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Teaching versus Watching? Using Video Feedback to Counter Teacher Stress

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Title: Teaching versus Watching? Using Video Feedback to Counter Teacher Stress
Language: English
Authors: Junker, Robin (ORCID 0000-0001-8558-2131), Holodynski, Manfr (ORCID 0000-0002-4791-4948)
Source: Teacher Development. 2022 26(4):472-491.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 20
Publication Date: 2022
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Junior High Schools
Middle Schools
Secondary Education
Elementary Education
Descriptors: Feedback (Response), Stress Variables, Video Technology, Teaching Conditions, Recall (Psychology), Measurement Techniques, Computer Peripherals, Coping, Teacher Student Relationship, Correlation, Identification, Faculty Development, Foreign Countries, Middle School Teachers, Elementary School Teachers, Vocational Education Teachers, Physiology
Geographic Terms: Germany
DOI: 10.1080/13664530.2022.2089221
ISSN: 1366-4530
1747-5120
Abstract: The stressors of teaching can be individual and hard to identify. Merely recalling stressful events after a lesson can be biased by neglect, modification, or extenuation of memories. Therefore, the present study explores how video data can be used to reactivate or relive stressor memory. Eight teachers' lessons were recorded while their stress was assessed through electrodermal activity (EDA). Teachers then watched their recorded lessons retrospectively while EDA was measured once more but they were additionally asked to use a joystick to indicate when they recalled being stressed during their lesson. Results show that teachers in the watching condition did not re-experience or recall the same situations as stressful as in the teaching condition. They indicate that video feedback can be used as a tool for coping with stressful teaching events only if teachers are also provided with information about their actual stress level during teaching. The implications of these results are discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1367499
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0159023156;ntd01aug.22;2022Sep13.01:57;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0159023156-1">Teaching versus watching? Using video feedback to counter teacher stress </title> <p>The stressors of teaching can be individual and hard to identify. Merely recalling stressful events after a lesson can be biased by neglect, modification, or extenuation of memories. Therefore, the present study explores how video data can be used to reactivate or relive stressor memory. Eight teachers' lessons were recorded while their stress was assessed through electrodermal activity (EDA). Teachers then watched their recorded lessons retrospectively while EDA was measured once more but they were additionally asked to use a joystick to indicate when they recalled being stressed during their lesson. Results show that teachers in the watching condition did not re-experience or recall the same situations as stressful as in the teaching condition. They indicate that video feedback can be used as a tool for coping with stressful teaching events only if teachers are also provided with information about their actual stress level during teaching. The implications of these results are discussed.</p> <p>Keywords: Teacher stress; electrodermal activity; video; self-reflection; teacher–student interaction</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-2">Introduction</hd> <p>The specific characteristics of individual teachers are crucial for students because they have the second largest impact on learning progress (Hattie [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref1">40</reflink>]). Moreover, teachers' behavior is highly relevant for their students' psychosocial development (Hamre and Pianta [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref2">38</reflink>]; Jackson [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref3">46</reflink>]; Nye, Konstantopoulos, and Hedges [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref4">61</reflink>]). However, not only specific teaching competencies but also teacher well-being is highly relevant for their teaching (Burke and Page [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref5">14</reflink>]; Collie et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref6">23</reflink>]). One of the main factors that can endanger such well-being is ongoing stress in the short term that can lead to burnout in the long term. Teacher stress and burnout have been a persistent topic in teacher research over the last few decades because many teachers have been leaving the profession owing to both external and internal factors (Brunsting, Sreckovic, and Lane [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref7">12</reflink>]; Kyriacou [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref8">52</reflink>]; Schlichte, Yssel, and Merbler [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref9">73</reflink>]). Furthermore, studies show that this is occurring all over the world (e.g., Chaplain [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref10">20</reflink>]; Johnson and Birkeland [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref11">47</reflink>]; Kyriacou [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref12">52</reflink>]; Skaalvik and Skaalvik [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref13">79</reflink>]). As part of a teacher's professional development, coping with stress is a continuous challenge that especially affects not only novice teachers but also their elder colleagues (Ameen, Guffey, and Jackson [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref14">4</reflink>]; Laughlin [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref15">53</reflink>]).