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A Cross-Cultural Study of the Self-Confidence of Counselors-in-Training

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Title: A Cross-Cultural Study of the Self-Confidence of Counselors-in-Training
Language: English
Authors: Suh, Suhyun, Crawford, C. Veronica, Hansing, Karin K., Fox, Sadi, Cho, Minhee, Chang, Eunbi, Lee, Seongchan, Lee, Sang Min (ORCID 0000-0001-6148-772X)
Source: International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling. Sep 2018 40(3):255-266.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-348-4505; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2018
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Cross Cultural Studies, Self Esteem, Counselors, Counselor Training, Foreign Countries, Self Efficacy, Comparative Education, Age, Correlation, Supervision, Internship Programs
Geographic Terms: United States, South Korea
DOI: 10.1007/s10447-018-9324-4
ISSN: 0165-0653
Abstract: In this era of globalization, cross-cultural comparison studies could help counselor training programs enhance educational opportunities that are informative, supportive, and culturally responsive to students. Counselors-in-training in both the United States and South Korea were sampled in this study assessing self-esteem (individual and collective) and counselor activity self-efficacy (CA self-efficacy). Results indicated that American students endorsed higher levels of collective self-esteem and CA self-efficacy compared to Korean students. Age was positively correlated with CA self-efficacy in both the American and Korean samples. Additionally, the variable of supervision hours and internship experience was positively correlated with CA self-efficacy for American students, but showed no relationship with CA self-efficacy for Korea students. Implications for understanding the cultural differences of counseling-trainees' self-confidence and the need for conducting cross-cultural comparison studies to provide insights about the training and development of trainees in cross-cultural settings are discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 36
Entry Date: 2018
Accession Number: EJ1187354
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0131151865;ogm01sep.18;2018Aug10.10:11;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0131151865-1">A Cross-Cultural Study of the Self-Confidence of Counselors-in-Training </title> <p>In this era of globalization, cross-cultural comparison studies could help counselor training programs enhance educational opportunities that are informative, supportive, and culturally responsive to students. Counselors-in-training in both the United States and South Korea were sampled in this study assessing self-esteem (individual and collective) and counselor activity self-efficacy (CA self-efficacy). Results indicated that American students endorsed higher levels of collective self-esteem and CA self-efficacy compared to Korean students. Age was positively correlated with CA self-efficacy in both the American and Korean samples. Additionally, the variable of supervision hours and internship experience was positively correlated with CA self-efficacy for American students, but showed no relationship with CA self-efficacy for Korea students. Implications for understanding the cultural differences of counseling-trainees’ self-confidence and the need for conducting cross-cultural comparison studies to provide insights about the training and development of trainees in cross-cultural settings are discussed.</p> <p>Counselors-in-training; Counselor activity self-efficacy; Self-esteem; Cross cultural studies; American and Korean students</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-2">Introduction</hd> <p>In this era of globalization, the facility of communication and mobilization has allowed individuals to access more information, connect with more people, and travel to more places than was previously possible. As cross border mobility has increased over the years, there has been a great increase in the pursuit of study abroad opportunities and of cultural experiences. In 2008, there were 3.3 million students studying abroad around the globe (Jon [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref1">16</reflink>] ; OECD [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref2">27</reflink>] ). It is estimated that 8 million students will have studied in other countries by the year 2020 (UNESCO-UIS [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref3">32</reflink>] ). Within the United States, 819,644 international students were enrolled in higher education during the 2012 and 2013 academic years (Institute of International Education [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref4">14</reflink>] ). This represents a 7 % increase compared to the previous year and is expected to steadily increase. South Korea is one of the leading countries whose students are seeking overseas educational and career opportunities (OECD [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref5">27</reflink>] ). As a result, the United States and South Korea have been developing an important connection as more and more students travel abroad to pursue higher education.</p> <p>As cross-cultural interactions are becoming more common among students and faculty given the increase in international travels, there is a growing need for cross-cultural understandings in the development and training needs of students. Presently, there is limited cross-cultural comparison research in counseling fields to inform training programs about the potential similarities or differences in counselor training programs and counselors-in-training development across countries. This research seeks to begin exploring this area of interest.