla salita al potere del fascismo. Nascita e sviluppo di una professione’, Historia y Memoria de la Educación 1, no. 1 (2015): 131-201. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref5" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext>Galicia, one of Spain’s autonomous communities, has its own culture and language and has been recognised as an ethnic group. In the historical period examined here, the region’s population was around two million. It is characterised by its sparse population distribution and an economy based mainly on agriculture and livestock production. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref6" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext>Ignacio Martín Giménez, ‘Ser maestro en la España del siglo xix’, Historia Social, no. 33 (1999): 3-23; Jaume Serra i Barceló, ‘Repercussions de la Setmana Tràgica a les escoles mallorquines’, Bolletí de la Societat Arqueològica Lul.liana, no. 64 (2008): 321-6; Antonio Molero Pintado, ‘Los maestros republicanos: legislación y conflictividad profesional (1931-1936)’, Historia de la Educación. Revista Interuniversitaria, no. 16 (1997): 285-302. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref7" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext>Martín Giménez, ‘Ser maestro en la España del siglo xix’. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref8" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext>Esther Cortada Andreu, Ser mestra a la Catalunya del segle xix. L’escola pública com a espai professional transgressor (Lleida: Pagès editors, 2006). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref9" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext>Narciso de Gabriel, Elisa y Marcela. Más allá de los hombres (Barcelona: Libros del Silencio, 2010). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib10" idref="ref10" type="bt">10</bibl> <bibtext>Jean-Pierre Charland, ‘L’éducation par l’exemple: le contrôle des comportements des instituteurs et des institutrices des écoles pubiques québécoises, 1842-1897’, in Érudition, humanisme et savoir. Actes du colloque en honneur de Jean Hamelin, ed. Ives Roby and Nive Voisine (Sainte Foy: Les Presses de l’Université Laval, 1996), 195-215. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib11" idref="ref11" type="bt">11</bibl> <bibtext>Augusta Palombarini, Storie magistrali. Maestre marchigiane tra Otto e Novecento (Macerata: EUM, 2009). A literary version of these types of conflicts can be found in Clarice Tartufari, La maestra (Madrid: Ardicia, 2016). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib12" idref="ref12" type="bt">12</bibl> <bibtext>Antonio Santoni Rugiu, Maestre e maestri. La difficile storia degli inseganti elementari (Roma: Carocci editore, 2006); Béatrice Compagnon and Anne Thévenin, Histoire des instituteurs et des professeurs de 1880 à nos jours (Paris: Éditions Perrin, 2010); Marianne A. Larsen, The Making and Shaping of the Victorian Teacher: A Comparative New Cultural History (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib13" idref="ref13" type="bt">13</bibl> <bibtext>Crook, ‘Teacher Education as a Field of Historical Research’, 71. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib14" idref="ref14" type="bt">14</bibl> <bibtext>For more on the different interpretations of caciquism, see Javier Moreno Luzón, ‘Political Clientelism, Elites, and Caciquismo in Restoration Spain (1875-1923)’, European History Quarterly 37, no. 3 (2007): 417-41. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib15" idref="ref15" type="bt">15</bibl> <bibtext>Ramón Villares and Javier Moreno Luzón, Historia de España. Restauración y Dictadura (Barcelona: Crítica-Marcial Pons, 2009). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib16" idref="ref16" type="bt">16</bibl> <bibtext>Agustín Escolano Benito, La educación en la España contemporánea. Políticas educativas, escolarización y culturas pedagógicas (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2002). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib17" idref="ref17" type="bt">17</bibl> <bibtext>Antonio Viñao Frago, Política y educación en los orígenes de la España contemporánea. Examen especial de sus relaciones en la enseñanza secundaria (Madrid: Siglo xxi, 1982); Carles Sirera Miralles, ‘¿Quién debe formar a los ciudadanos? El sistema educativo liberal ante los deseos de las culturas políticas’, in La España liberal, 1833-1874, ed. María Cruz Romeo and María Sierra (Madrid: Marcial Pons and Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza, 2014), II, 131-61. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib18" idref="ref18" type="bt">18</bibl> <bibtext>Aida Terrón Bañuelos, ‘La modernización de la educación en España (1900-1939)’, in Los caminos hacia la modernidad educativa en España y Portugal (1800-1975), ed. Agustín Escolano and Rogério Fernandes (Zamora: Sociedad Española de Historia de la Educación and Sociedade Portuguesa de Ciencias da Educação, 1997), 101-21; María del Mar del Pozo Andrés, Currículum e identidad nacional. Regeneracionismos, nacionalismos y escuela pública (1890-1939) (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2000); Alejandro Mayordomo and Juan Manuel Fernández Soria, Patriotas y ciudadanos. El aprendizaje cívico y el proyecto de España (Valencia: Tirant lo Blanch, 2008). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib19" idref="ref19" type="bt">19</bibl> <bibtext>Historia de la Educación en España. De las Cortes de Cádiz a la Revolución de 1868 (Madrid: Ministerio de Educación, 1979), 278-9. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib20" idref="ref20" type="bt">20</bibl> <bibtext>For more information on the history of school administration in Spain, see Manuel de Puelles Benítez, Educación e ideología en la España contemporánea (Madrid: Tecnos, 2010). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib21" idref="ref21" type="bt">21</bibl> <bibtext>María Teresa López del Castillo, Historia de la inspección de primera enseñanza en España (Madrid: Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, 2013). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib22" idref="ref22" type="bt">22</bibl> <bibtext>Narciso de Gabriel, Leer, escribir y contar. Escolarización popular y sociedad en Galicia (1875-1900) (Sada-A Coruña: Ediciós do Castro, 1990), 89 and 123. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib23" idref="ref23" type="bt">23</bibl> <bibtext>Manuel Panero, El guía de los maestros o deberes y derechos de los mismos con formularios para practicar los primeros y hacer valederos los segundos, teniendo además un Nomenclátor de todas las escuelas públicas de Galicia (Madrid: Imprenta y Litografía de González, 1885), 139. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib24" idref="ref24" type="bt">24</bibl> <bibtext>Archivo Histórico Universitario de Santiago (Historical Archives of the University of Santiago) (hereinafter, AHUS), books A-177 (1857-1867), A-178 (1875-1878), A-179 (1879-1891), A-180 (1891-1905) and A-181 (1906-1913). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib25" idref="ref25" type="bt">25</bibl> <bibtext>Antonio Viñao Frago, ‘La educación en el sexenio (1868-1874). Libertades formales y libertades reales’, Anales de Pedagogía, no. 3 (1985): 87-102. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib26" idref="ref26" type="bt">26</bibl> <bibtext>Gaceta de Madrid, November 19, 1868. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib27" idref="ref27" type="bt">27</bibl> <bibtext>Gaceta de Madrid, August 3, 1866. This provision was adopted by the neo-Catholic minister, Orovio, who was especially concerned with the possibility of teachers taking part in subversive activities and disseminating immoral and revolutionary ideas in the schools. See López del Castillo, Historia de la inspección, 212-15. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib28" idref="ref28" type="bt">28</bibl> <bibtext>Estadística general de primera enseñanza correspondiente al quinquenio que terminó en 31 de diciembre de 1885 (Madrid: Imprenta y Fundición de Manuel Tello, 1888), Table 90. Between 1871 and 1880 the number of cases reported by the inspectors was 147 in Galicia and 2533 in all of Spain. Cf. Estadística general de primera enseñanza correspondiente al decenio que terminó en 31 de diciembre de 1880 (Madrid: Imprenta y Fundición de Manuel Tello, 1883), Table 90. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib29" idref="ref29" type="bt">29</bibl> <bibtext>Estadística general … 1885, Table 20. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib30" idref="ref30" type="bt">30</bibl> <bibtext>Narciso de Gabriel, ‘The Entrance of Women into the Teaching Profession in Spain (1855-1940)’, History of Education 43, no. 3 (2014): 334-54. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib31" idref="ref31" type="bt">31</bibl> <bibtext>Censo escolar de España llevado a efecto el día 7 de marzo de 1903 (Madrid: Imprenta de la Dirección General del Instituto Geográfico y Estadístico, 1904), 477-9. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib32" idref="ref32" type="bt">32</bibl> <bibtext>At that time in Spain there were different types of primary schools, as established by the Moyano Act: higher, complete elementary, incomplete elementary and seasonal. The two main categories were the complete and incomplete schools. The former generally had better infrastructure in terms of equipment, a somewhat broader curriculum and teachers with more training and higher salaries. Cf. De Gabriel, Leer, escribir y contar, 147-59. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib33" idref="ref33" type="bt">33</bibl> <bibtext>Censo escolar de España, 477-9. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib34" idref="ref34" type="bt">34</bibl> <bibtext>We have chosen to record only the initial or initials of the surnames of the persons reported. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib35" idref="ref35" type="bt">35</bibl> <bibtext>AHUS, Primary education, box 168. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib36" idref="ref36" type="bt">36</bibl> <bibtext>For more information on the problematic situation of teachers’ autonomy, see Harry Smaller, ‘The Teacher Disempowerment Debate: Historical Reflections on “Slender Autonomy”’, Paedagogica Historica. International Journal of the History of Education 51, nos 1-2 (2015): 136-51. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib37" idref="ref37" type="bt">37</bibl> <bibtext>Antonio J. Onieva, Entre montañas (La novela de un maestro rural) (Madrid: Ediciones Afrodisio Aguado, 1945). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib38" idref="ref38" type="bt">38</bibl> <bibtext>Regarding the results of teaching performance in Galician public schools, cf. De Gabriel, Leer, escribir y contar, 422-32. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib39" idref="ref39" type="bt">39</bibl> <bibtext>In 1901, when teachers’ salaries were included in the national budget, the amount assigned to materials accounted for one-sixth of the salary, although there would be exceptions to this rule. Cf. Pedro Ferrer y Rivero, Tratado de la legislación de primera enseñanza vigente en España (Madrid: Librería de los Sucesores de Hernando, 1915), 677-93. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib40" idref="ref40" type="bt">40</bibl> <bibtext>The inspector’s opinion of the schoolmistress at the incomplete public elementary girls’ school in Leiro, May 26, 1880, AHUS, Primary education, box 92. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib41" idref="ref41" type="bt">41</bibl> <bibtext>The inspector’s opinion of the schoolmaster at the incomplete public elementary coeducational school in Tanmallancos (Vilamarín), June 8, 1876, AHUS, Primary education, box 90. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib42" idref="ref42" type="bt">42</bibl> <bibtext>José María Borrás Llop, ‘Zagales, pinches, gamenes … aproximaciones al trabajo infantil’, in Historia de la infancia en la España contemporánea, 1834-1936, ed. José María Borrás Llop (Madrid: Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales-Fundación Germán Sánchez Ruipérez, 1996), 227-346. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib43" idref="ref43" type="bt">43</bibl> <bibtext>This charge was far more common among men than women, which can be attributed to the fact that women had better professional qualifications. See note 66. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib44" idref="ref44" type="bt">44</bibl> <bibtext>Corporal punishment is an issue of special historiographical importance. For more information on its presence in secondary schools in Spain, see Carles Sirera Miralles, ‘Enlightened Paternalism: The Prohibition of Corporal Punishment in Spanish Public Schools in the Nineteenth Century’, History of Education 44, no. 2 (2014): 156-70. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib45" idref="ref45" type="bt">45</bibl> <bibtext>Gaceta de Madrid, August 8, 1859. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib46" idref="ref46" type="bt">46</bibl> <bibtext>Gaceta de Madrid, September 11, 1864. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib47" idref="ref47" type="bt">47</bibl> <bibtext>Gaceta de Madrid, May 10, 1883. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib48" idref="ref48" type="bt">48</bibl> <bibtext>For a more detailed explanation of the legislation, see Ferrer y Rivero, Tratado de legislación, 386-403. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib49" idref="ref49" type="bt">49</bibl> <bibtext>Gaceta de Madrid, October 30, 1901. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib50" idref="ref50" type="bt">50</bibl> <bibtext>Despite being eliminated from the table of sanctions, the Royal Decree of February 7, 1908, would give local boards the power to declare the teacher to be ‘incompatible with the Authorities or the local community’. After confirming the alleged charges, the Ministry could transfer the teacher to another school of the same category (Gaceta de Madrid, February 8, 1908). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib51" idref="ref51" type="bt">51</bibl> <bibtext>Gaceta de Madrid, May 6, 1905. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib52" idref="ref52" type="bt">52</bibl> <bibtext>Gaceta de Madrid, December 22, 1907. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib53" idref="ref53" type="bt">53</bibl> <bibtext>False accusations and harassment sometimes had dramatic consequences, as was the case in Italy of schoolmistress Donati, who finally resorted to suicide. See Santoni Rugiu, Maestre e maestri, 84. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib54" idref="ref54" type="bt">54</bibl> <bibtext>Villares and Moreno Luzón, Historia de España. Restauración y Dictadura. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib55" idref="ref55" type="bt">55</bibl> <bibtext>To facilitate the comparison between periods, we have grouped the following into one category: reprimand, warning and censure (public or private with or without an unfavourable mark). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib56" idref="ref56" type="bt">56</bibl> <bibtext>The professional journals highlighted the penalties that the adoption of this measure would entail for teachers. See for example, ‘Expedientes contra los maestros’, El Magisterio Gallego, November 30, 1882. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib57" idref="ref57" type="bt">57</bibl> <bibtext>Estadística general de primera enseñanza … 1880, Table 33 and page 76. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib58" idref="ref58" type="bt">58</bibl> <bibtext>Informe presentado por el inspector de 1ª enseñanza de la provincia de Pontevedra (Pontevedra: Imp. de L. Carragal y Puga, 1888), 5. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib59" idref="ref59" type="bt">59</bibl> <bibtext>Inspection newsletter published in El Magisterio Gallego, November 5, 1894. Several Madrid schoolteachers, ‘whose professional dignity had been wounded’, addressed a letter to the editor of El Magisterio Gallego protesting against the contents of this newsletter (December 25, 1894). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib60" idref="ref60" type="bt">60</bibl> <bibtext>El Anunciador, September 4, 1891. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib61" idref="ref61" type="bt">61</bibl> <bibtext>El Magisterio Gallego, September 25, 1893. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib62" idref="ref62" type="bt">62</bibl> <bibtext>Roughly half of the secretaries of the town councils in France during the interwar period were teachers. Cf. Compagnon and Thévenin, Histoire des instituteurs et professeurs, 110. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib63" idref="ref63" type="bt">63</bibl> <bibtext>Estadística escolar … 1885, Table 29. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib64" idref="ref64" type="bt">64</bibl> <bibtext>AHUS, book A-180, November 25, 1896. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib65" idref="ref65" type="bt">65</bibl> <bibtext>AHUS, book A-181, December 14, 1907. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib66" idref="ref66" type="bt">66</bibl> <bibtext>In 1885, 38.6% of the men who taught at primary school had professional qualifications; 57.2% had only a certificate of competence - which could be acquired by simply passing a test that certified the candidate had some knowledge of Christian doctrine, reading, writing and arithmetic - and 4.3% had no type of certification at all. In the case of women, these percentages were 93.1%, 1.8% and 5%, respectively. Cf. Estadística escolar … 1885, Table 23. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib67" idref="ref67" type="bt">67</bibl> <bibtext>AHUS, book A-180, January 28, 1892. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib68" idref="ref68" type="bt">68</bibl> <bibtext>Ulf P. Lundgren, Teoría del curriculum y escolarización (Madrid: Morata, 1992), 51-3. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib69" idref="ref69" type="bt">69</bibl> <bibtext>Simón Aguilar y Claramunt, Pedagogía general (Valencia: Imprenta de Ramón Ortega, 1885), 69. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib70" idref="ref70" type="bt">70</bibl> <bibtext>AHUS, Primary education, box 121. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib71" idref="ref71" type="bt">71</bibl> <bibtext>Isidoro Dubert concludes that ‘between 1570 and 1899 the illegitimacy rate in the interior areas of Galicia was one of the highest in Europe and of the Iberian Peninsula’. ‘Ilegitimidad, matrimonio y mercados de trabajo femeninos en la Galicia interior, 1570-1899’, Obradoiro de Historia Moderna, 24 (2015): 84. Cf. also Xavier Castro, Historia da vida cotiá en Galicia. Séculos xix e xx (Vigo: Nigratrea, 2007), 273-86. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib72" idref="ref72" type="bt">72</bibl> <bibtext>AHUS, book A-179, October 17, 1889. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib73" idref="ref73" type="bt">73</bibl> <bibtext>AHUS, book A-180, November 10, 1900. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib74" idref="ref74" type="bt">74</bibl> <bibtext>One of the arguments used to defend the preference for women to teach at coeducational schools had to do precisely with the possibility that men might sexually abuse the girls who attended these schools. Cf. ‘El Sr. Vincenti en el Congreso’, Diario de Pontevedra, May 18, 1895. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib75" idref="ref75" type="bt">75</bibl> <bibtext>Official note from the Inspector to the Provincial Board, January 19, 1877, AHUS, Primary education, box 243. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib76" idref="ref76" type="bt">76</bibl> <bibtext>AHUS, book A-178, April 9, 1877. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib77" idref="ref77" type="bt">77</bibl> <bibtext>Official note from the Chancellor to the Directorate General, April 28, 1877, AHUS, Primary education, box 243. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib78" idref="ref78" type="bt">78</bibl> <bibtext>AHUS, ibid. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib79" idref="ref79" type="bt">79</bibl> <bibtext>Official note from the Directorate General to the Chancellor, October 19, 1878, ibid., box 161. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib80" idref="ref80" type="bt">80</bibl> <bibtext>AHUS, book A-179, March 27, 1879. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib81" idref="ref81" type="bt">81</bibl> <bibtext>Official note from the Directorate General to the Chancellor, February 4, 1880, AHUS, Primary education, box 161. For more information on sexual abuse and other misconduct committed by schoolteachers, see Adrian Bingham, Lucy Delap, Louise Jackson and Louise Settle, ‘Historical Child Sexual Abuse in England and Wales: The Role of Historians’, History of Education 45, no. 4 (2016): 411-29. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib82" idref="ref82" type="bt">82</bibl> <bibtext>Pierre Giolitto, Abécédaire et férule. Maîtres et écoliers de Charlemagne à Jules Ferry (Paris: Éditions Imago, 1986), 89-95. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib83" idref="ref83" type="bt">83</bibl> <bibtext>Daniel Tröhler, ‘Las personas, los ciudadanos, las naciones. La organización de la escuela moderna en la Europa Occidental en el siglo xix: los casos de Luxemburgo y Zúrich’, in Trayectorias del desarrollo de los sistemas educativos modernos. Entre lo nacional y lo global, ed. Daniel Tröhler and Thomas Lenz (Barcelona: Octaedro, 2015), 39-57. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib84" idref="ref84" type="bt">84</bibl> <bibtext>There is some similarity between these charges and those presented against Canadian teachers in practically the same historical period. See Charland, ‘L’éducation par l’exemple’. </bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Narciso De Gabriel</p> </aug>
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  Data: Schoolteachers, Social Control and Professional Conflict: Government Procedures Brought against Schoolteachers in Galicia (1859-1910)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22De+Gabriel%2C+Narciso%22">De Gabriel, Narciso</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22History+of+Education%22"><i>History of Education</i></searchLink>. 2018 47(4):466-487.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Evaluative
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Control%22">Social Control</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Conflict+of+Interest%22">Conflict of Interest</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Professional+Identity%22">Professional Identity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Public+School+Teachers%22">Public School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Discipline%22">Teacher Discipline</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Legal+Responsibility%22">Legal Responsibility</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Inspection%22">Inspection</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Administrative+Principles%22">Administrative Principles</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+History%22">Educational History</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personnel+Management%22">Personnel Management</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1080/0046760X.2017.1410729
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  Data: This article aims to analyse the disciplinary procedures brought against public schoolteachers in Galicia from 1859 until 1910. The article starts with the presentation of the legal basis for the government inquiries and the administrative framework in which they were implemented. Following is an examination of the evolution of the inquiries, the origin of the complaints, the charges filed against the teachers and the sanctions proposed. Lastly some examples are provided of the most widespread offences, consisting of abandonment of teaching as well as other charges of moral misconduct such as cohabitation and sexual abuse of the children.
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