</p> <p>Several intervention techniques are available to reduce stress in affected teachers. These include knowledge-based, cognitive-behavioral, mindfulness-based, and behavioral interventions (for an overview, see von der Embse et al. [<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref16">85</reflink>]). However, most of these techniques do not refer directly to the immediate stressors while teaching. Instead, they tend to promote the development of emotion-focused coping strategies (Lazarus and Folkman [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref17">54</reflink>]).</p> <p>One possible technique that directly addresses the characteristics of specific stressful events and, therefore, the training of problem-focused coping, is video-based self-reflection in which teachers identify stressful classroom events by analyzing their own recorded lessons and reflecting on how to avoid observed problems in the future or cope with them in the present (Altrichter and Posch [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref18">3</reflink>]; Chang [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref19">19</reflink>]; Gelfuso [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref20">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although such video-based self-reflection would seem to be an appropriate technique, it has to deal with the problem of whether people really recall or relive stressful classroom situations when they watch recordings of their lessons. Up to now, no study has examined whether teachers can recall or relive the physiologically measurable stress experienced during teaching.</p> <p>Thus, the aim of this study was to examine whether video-based self-reflection (Pinter, East, and Thrush [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref21">64</reflink>]; Weber et al. [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref22">88</reflink>]) could be a viable method for unambiguously recalling or reliving stressful classroom events. Therefore, we compared the occurrence of physiologically measurable stress events while teaching a lesson with the occurrence of physiologically measurable stress events and the recall of stress while watching the same recorded lesson one week later.</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-3">Teachers' stress and its measurement</hd> <p>Teacher stress has been defined as 'a response of negative affect (such as anger or depression) by a teacher, usually accompanied by potentially pathogenic physiological and biochemical changes [...] resulting from aspects of the teacher's job' (Kyriacou and Sutcliffe [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref23">51</reflink>], 160). These physiological and biochemical changes primarily concern the autonomic nervous system (ANS; Ader, Cohen, and Felten [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref24">1</reflink>]) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA; Hellhammer, Wüst, and Kudielka [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref25">42</reflink>]). This subsequently activates organs related to the sympathetic nervous system (e.g., increase in heart rate, activated sweat glands, dilated blood vessels; Silverthorn [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref26">78</reflink>]), while deactivating processes of the parasympathetic nervous system (Won and Kim [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref27">90</reflink>]). At the same time, the adrenal glands produce glucocorticoids that stimulate cardiovascular tissues. These two systems (ANS and HPA) feature feedback loops that make it possible for the hypothalamus to adjust its actions (Hellhammer, Wüst, and Kudielka [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref28">42</reflink>]; Won and Kim [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref29">90</reflink>]).</p> <p>There are various methods for measuring teacher stress. Many studies rely on questionnaires such as the Teacher Stress Inventory (Fimian [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref30">28</reflink>]; Fimian and Fastenau [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref31">29</reflink>]) or the Teachers' Occupational Stress Questionnaire (Hendreş et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref32">44</reflink>]). Other studies attempt to work with biological markers such as cortisol (Oberle and Schonert-Reichl [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref33">62</reflink>]) or heart rate (Ritvanen et al. [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref34">70</reflink>]). However, when it comes to identifying single stressful events in the course of a lesson, these methods are of restricted validity. Questionnaires rely on memories about stressful events and not on the stressful events themselves, whereas cortisol, as a physiological marker, is too slow to mark single events in an ongoing process that lasts about 45 minutes, and heart rate can be strongly influenced by other activities such as breathing, speaking, and moving about (Linden [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref35">56</reflink>]).</p> <p>A suitable and valid measure of single stressful events in an ongoing process that is easy to access via a wristband (Empatica [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref36">27</reflink>]) is electrodermal activity (EDA). EDA refers to a change in skin conductance, which depends, in turn, on the amount of sweat secreted by the exocrine sweat glands of the palmar and plantar skin regions (Groscurth [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref37">37</reflink>]). Changes in sympathetic nervous activity and, therefore, sweat quantity can be caused by variations in environmental temperature (thermoregulatory sweating) as well as by affective and cognitive demands (Asahina et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref38">5</reflink>]; Wallin and Fagius [<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref39">86</reflink>]). EDA consists of tonic and phasic components. Whereas tonic components are influenced by background characteristics such as room temperature, phasic components in the form of high peaks of EDA amplitudes after emotionally charged triggers can be interpreted as stress responses (Boucsein et al. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref40">10</reflink>]; Braithwaite et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref41">11</reflink>]). Previous research has supported the notion that such phasic EDA components correlate with the emotional arousal and attention gain triggered by specific stimuli (Öhman et al. [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref42">63</reflink>]), which are associated, in turn, with experienced stress (Hayes et al. [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref43">41</reflink>]; Waters et al. [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref44">87</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-4">Potential stressors for teachers</hd> <p>Previous research on teacher stress, which is based mainly on survey and interview data, has revealed multiple potential stressors for teachers that can emerge from various sources. These sources can be either contextual or interactional demands. Contextual demands include a negative school climate (Butt et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref45">15</reflink>]; Collie, Shapka, and Perry [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref46">22</reflink>]; De Nobile and McCormick [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref47">25</reflink>]), role ambiguity (Greenglass and Burke [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref48">36</reflink>]; Mérida-López, Extremera, and Rey [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref49">57</reflink>]), class size (French [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref50">30</reflink>]; Schutz and Zembylas [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref51">75</reflink>]), high workloads (Chaplain [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref52">20</reflink>]; Fussangel and Dizinger [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref53">31</reflink>]; Klassen and Chiu [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref54">49</reflink>]), a lack of support (Certo and Fox [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref55">18</reflink>]), or a lack of learning potential for teachers – all of which constitute a poor working environment (Buchanan [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref56">13</reflink>]; Gonzalez, Brown, and Slate [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref57">35</reflink>]).</p> <p>Interactional demands that can produce stress arise from the interplay between teachers and students. These are the need for continuously fast decision making throughout a lesson (Roeser et al. [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref58">72</reflink>]), poor teacher–student relationships often manifesting themselves through negative emotional expressions from both teachers and students (Harmsen et al. [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref59">39</reflink>]; Taxer, Becker-Kurz, and Frenzel [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref60">81</reflink>]), and disruptive as well as demotivated student behavior (Buchanan [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref61">13</reflink>]; Clunies-Ross, Little, and Kienhuis [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref62">21</reflink>]; Greenglass and Burke [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref63">36</reflink>]; Klassen and Chiu [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref64">49</reflink>]; Kyriacou [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref65">52</reflink>]; Zhonghua and Chi-Kin Lee [<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref66">92</reflink>]).</p> <p>Similar to other professions, the occurrence of teacher stress depends mainly on the relationship between the presence of potential stressors and the absence of necessary resources to counter them (Bakker and Demerouti [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref67">6</reflink>]; Lazarus and Folkman [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref68">54</reflink>]; Ullrich, Lambert, and McCarthy [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref69">82</reflink>]). Hence, if teachers face, for example, disruptive students, they may either perceive them as a constant threat to their own social status or as a challenging opportunity to form deeper student–teacher relationships.</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-5">Potential stressors as a challenge</hd> <p>Demands or potential stressors (Kyriacou and Sutcliffe [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref70">51</reflink>]) do not necessarily result in teacher stress. Depending on the available external and internal resources, they can be perceived as either a challenge or a threat (Blascovich and Mendes [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref71">8</reflink>]; Lazarus and Folkman [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref72">54</reflink>]). Internal resources that can buffer potential stressors are good time management skills (Zhonghua and Chi-Kin Lee [<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref73">92</reflink>]), work experience (Gavish and Friedman [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref74">32</reflink>]; Goddard, O'Brien, and Goddard [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref75">34</reflink>]), good emotion regulation skills (Montgomery and Rupp [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref76">58</reflink>]), and high self-efficacy beliefs (Fussangel and Dizinger [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref77">31</reflink>]; Robertson and Dunsmuir [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref78">71</reflink>]; Schwerdtfeger, Konermann, and Schönhofen [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref79">76</reflink>]).</p> <p>Emotion regulation skills and self-efficacy are associated directly with the cognitive appraisal processes that play a major role in the perception of stressors as either a challenge or a threat, along with the subsequent emotional and physiological consequences (Blascovich [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref80">9</reflink>]). As shown in Figure 1, when facing potential stressors, there are two main phases of cognitive appraisal: First, a person evaluates how threatening or challenging a stimulus really is. Second, that person appraises her or his own ability to cope with the specific stressor (Lazarus and Folkman [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref81">54</reflink>]).