</p> <p>In considering the professional development of counselors-in training, individual self-esteem, collective self-esteem, and self-efficacy have been understood as constructs of self-confidence. Self-confidence has been viewed as having positive effects in the process of counselor training. The purpose of this study was to compare American and Korean counselors-in-training on the dimensions of self-confidence, specifically involving individual self-esteem, collective self-esteem, and counselor activity self-efficacy.</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-3">Self-Confidence</hd> <p>Self-confidence refers to a belief in one’s personal worth and likelihood of succeeding and is often characterized as a combination of self-esteem and self-efficacy (Neill [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref6">26</reflink>] ). There have been contradictory conclusions in the literature regarding cross-cultural comparisons on self-confidence between American and Asian students. Some researchers (e.g., Chiu [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref7">6</reflink>] ) have indicated that Asian students report significantly lower scores on self-confidence than those of American students. On the other hand, other studies (e.g., Brown and Cai [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref8">4</reflink>] ) have suggested that American and Asian students have comparable ratings of individual self-confidence and also employ similar strategies to enhance self-confidence (Heppner et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref9">11</reflink>] ). This discrepancy in the literature has been understood as a function of response bias whereby Asians tend to report lower on positively worded test items as a function of their cultural values of modesty and holistic integration (i.e., acknowledging both positive and negative aspects of the self as being healthy) (Bae and Brekke [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref10">1</reflink>] ; Wu [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref11">34</reflink>] ).</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-4">Self-Esteem</hd> <p>Individual self-esteem, one of the constructs of self-confidence, is defined as having a positive evaluative attitude towards one’s self (Luhtanen and Crocker [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref12">24</reflink>] ). Within the context of counselors-in-training development, individual self-esteem has been shown to significantly correlate with academic achievement, psychological health, and feelings of competence. On the other hand, collective self-esteem in regard to counseling refers to one’s evaluations of and identification with the social group (e.g., the counseling profession) to which counselors-in-training belong (Katz et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref13">17</reflink>] ). That is, collective self-esteem relates to how counselors-in-training identify themselves within the counseling profession (Crocker et al. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref14">8</reflink>] ). According to Butler and Constantine ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref15">5</reflink>] ), counselors’ perception of themselves as members of the counseling profession (their collective self-esteem) can have an effect on their overall competence as counselors and on their client-counselor relationships.</p> <p>In considering the nature of self-esteem as typically conceptualized by American and Asian cultures, individual and collective self-esteem are differentially influenced by the values of each culture. It has widely been accepted that within American culture, the sense of self is conceptualized in terms of being an independent and autonomous individual, whereas the sense of self in Asian cultures is conceptualized in terms of being an interdependent relational being in connection with others. Yuki et al. ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref16">36</reflink>] ) reported that individual self-esteem had a stronger impact on the feeling of happiness of American students, whereas the quality of relationships had a stronger impact on the feeling of happiness of Asian students.</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-5">Self-Efficacy</hd> <p>Along with individual and collective self-esteem, self-efficacy has been identified as one of the main constructs of self-confidence (Bandura [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref17">3</reflink>] ). Social cognitive theory (SCT; Bandura [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref18">2</reflink>] ) postulates that self-efficacy can determine one’s behavior and one’s initial decision to perform a behavior (Sherer et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref19">29</reflink>] ). Individuals must believe they are capable of doing something in order to produce desired effects. Larson and Daniels ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref20">19</reflink>] ) applied the social cognitive theory to American counselors and counselors-in-training. Their research suggested that counselors with high counseling self-efficacy perceived themselves as being highly capable of counseling clients whereas those with low counselor self-efficacy did not perceive themselves as having adequate skills to effectively counsel clients. Their results also suggested that counselors with high counselor self-efficacy were able to handle difficult clients more effectively and were better able to utilize feedback provided to them in their learning experiences (Larson and Daniels [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref21">19</reflink>] ). Within the Korean culture, counselor self-efficacy has been associated with job satisfaction (Hwang [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref22">12</reflink>] ; Yu et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref23">35</reflink>] ), with low self-confidence being associated with exhaustion and unhappiness in performing one’s job responsibilities (Yu et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref24">35</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Several researchers have reported that counselor self-efficacy is related with level of experience (e.g., Martin et al. [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref25">25</reflink>] ), level of training (e.g., Friedlander and Snyder [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref26">10</reflink>] ), and level of outcome expectancies (Sipps et al. [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref27">30</reflink>] ). In addition, a positive relationship was found between counselor self-efficacy and amount of supervision received (Urbani et al. [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref28">33</reflink>] ). In this study, we compared the three dimensions of self-confidence, individual self-esteem, collective self-esteem, and counselor self-efficacy between American and Korean counselors-in-training, whilst also controlling for the effects of variables such as the amount of supervision hours experienced.</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-6">Method</hd> <p>This study consisted of two research teams: one team was located at a university in the southeastern region of the United States, and the other was located at a university in Seoul, Korea. Using research teams to collaborate within each respective country provided a number of advantages. Prior to conducting the study, the research teams discussed the cultural relevance of the study topic. It was hoped that this in turn would make the research more meaningful to study participants as it has been suggested that participation in research increases when study topics are relevant to participants’ needs (Clark et al. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref29">7</reflink>] ). Having two research teams also assisted with obtaining access to study participants in each country and may have also served to build trust among participants towards the researchers given that they represented the cultural backgrounds of the participants. Considerations regarding the translation of study materials were made to ensure the wording of study questions were linguistically and conceptually appropriate.</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-7">Participants</hd> <p>The research was approved by the Institutional Review Boards from the institutions of both research teams. Within the United States, graduate students (master’s- and doctoral-level students) in counseling and related fields across the country participated in the study by completing survey questionnaires powered by Survey Monkey. The survey link was distributed electronically by using professional counseling-related association list-serves [i.e., Counselor Education and Supervision Network (CESNET), American Psychological Association of Graduate Students (APAGS), Alabama Counseling Association (ALCA)] and Facebook. Participants were also recruited through professors working in counselor education and counseling psychology programs at the US research team’s university. Eligibility criteria for the study included student enrollment in a counseling or counseling psychology program and experiences with providing counseling services to clients.</p> <p>In South Korea, graduate students (master’s- and doctoral-level students) in counseling programs also participated in the study through an electronic survey powered by the Korean version of Survey Monkey. An e-mail containing a link to the survey and measures was sent to several electronic mailing lists (i.e., Daum counselor-in-training café web portal, a college counseling email group, and several counseling departmental electronic mailing lists). Consistent with the participants from the United States, eligibility criteria included students enrolled in counseling programs and experiences with providing counseling services to clients.</p> <p>For both the United States and South Korean samples, informed consent was secured from all participants prior to data collection. Participants were informed of the voluntary nature of the study, and they were made aware that they could remove themselves from the study at any stage. Furthermore, the participants were given the researchers’ email addresses and phone numbers to allow them to ask questions related to the research process.</p> <p>A total of 344 questionnaires were obtained electronically. After excluding surveys with incomplete responses, a total of 323 (155 American and 168 Korean) questionnaires were used for the data analyses. Of the American participants (n = 155), 87.4% were female (n = 118). Participants’ ages ranged from 20 to over 60 years, with the average age being 29 years; (20-29 years, 48.3%; 30-39 years, 25%; 40-49 years, 15.8%; 50-59 years, 7.5%; and over 60, 3.3%). Fifty-seven percent of the participants were in a master’s-level program, while 43% were in a doctoral program. Participants accumulated a wide range of formal supervision hours prior to the start of the survey (1-10 h, 26%; 11-30 h, 37.8%; 31-60 h, 25.2%; and more than 61 h, 11%). In terms of clinical experience, 71.5% were currently enrolled in a clinical course, whereas 28.5% had already finished their clinical requirements. Clinical experiences represented a variety of work settings including university counseling centers (33.6%), primary/secondary education settings (25%), public agencies (22.4%), hospitals (9.5%), private practice (7.8%), and faith-based agencies (1.7%).</p> <p>Of the Korean participants (n = 168), 91.1% were female (n = 153). Participants’ ages ranged from 20 to over 60 years with the average age being 31 years; (20-29 years, 37.2%; 30-39 years, 37.2%; 40-49 years, 21.9%; 50-59 years, 2.9%; and over 60, 0.7%). In addition, 82.7% were in a master’s-level program and 17.3% were in a doctoral program. The supervision hours of the participants ranged from 0 to more than 61 h (0 h, 21.6%; 1-10 h, 33.5%; 11-30 h, 24%; 31-60 h, 16.2%; and more than 61 h, 4.8%). In terms of clinical experience, 43.8% were currently enrolled in a clinical course, and 56.2% had finished their clinical requirements. Clinical settings included university counseling centers (31.5%), public agencies (25.0%), primary/secondary education settings (16.7%), community mental health agencies (2.4%), hospitals (1.2%), companies (0.6%), faith-based agencies (3%), and other (19.7%).