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Prototypical emergence and psychological processing of stress as suggested by Lazarus and Folkman ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref82">54</reflink>]).</p> <p>The second cognitive appraisal is strongly associated with self-efficacy, and the difference between primary and secondary appraisal determines the individual stress level (Drach-Zahavy and Erez [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref83">26</reflink>]) that persons have to deal with. If they believe that they have sufficient resources for problem-focused coping, the potential stressor may be reduced or eliminated; and this, in turn, could lead to less stress. Otherwise, the person must attempt emotion-focused coping that requires appropriate emotion-regulation skills. After executing an adaptive or maladaptive coping strategy, the person reappraises the situation. This reappraisal, which, in turn, influences the main stress level, depends on how the previous stressor was averted (problem-focused coping) or how the resulting stress level was diminished (emotion-focused coping).</p> <p>Considering the prototypical emergence and psychological processing of stress, teacher education should deliver the necessary knowledge and techniques that will enable teachers to identify stressful events, apply efficient problem-based and emotion-regulation strategies, and develop high self-efficacy beliefs for situations that they originally perceived as threatening.</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-6">Video-based reflection as problem-based coping</hd> <p>Reflection on action and reflection for action (Schön [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref84">74</reflink>]; van Manen [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref85">84</reflink>]) could be a suitable method for identifying stressful events during lessons and generating suitable coping strategies – either together with somebody else (Helmke and Lenske [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref86">43</reflink>]) or alone (e.g., Campbell et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref87">17</reflink>]; Moon [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref88">59</reflink>]; Uzum, Petrón, and Berg [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref89">83</reflink>]; Wyss [<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref90">91</reflink>]). Previous studies have shown that self-reflection can help to identify such events and to generate efficient reappraisals (Chang [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref91">19</reflink>]; Gelfuso [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref92">33</reflink>]) of potential stressors as well as new teaching routines (Altrichter and Posch [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref93">3</reflink>]). Hence, if teachers reflect on their stressful events, they can experience stressful situations as being less threatening and more challenging.</p> <p>One precondition for the validity of such a retrospective reflection method is for teachers to be able to recall stressful events accurately. Empirical evidence shows that the internal storage of events correlates strongly with attention, arousal, and emotion during these events (Cahill and McGaugh [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref94">16</reflink>]) and thus correlates particularly strongly with threatening events. However, other studies have found effects of neglect, modification, or extenuation of memories of stressful social situations (Li et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref95">55</reflink>]) that make it possible to ensure continuous self-esteem (Ritchie, Sedikides, and Skowronski [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref96">69</reflink>]). Hence, it would seem that the precondition of an accurate memory for stressful events may not necessarily be fulfilled.</p> <p>Video-based self-reflection could serve as one possible solution to this problem, owing to the audiovisual re-exposure to a previous teaching situation (Krammer and Hugener [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref97">50</reflink>]; Reichenberger et al. [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref98">68</reflink>]). It may be that during video feedback, a teacher either recalls or relives the stressful events on the basis of a revived experience of stress indicators such as a heightened heart rate or electrodermal activity (Asahina et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref99">5</reflink>]; Ritvanen et al. [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref100">70</reflink>]; Wallin and Fagius [<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref101">86</reflink>]).</p> <p>Therefore, the preconditions for using video analysis of teachers' own lessons as a tool to recall or relive stressful situations during their own lessons are that: (a) the situations teachers are able to recall as stressful while watching are the same as those they experienced as stressful while teaching; and/or (b) the events that teachers emotionally experience as stressful while watching their lesson retrospectively are the same as those they experienced as emotionally stressful while teaching. Reflections on coping strategies would be valid if they were based on either recalling or re-experiencing the stressful events of a lesson while watching it afterwards. If there is a mismatch, then teachers will select wrong episodes that do not coincide with their real stress events during teaching. However, we have not yet found any empirical study that has analyzed these preconditions. We do not know whether teachers really recall or relive the stressful events when watching their own recorded lessons, or whether they are potentially distracted by the impressions of seeing themselves and their students from an observer instead of an actor perspective. Therefore, if teachers are mentally absorbed by other such events, the recapitulation of original memory fragments may be overridden by these new impressions (Bancroft et al. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref102">7</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-7">The present study</hd> <p>The main aim of this study is to explore how far teachers are able to recall and/or re-experience stressful events during a lesson that they had taught when they watch their recorded lesson afterwards and are instructed to pay attention to the stress they experienced while teaching. We operationalized three conditions for measuring stressful reactions of teachers in order to analyze how well they correspond: (a) stress experiences while teaching a lesson via continuous electrodermal activity (EDA) measurement; (b) stress experiences while watching the same recorded lesson afterwards also via continuous EDA measurement; and (c) subjectively recalled stress episodes while watching the recorded lesson via continuous dial measurement.</p> <p>We formulated two main hypotheses: (a) If teachers are able to relive their stressful events during a lesson while watching their lesson afterwards, the EDA measurement of stress events during teaching and watching should correspond. Then, they could use their EDA arousal while watching as a cue to their stress events during teaching; (b) If teachers are able to recall their stressful events during a lesson while watching their lesson afterwards, there should be a correspondence between the EDA measurement of stress events during teaching and their subjective rating of stress events while watching. Then, they could use their memorized stress events while watching as a cue to their stress events during teaching.</p> <p>Although it was not directly important for testing our hypotheses, we also checked the correspondence between EDA measurement of stress events and teachers' subjective ratings of stress events while watching.</p> <p>We examined the correspondences between the three conditions (stress while teaching [experience], stress while watching [experience], and stress while watching [memory]) by examining (a) the time-related correlation of stress, (b) the time-related concordance of the most stressful events, and (c) the content-related similarity of the most stressful events.</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-8">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0159023156-9">Data follection</hd> <p>Before collecting data, we informed the parents of students in each class whose teacher had agreed to participate in the study and asked for their consent to record a lesson with their child's teacher. We then successfully obtained the consent of the federal state's Ministry of Education to record the lessons. Next, we arranged an appointment date on which a member of the project recorded one lesson (of about 45 minutes) with each teacher. Lessons in mathematics, German, biology, English, or computer science were recorded with a Panasonic HC-V757 camera and a portable Bluetooth microphone for the teacher in order to record both teachers' talk and students' answers, especially in their dyadic interactions with the teacher. The camera was located in a corner at the back of the class and was equipped with a wide-angle lens to cover the teacher and the whole class. During specific teaching activities such as 'circle time'. the camera was moved closer to the students. Furthermore, teachers wore an E4 Empatica wristband during the lesson that measured EDA as an indicator of experienced stress (see Measures). A time stamp function of the wristband was used to synchronize time scores between the wristband and the camera.</p> <p>One week after recording the lesson, we revisited the teachers in their schools and invited them to watch the video of their lesson on a notebook in a separate room. Their task was to watch their recorded lesson from their own actor perspective as teacher, to recall when they were stressed while teaching, and to mark these stress episodes with a joystick. Throughout their watching, they again wore the E4Empatica wristband in order to measure their EDA while watching their own lesson.</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-10">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0159023156-11">Experiencing stress</hd> <p>Teacher stress while teaching a lesson and while watching their recorded lesson was measured by assessing EDA continuously via a wristband that teachers wore while both teaching and watching their lesson. EDA consists of tonic and phasic components. Tonic components are influenced by background characteristics such as room temperature, whereas phasic components can be interpreted as specific stimuli responses (Boucsein et al. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref103">10</reflink>]; Braithwaite et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref104">11</reflink>]). Previous research has supported the notion that phasic EDA components correlate with the emotional arousal and attention gain triggered by specific events (Öhman et al. [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref105">63</reflink>]), and these, in turn, are associated with experienced stress (Hayes et al. [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref106">41</reflink>]; Waters et al. [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref107">87</reflink>]). We measured EDA with an E4 Empatica wristband that produces four values per second (sampling rate = 4 Hz). Because we wanted to assess situational stress responses of teachers, we concentrated on the phasic EDA components and ruled out possible sources of disturbance.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Strong variations in skin surface temperature (> 0.5°C) measured by the E4 Empatica could be ruled out, because no teacher showed significant variations throughout the course of their teaching lesson and their watching task.