</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-8">Measures</hd> <hd id="AN0131151865-9">Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES)</hd> <p>To measure individual self-esteem, the American participants completed the English version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref30">28</reflink>] ), whereas the Korean participants used the Korean version of the RSES (Jeon [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref31">15</reflink>] ). Jeon cross-validated the original scale for Korean subjects, resulting in a Cronbach’s alpha of.85. The RSES consists of 10 items. Sample items are as such: "On the whole, I am satisfied with myself", "I feel that I have a number of good qualities.” The items are answered using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha of the American sample was.88, and for the Korean sample.77.</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-10">Collective Self-Esteem Scale (CSES)</hd> <p>The Collective Self-Esteem Scale (CSES; Luhtanen and Crocker [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref32">24</reflink>] ) and its Korean version (Kim [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref33">18</reflink>] ) were used for American and Korean participants respectively. In Luthanen and Crocker’s ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref34">24</reflink>] ) study, the Cronbach’s Alpha of the four subscales ranged from.71 to.88. Kim translated and cross-validated the four-factor model of the CSES with a Korean sample, and the Cronbach’s alphas of the four factors ranged from.81 to.86.</p> <p>The CSES measures one’s self-esteem as a member of a specific group. It consists of 16 items with 4 items each in the following four sub-categories: (a) membership collective self-esteem (e.g., "I am a worthy member of the counseling profession to which I belong."), (b) private collective self-esteem (e.g., "In general, I'm glad to be a member of the counseling profession to which I belong"), (c) public collective self-esteem (e.g., "Overall, the counseling profession is considered good by others."), and (d) importance to identity collective self-esteem (e.g., "Overall, my membership in the counseling profession has very little to do with how I feel about myself"). Participants were asked to identify the extent to which they agreed to each item using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In the current study, for the American sample, the Cronbach’s alpha was.80 for the total collective self-esteem construct, and.62,.67,.66 and 51 for the four listed subscales respectively. In the Korean sample, the overall score was.84, with.68,.77,.74, and.63 for the respective subscale scores.</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-11">Counselor Activity Self-Efficacy Scale (CASES)</hd> <p>To measure counselor activity self-efficacy, the English version of the Counselor Activity Self-Efficacy Scale (CASES; Lent et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref35">23</reflink>] ) was used for the American participants, while the Korean version (Lee et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref36">20</reflink>] ) was used for the Korean participants. The CASES includes three subscales including (a) helping skills self-efficacy (e.g., “using immediacy statements”, “challenging client contradictions”), (b) session management self-efficacy (e.g., "help your client set realistic counseling goals", "help your client to decide what actions to take regarding his or her problems"), and (c) counseling challenge self-efficacy (e.g., “depressed”, “suicidal”). It consists of 41 items, and each item uses a 10-point Likert scale ranging from no confidence (0) to complete confidence (<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref37">9</reflink>).</p> <p>Lee et al. ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref38">20</reflink>] ) cross-validated this scale with a similar three-factor model of the Korean version of the CASES using confirmatory factor analyses. The Cronbach’s alphas of the three factors ranged from.88 to.93. In the current study, for the American sample, the Cronbach’s Alpha were.97 for the total items, and.92,.96 and. 95 for the listed subscales respectively. In the case of the Korean sample, the Cronbach’s Alpha were.95 (overall), and.87,.94, and.91 respectively.</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-12">Data Analysis</hd> <p>The data were analyzed by SPSS 18.0. First, the descriptive statistics and Pearson’s correlation coefficient among variables were calculated. Next, multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) were used to examine the effects of nation (American/Korean) on individual self-esteem, collective self-esteem, and CA self-efficacy after controlling for the covariates of gender (coded male as 1 and female as 2), age (coded 20-29 years as 1, 30-39 years as 2, 40-49 years as 3, 50-59 years as 4, and over 60 years as 5), supervision hours (coded 0 h as 1, 1-10 h as 2, 11-30 h as 3, 31-60 h as 4, and more than 61 h as 5), academic degree (coded master's students as 0 and doctoral students as 1), and internship experience (coded currently enrolled as 0 and finished as 1). MANCOVA is a useful analysis method when multiple dependent variables exist. It considers the correlation among dependent variables and controls for type 1 error, which can occur when several analyses of covariances (ANCOVAs) are conducted. Lastly, differences related to demographical variables were considered.</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-13">Results</hd> <p>Means and standard deviations of both the United States and South Korean samples are shown in Table 1. In addition, intercorrelations among the demographic variables, individual self-esteem, collective self-esteem, and CA self-efficacy variables are presented in Table 2.</p> <p>Means and Standard Deviations for variables between United States and South Korean Counseling-Trainees</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><tr><th rowspan="2">Variable</th><th colspan="2">United States</th><th colspan="2">Korean</th></tr><tr><th>M</th><th>SD</th><th>M</th><th>SD</th></tr><tr><td>Gender</td><td>1.87</td><td>0.33</td><td>1.91</td><td>0.29</td></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td>1.93</td><td>1.12</td><td>1.93</td><td>0.88</td></tr><tr><td>Supervision Hours</td><td>3.21</td><td>0.96</td><td>2.49</td><td>1.14</td></tr><tr><td>Degree</td><td>0.43</td><td>0.50</td><td>0.17</td><td>0.38</td></tr><tr><td>Internship Experience</td><td>0.28</td><td>0.45</td><td>0.56</td><td>0.50</td></tr><tr><td>Individual Self-Esteem</td><td>3.35</td><td>0.44</td><td>3.26</td><td>0.41</td></tr><tr><td>Collective Self-Esteem</td><td>4.17</td><td>0.40</td><td>3.96</td><td>0.45</td></tr><tr><td>Counselor Activity Self-Efficacy</td><td>6.88</td><td>1.15</td><td>5.80</td><td>0.94</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Gender is coded as 1 (male) and 2 (female), age is coded as 1 (20-29 years), 2 (30-39 years), 3 (40-49 years), 4 (50-59 years), and 5 (over 60 years), supervision hours is coded as 1 (0 h), 2 (1-10 h), 3 (11-30 h), 4 (31-60 h), and 5 (more than 61 h), academic degree is coded as 0 (master’s students) and 1 (doctoral students), internship experience is coded as 0 (currently enrolled) and 1 (finished)</p> <p>Intercorrelations for United States’ counselors (n = 155) are presented above the diagonal and Korean counselors (n = 168) are presented below the diagonal</p> <p>*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001</p> <p>For the United States participants, individual self-esteem was positively correlated with age (r = .24, p < .01) and negatively correlated with academic degree (r = −.21, p < .05). That is, doctoral students had lower scores on individual self-esteem compared to students enrolled in a master’s degree program. Collective self-esteem was positively correlated with age (r = .19, p < .05) and with individual self-esteem (r = .54, p < .01) and was negatively correlated with academic degree (r = −.21, p < .05). In the Korean sample, individual self-esteem was positively correlated with both age (r = .23, p < .01) and collective self-esteem (r = .51, p < .01). Also, CA self-efficacy was positively correlated with age (r = .21, p < .05), with individual self-esteem (r = .35, p < .01), and with collective self-esteem (r = .23, p < .01).</p> <p>Additionally, the relationship between CA self-efficacy and demographic variables were different when comparing the United States and Korean samples. Results indicated that CA self-efficacy in the United States participants was positively correlated with age (r = .27, p < .01), with supervision hours (r = .20, p < .05), with academic degree (r = .22, p < .05), and with internship experience (r = .23, p < .01), whereas CA self-efficacy in the Korean sample was correlated only with age (r = .21, p < .05).</p> <p>To identity the differences between United States and Korean counselors-in-training on individual self-esteem, collective self-esteem, and CA self-efficacy, MANCOVA procedures were utilized. The five covariates (gender, age, supervision hours, academic degree and internship experience) served as control variables to reduce the initial difference due to the effect of demographic variables in the model. The independent variable (United States vs. Korean counselors-in-training) was coded at two levels: Level 1 for Korean counselors-in-training and Level 2 for United States counselors-in-training.</p> <p>As seen in Table 3, MANCOVA results indicated that overall the Wilks’ Lambda was significant for the combined dependent variables (Wilks’ Lambda = .82; F (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref39">3</reflink>, 199) = 14.36, p < .001). ANCOVA analyses were conducted on each dependent variable as a follow-up test to MANCOVA. The independent variable (United States vs. Korean counseling-trainees) was a significant factor on only two dependent variables; collective self-esteem [(F (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref40">1</reflink>, 201) =5.73, p < .05., multivariate] and CA self-efficacy [(F (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref41">1</reflink>, 201) = 40.60, p < .001]. United States counseling-trainees (M = 4.18, SD = .41) had higher scores than Korean counseling-trainees (M = 3.95; SD = .45) on collective self-esteem. In addition, United States counseling-trainees (M = 6.78, SD = .1.02) had higher scores than Korean counseling-trainees (M = 5.74; SD = .91) on CA self-efficacy. Among the covariates, age was significantly related with all three dependent variables; individual self-esteem (F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref42">1</reflink>, 201) = 10.97, p < .01), collective self-esteem (F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref43">1</reflink>, 201) = 4.54, p < .05), and CA self-efficacy (F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref44">1</reflink>, 201) = 7.84, p < .01). In addition, supervision hours was related to CA self-efficacy (F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref45">1</reflink>, 201) = 7.67, p < .01).