</item> <p></p> <item> Increases in EDA because of physical movements were controlled by subtracting accelerations (also measured by the E4 Empatica) from the EDA score. Both scores (acceleration and EDA) were <emph>z</emph>-standardized before this procedure.</item> <p></p> <item> Phasic components were isolated by transforming the movement-corrected EDA score into a phasic score as follows: Corrected values were transformed back to raw scores. Then, for each single EDA score of a teacher, medians of surrounding scores within a 4-second segment of ±2 around each single score resulting in a median of 16 scores were calculated and subtracted from each single score (iMotions [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref108">45</reflink>]) with Microsoft Excel 2019. This resulted in a standardized EDA base level of zero (see Figure 2). For further calculations and comparisons, the EDA scores were aggregated on a one-value-per-second level.</item> <p></p> <item> Individual differences in sweat secretion (Notley et al. [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref109">60</reflink>]) and general stress reactivity (Affleck et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref110">2</reflink>]) also influence deflections of phasic EDA scores. People with higher sweat secretion or higher stress reactivity also have higher amplitudes of phasic EDA scores. Therefore, a person's situational stress reactions manifest in high-peak phasic EDA scores that clearly exceed the average fluctuations of that person's phasic EDA scores. Considering these individual differences, we included a maximum of the 10 highest stress peaks for each person that were greater than three standard deviations above that person's mean value. This procedure ensured selecting only the most intense stress events for each teacher. This resulted in 78 events for stress while teaching and 58 for stress while watching, indicating that we could not find 10 stress situations for all teachers while teaching and watching.</item> </ulist> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Example of an EDA-measurement for a teacher while giving a lesson in its raw and transformed phasic form. Electrodermal activity (EDA) was measured in microsiemens (µs).</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-12">Recalling stress</hd> <p>Recall of the stress events that teachers had experienced while teaching was measured in each teacher while watching her or his recorded lesson. Teachers used a Trustmaster USB Joystick connected to a software called CARMA (<ulink href="http://carma.jmgirard.com/">http://carma.jmgirard.com/</ulink>). They were instructed to watch their recorded lesson from the teaching perspective, and to pull the joystick toward themselves when feeling relaxed and push it away when feeling stressed. The exact instruction was 'Please, watch this video of your own teaching. Try to re-experience the lesson as it was when you gave it. If you recall stress events, please push the joystick away from you. The more stressed you felt, the further away you should push the joystick. In the relaxed state, pull the joystick toward you.'</p> <p>The software CARMA produced one stress value per second (sampling rate = 1 Hz). To compare the profiles of the three conditions (experiencing stress while teaching, experiencing stress while watching, recalling stress while watching), the phasic stress curve was isolated for the joystick values in the same way as that used for the EDA values (iMotions [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref111">45</reflink>]) using Microsoft Excel 2019. Afterwards, we also looked for a maximum of 10 highest stress peaks within this condition that were greater than three standard deviations above a person's mean value. This resulted in the isolation of 69 stressful events while recalling.</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-13">Identification of interactional stressors</hd> <p>To measure what was happening during the stressful events of each teacher's lesson and while watching, we used a coding system developed as a mixture of the following deductive and inductive steps:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Four classes of elicitors were deduced from recent literature on teacher stress: (a) students' disruptive behavior, (b) students' low engagement and motivation (Buchanan [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref112">13</reflink>]; Clunies-Ross, Little, and Kienhuis [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref113">21</reflink>]; Greenglass and Burke [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref114">36</reflink>]; Klassen and Chiu [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref115">49</reflink>]; Kyriacou [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref116">52</reflink>]; Zhonghua and Chi-Kin Lee [<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref117">92</reflink>]), (c) teacher's time management (Zhonghua and Chi-Kin Lee [<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref118">92</reflink>]), and (d) teacher's cognitive overload through multiple communication queries or regulatory necessities (Roeser et al. [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref119">72</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> The stressful events identified during the videotaped lessons in each experimental condition containing four of the teachers (50% of the data) were described in terms of teachers' and students' verbal and nonverbal behavior in these specific situations.</item> <p></p> <item> On the basis of these interactional descriptions of four teachers, subcategories were extracted inductively for the four deductive stress categories. Moreover, one additional stressor could be identified that was not mentioned in previous literature. We labeled this 'teacher's uncertainty' (see Table 1). All stressful events that could not be categorized to a stressor were labeled as 'other'.