</p> <p>MANCOVA of national differences on individual self-esteem, collective self-esteem & counselor activity self-efficacy with gender, age, supervision hours, degree, internship experience as covariates</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><tr><th /><th colspan="9">Dependent Variables</th><th /><th /></tr><tr><th /><th colspan="3">Individual Self-Esteem</th><th colspan="3">Collective Self-Esteem</th><th colspan="3">Counselor Activity Self-Efficacy</th><th /><th /></tr><tr><th>Factors</th><th>SS</th><th>Partial Eta<sup>2</sup></th><th>F</th><th>SS</th><th>Partial Eta<sup>2</sup></th><th>F</th><th>SS</th><th>Partial Eta<sup>2</sup></th><th>F</th><th>Wilks’ λ</th><th>Lawley-Hotelling T</th></tr><tr><td>Gender</td><td>.08</td><td>.00</td><td>.43</td><td>.06</td><td>.00</td><td>.32</td><td>2.87</td><td>.02</td><td>3.43</td><td>.98</td><td>.02</td></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td>1.94</td><td>.05</td><td>10.97**</td><td>.84</td><td>.02</td><td>4.54*</td><td>6.56</td><td>.04</td><td>7.84**</td><td>.93**</td><td>.07**</td></tr><tr><td>Supervision Hours</td><td>.15</td><td>.00</td><td>.82</td><td>.34</td><td>.01</td><td>1.82</td><td>6.42</td><td>.04</td><td>7.67**</td><td>.96*</td><td>.04*</td></tr><tr><td>Academic Degree</td><td>.52</td><td>.01</td><td>2.93</td><td>.17</td><td>.01</td><td>.93</td><td>.28</td><td>.00</td><td>.33</td><td>.98</td><td>.02</td></tr><tr><td>Internship Experience</td><td>.03</td><td>.00</td><td>.18</td><td>.71</td><td>.02</td><td>3.84</td><td>.60</td><td>.00</td><td>.71</td><td>.97</td><td>.03</td></tr><tr><td>Nation (US vs. Korean)</td><td>.41</td><td>.01</td><td>2.32</td><td>1.06</td><td>.03</td><td>5.73*</td><td>33.94</td><td>.17</td><td>40.60**</td><td>.82***</td><td>.22***</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-14">Discussion</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was to test the effect of cultural differences on individual self-esteem, collective self-esteem, and self-efficacy using multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVA). The MANCOVA results indicated that collective self-esteem and CA self-efficacy were different depending on the nation (United States vs. South Korea). Specifically, United States counseling-trainees’ collective self-esteem and CA self-efficacy were higher than Korean counseling-trainees’ after controlling for the effects of the covariates such as gender, age, supervision hours, academic degree and internship experience. This suggests that CA self-efficacy was statistically different between the United States and Korean counselor-trainees. Next, age, collective self-esteem and individual self-esteem were positively correlated with CA self-efficacy in both countries. Specifically, CA self-efficacy increased with age. It may simply imply that a greater general sense of self-efficacy may come with age irrespective of the cultural background of the individual. According to Hwang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref46">13</reflink>] ), age is positively related to individual self-esteem and subjective well-being. The significant effects of age on self-esteem and CA self-efficacy for the Korean sample might also be related to the cultural value of respect and deference to the elderly in Korea (Sung and Kim [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref47">31</reflink>] ).</p> <p>In addition, as the scores of individual self-esteem and collective self-esteem increased, the scores of CA self-efficacy also increased. This suggests that improving individual self-esteem and collective self-esteem as a group member would be helpful for counselors-in-training as they counsel clients. Furthermore, CA self-efficacy was positively related with age, supervision hours, academic degree (master’s-level) and internship experience in the United States, whereas, it was correlated only with age in Korea.</p> <p>One noteworthy finding is the higher CA self-efficacy for the master’s-level participants compared to the doctoral-level. This may reflect inflated confidence among less skilled counselors-in-training by overestimating their abilities (e.g., Urbani et al. [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref48">33</reflink>] ). These findings may also imply that counselors-in-training in the United States tend to generally have meaningful and supportive clinical and supervision experiences accompanied by positive supervisor feedback and counseling skills training. The impact of positive supervisor feedback and training in counseling micro skills on self-efficacy is well documented (Daniels and Larson [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref49">9</reflink>] ; Urbani et al. [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref50">33</reflink>] ).</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-15">Limitations</hd> <p>Although all three measures used in this study for Korean participants were statistically cross-validated, one limitation of the present study may be lack of confirmation regarding whether both sampled populations used the same operational definitions of the constructs. Although the measures used were translated for linguistic and conceptual appropriateness for the Korean sample, it is unclear whether the United States and Korean participants based their responses on the same operational definition of the dependent variables. An additional limitation is the use of self-report measures, as there is risk for response bias. It is not clear whether the Korean sample endorsed the cultural values of modesty and holistic integration (acknowledgment of positive and negative aspects of themselves) as they completed the study materials (Bae and Brekke [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref51">1</reflink>] ; Wu [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref52">34</reflink>] ), which would have impacted the cultural comparison results.</p> <p>The design of the study also serves as a limitation in that participants were asked to reflect on their level of self-confidence in providing counseling services. In reflecting on their confidence levels, this may not necessarily translate into their actual feelings of confidence while working with clients in session. In regard to the sampled populations, it should be noted that differences in training programs in each of the countries serve as a limitation in assessing the investigated constructs. Obviously, graduate-level counseling programs differ in a number of ways, including curriculum, clinical hour requirements and supervision availability. Additionally, the participant pools for each country consisted of different training levels (i.e., master’s degree: US 57%, Korean 82.7%; doctoral courses: US 43%, Korean 17.3%), which could have provided particular variance in the data.