</item> <p></p> <item> To validate the classification system of stressful events, three raters applied the classification to the identified stressful events in the remaining four teachers, not knowing which of the three conditions the events belong to. Krippendorff's alpha revealed a good interrater reliability of α =.93 across the three raters. In comparison to the first half of coded stressful events, an increase of events belonging to the category 'other' could be shown (teaching<subs>experience</subs> = 0 (first 50%), 2 (second 50%); watching<subs>experience</subs> = 2 (first 50%), 7 (second 50%); watching<subs>memory</subs> = 1 (first 50%), 8 (second 50%). This was mainly true for the two watching conditions, implying that there were further stress incidents that we had not been able to capture with the constructed classification system.</item> </ulist> <p>Table 1. Inductive-deductive coding system for stressful events.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Code</td><td>Category</td><td>Description</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1a</td><td>Students' disruptive behavior: No reaction</td><td>Student shows disruptive-disrespectful behavior, but teacher does not react.</td></tr><tr><td>1b</td><td>Students' disruptive behavior: Reaction</td><td>Student shows disruptive-disrespectful behavior. Teacher notices this and admonishes student.</td></tr><tr><td>1c</td><td>Students' disruptive behavior: Waiting</td><td>Several students behave loudly or chaotically. Teacher waits for students to be quiet.</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Students' low engagement and motivation</td><td>Teacher gives one or more instructions that are not or only partially followed by students.</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Teacher's time management: Lesson delay</td><td>Lesson is delayed through external events, individual teacher–student support situations, or student questions.</td></tr><tr><td>4a</td><td>Teacher's cognitive overload: Multiple communicative queries</td><td>Teacher receives several requests from students at the same time.</td></tr><tr><td>4b</td><td>Teacher's cognitive overload: Regulatory necessities while giving support</td><td>Teacher supports a student or study group and, in the meantime, notices that another group is getting louder or that certain students are showing disruptive-disrespectful behavior.</td></tr><tr><td>4c</td><td>Teacher's cognitive overload: Noticing several regulatory necessities</td><td>Teacher notices several regulatory necessities such as disruptive students or incorrectly processed tasks at the same time.</td></tr><tr><td>5a</td><td>Teacher's uncertainty: Lack of or negative student responsivity</td><td>Teacher talks, instructs, questions, or jokes, but receives no or negative (non)verbal feedback from students.</td></tr><tr><td>5b</td><td>Teacher's uncertainty: Teacher's mistake</td><td>Teacher talks about a mistake she or he has made or is making a mistake at that very moment.</td></tr><tr><td>5c</td><td>Teacher's uncertainty: Criticizing a student</td><td>Teacher criticizes a student but does not seem certain of this criticism.</td></tr><tr><td>99</td><td>Other</td><td>Teacher or students do something that cannot be assigned to Categories 1a to 5c and can also not be connected with potential causes of teacher stress.</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0159023156-14">Data analysis</hd> <p>The EDA and joystick data as well as their statistical corrections were processed with Microsoft Excel 2019. Statistical analyses were conducted with SPSS 25.</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-15">Participants</hd> <p>The sample consisted of eight German teachers (six female, two male), who taught 121 students with an average class size of around 15 students. Mean teacher age was 39.75 years (<emph>SD</emph> = 9.10 years) with a minimum of 29 and a maximum of 54 years. Four of the eight teachers worked in an elementary school, two in a German middle school Realschule, and two in a vocational college. Their work experience ranged from 2 to 24 years with an average of 12 years (<emph>SD</emph> = 7.57 years). Teachers were recruited through postal letters to a randomly selected set of schools within the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Four schools responded, and each provided two teachers who agreed to participate in the following procedure.</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-16">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0159023156-17">Time-related correlation of stress</hd> <p>A comparison of EDA scores between teachers revealed very individual stress curves in terms of their frequency and density (see Figure 3). This referred mainly to the extent of cardiovascular responsivity to stressors (Dawson, Schell, and Filion [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref120">24</reflink>]) and did not necessarily imply that some people experience more stress than others. Nonetheless, EDA scores could be compared across the different measurement conditions in each individual.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3. Visualization of phasic EDA scores and joystick scores during teaching and watching for each teacher.</p> <p>A comparison of EDA scores while teaching versus watching showed that stress events were more frequent and more intense during the teaching compared to the watching condition. However, recall of stress events in the watching condition was also quite intense and frequent.</p> <p>In a first attempt to compare the different measures, we looked for correlations between the three conditions. For each teacher, the correlations of stress scores between teaching (experience), watching (experience), and watching (recall) were smaller than <emph>r</emph> = (-).10 (see Table 2).</p> <p>Table 2. Correlations of phasic stress scores between teaching (experience) and watching (experience and memory) for each teacher.