</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-16">Implications</hd> <p>The present study provides insight regarding cross-cultural differences in three domains of self-esteem, collective self-esteem and CA self-efficacy between the United States and Korea for counselors-in-training. According to the present study, Korean students experienced lower levels of CA self-efficacy. While supervision hours and clinical experience were not significantly related to levels of CA self-efficacy, individual self-esteem was positively related to CA self-efficacy. Throughout the training experience, fostering individual self-esteem may provide a foundation from which students may feel more comfortable sharing their feelings related to confidence and competence. According to Lee et al. ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref53">22</reflink>] ), encouraging and exploring behaviors of supervisors were strongly related to Korean counselors' self-efficacy, whereas problem-indicating did not show a significant relationship with self-efficacy.</p> <p>According to the present study, Korean students endorsed lower levels of collective self-esteem and CA self-efficacy. It is noted that counseling is a relatively new profession in South Korea and may account for the observed differences. The counseling field was introduced to South Korea during the 1950s, and as a result, continues to experience challenges related to social and legal legitimization (Lee et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref54">21</reflink>] ). These challenges might have implications in regard to Koreans’ feelings of group identity within the counseling field. Students’ confidence in their counseling skills and their professional identity might be impacted as the field is working to establish itself as a profession with a history and legacy. Additionally, differences in curriculum and program requirements in America compared to South Korea might additionally have an impact on reported feelings of confidence. Providing an orientation to the training program, including the trajectory of the training experience, what is expected of students, and identifying university resources that would assist students in learning how to navigate through their respective educational programs might communicate support and bolster feelings of confidence.</p> <p>To our knowledge, there is a dearth of cross-cultural studies examining the experiences of counseling students. In an effort to begin this line of inquiry, future studies could expand the literature in this area. Cross-cultural studies in the area of international studies and training are of increasing importance as they allow for countries to inform one another to enhance the training of counselors. Future research may want to conduct cross-cultural studies examining individual factors that influence the confidence and self-efficacy of counselors-in-training. Investigating these factors would help programs in the United States and South Korea train students to be more confident in their skills. Subsequently, examining the impact CA self-efficacy has on therapeutic outcomes would provide important insight on whether enhancing CA self-efficacy results in more effective therapy, improves the therapeutic relationship, or influences clients’ perceptions of the counselor-in-training. Additionally, future studies could help inform training programs from different countries on individual aspects of training, such as supervision hours, training seminars and didactics, course work, and number of individual therapy hours required. Longitudinal studies beginning at the start of individuals’ training programs and culminating at the end would be an ideal study to address such questions.</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-17">Compliance with Ethical Standards</hd> <p>The authors declared that they have no conflict of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0131151865-18">References</hd> <hd id="AN0131151865-19">Citations</hd> <p>1 Bae S, Brekke J, The measurement of self-esteem among Korean Americans: A cross-ethnic study, Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 2003, 9, 1, 16, 33, 10.1037/1099-9809.9.1.16</p> <ulist> <item>2 Bandura A, Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory, 1986, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall</item> <item>3 Bandura A, Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective, Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 1999, 2, 21, 41, 10.1111/1467-839X.00024</item> <item>4 Brown J, Cai H, Self-esteem and trait importance moderate cultural differences in self-evaluations, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 2010, 41, 1, 116, 123, 10.1177/0022022109349509</item> <item>5 Butler SK, Constantine MG, Collective self-esteem and burnout in professional school counselors, Professional School Counseling, 2005, 9, 55, 62, 10.5330/prsc.9.1.17n4415l163720u5</item> <item>6 Chiu, L. 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Veronica Crawford; Karin K. Hansing; Sadi Fox; Minhee Cho; Eunbi Chang; Seongchan Lee and Sang Min Lee</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib6" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib4" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib1" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib8" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib5" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib3" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib2" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib7" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib9" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref54"></nolink>
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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: A Cross-Cultural Study of the Self-Confidence of Counselors-in-Training
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Suh%2C+Suhyun%22">Suh, Suhyun</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Crawford%2C+C%2E+Veronica%22">Crawford, C. Veronica</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hansing%2C+Karin+K%2E%22">Hansing, Karin K.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Fox%2C+Sadi%22">Fox, Sadi</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cho%2C+Minhee%22">Cho, Minhee</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Chang%2C+Eunbi%22">Chang, Eunbi</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lee%2C+Seongchan%22">Lee, Seongchan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lee%2C+Sang+Min%22">Lee, Sang Min</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6148-772X">0000-0001-6148-772X</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22International+Journal+for+the+Advancement+of+Counselling%22"><i>International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling</i></searchLink>. Sep 2018 40(3):255-266.
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  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-348-4505; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 12
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2018
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cross+Cultural+Studies%22">Cross Cultural Studies</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Esteem%22">Self Esteem</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Counselors%22">Counselors</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Counselor+Training%22">Counselor Training</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Comparative+Education%22">Comparative Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Age%22">Age</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Supervision%22">Supervision</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Internship+Programs%22">Internship Programs</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22United+States%22">United States</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22South+Korea%22">South Korea</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s10447-018-9324-4
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0165-0653
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: In this era of globalization, cross-cultural comparison studies could help counselor training programs enhance educational opportunities that are informative, supportive, and culturally responsive to students. Counselors-in-training in both the United States and South Korea were sampled in this study assessing self-esteem (individual and collective) and counselor activity self-efficacy (CA self-efficacy). Results indicated that American students endorsed higher levels of collective self-esteem and CA self-efficacy compared to Korean students. Age was positively correlated with CA self-efficacy in both the American and Korean samples. Additionally, the variable of supervision hours and internship experience was positively correlated with CA self-efficacy for American students, but showed no relationship with CA self-efficacy for Korea students. Implications for understanding the cultural differences of counseling-trainees' self-confidence and the need for conducting cross-cultural comparison studies to provide insights about the training and development of trainees in cross-cultural settings are discussed.
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  Label: Abstractor
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  Data: As Provided
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  Label: Number of References
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  Data: 36
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2018
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  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1187354
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1187354
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s10447-018-9324-4
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 255
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Cross Cultural Studies
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Esteem
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Counselors
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Counselor Training
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Efficacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Comparative Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Age
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Supervision
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Internship Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: United States
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: South Korea
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: A Cross-Cultural Study of the Self-Confidence of Counselors-in-Training
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Suh, Suhyun
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Crawford, C. Veronica
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Hansing, Karin K.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Fox, Sadi
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Cho, Minhee
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Chang, Eunbi
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Lee, Seongchan
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Lee, Sang Min
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      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 09
              Type: published
              Y: 2018
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0165-0653
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 40
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling
              Type: main
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