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>Teachers</td></tr><tr><td /><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1. <italic>r</italic>(teaching<sub>experience</sub> and watching<sub>experience</sub>)</td><td>>.01</td><td>.01</td><td>.02</td><td>.03</td><td>−.03</td><td>.04</td><td>−.01</td><td>>-.01</td></tr><tr><td>2. <italic>r(teaching<sub>experience</sub> and watching<sub>memory</sub>)</italic></td><td>−.01</td><td>−.02</td><td>−.01</td><td>−.02</td><td>−.01</td><td>>.01</td><td>.01</td><td>−.02</td></tr><tr><td>3. <italic>r(watching<sub>experience</sub> and watching<sub>memory</sub>)</italic></td><td>−.01</td><td>−.03</td><td>−.01</td><td>−.01</td><td>−.02</td><td>.01</td><td>−.02</td><td>.02</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 * <emph>p</emph> >.01.</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-18">Time-related concordance of the most stressful events</hd> <p>Although we could not find time-related correlations between stress events while teaching and watching, we analyzed whether at least the most stressful events chosen in the three conditions fell into the same timestamps (see Table 3). Even with the tolerance of a 20-second delay, only 13% of the stressful events while teaching (experience) and watching (experience), 11% of the stressful events while watching (experience) and watching (memory), as well as 10% of the stressful events while teaching (experience) and watching (memory), addressed the same interactional sequence.</p> <p>Table 3. Concordance of stressful events in percentage per teacher.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td /><td>Teacher</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Combination of conditions</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>Mean</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>.40</td><td>.00</td><td>.00</td><td>.20</td><td>.10</td><td>.10</td><td>.00</td><td>.20</td><td>.13</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>.10</td><td>.20</td><td>.10</td><td>.10</td><td>.00</td><td>.00</td><td>.10</td><td>.20</td><td>.11</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>.20</td><td>.20</td><td>.00</td><td>.10</td><td>.10</td><td>.10</td><td>.00</td><td>.20</td><td>.10</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 Note. Combination 1 = Experienced stress events while teaching with experienced stress events while watching. Combination 2 = Experienced stress events while teaching with recalled stress events while watching. Combination 3 = Experienced stress events while watching with recalled stress events while watching.</p> <p>We compared the occurrence time of overlaps between the three conditions. Results showed no significant differences in regard to the three combinations, <emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref121">14</reflink>) = 10.53, <emph>p</emph> =.722, <emph>φ</emph> = 0.62.</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-19">Content-related similarities between the most stressful events</hd> <p>Patterns of interaction between teachers and students during the most stressful events were analyzed and compared across the three conditions. At first, we generally looked at the number of stressors identified by the classification system (see Table 4). It was clear that stressors could be identified much more easily in the teaching condition than in the two watching conditions. A chi-square test revealed that the three conditions differed significantly in terms of how many stressors were identified, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref122">2</reflink>) = 7.61, <emph>p</emph> =.022, φ = 0.19.</p> <p>Table 4. Identified interactional stressors for the most stressful events while teaching and watching.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Stressor identified</td><td>Teaching (experience)</td><td>Watching (experience)</td><td>Watching (recall)</td><td>Total</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Yes</td><td>76 (97%)</td><td>49 (84%)</td><td>60 (87%)</td><td>185 (90%)</td></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>2 (3%)</td><td>9 (16%)</td><td>9 (13%)</td><td>20 (10%)</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>78</td><td>58</td><td>69</td><td>205</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Focusing on the main stressor categories and how they were distributed across the three conditions, the most frequently identified stressors were teacher's uncertainty, students' disruptive behavior, and teacher's time management (see Table 5). In particular, teacher's uncertainty and students' disruptive behavior were relevant stressors in all three conditions, whereas teacher's time management was a main stressor while teaching. However, a chi-square test revealed no significant differences in the occurrence of stressors between the three conditions, <emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref123">8</reflink>) = 8.97, <emph>p</emph> =.344, <emph>φ</emph> = 0.22.</p> <p>Table 5. Distribution of different stress categories across the three conditions.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Code</td><td>Category</td><td>Teaching (experience)</td><td>Watching (experience)</td><td>Watching (recall)</td><td>Total</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>Students' disruptive behavior</td><td>15 (20%)</td><td>16 (33%)</td><td>20 (33%)</td><td>51(25%)</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Students' low engagement and motivation</td><td>1 (1%)</td><td>2 (4%)</td><td>2 (3%)</td><td>5 (2%)</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Teacher's time management: Lesson delay</td><td>18 (24%)</td><td>5 (10%)</td><td>9 (15%)</td><td>32 (16%)</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Teacher's cognitive overload</td><td>8 (11%)</td><td>3 (6%)</td><td>7 (12%)</td><td>18 (9%)</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Teacher's uncertainty</td><td>34 (45%)</td><td>23 (47%)</td><td>22 (37%)</td><td>79 (39%)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Total</td><td>76 (100%)</td><td>49 (100%)</td><td>60 (100%)</td><td>205</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>When including the subcategories, the most common stressors that emerged in the teaching (experience) condition were teacher's uncertainty: teacher's mistake (20%), teacher's time management: lesson delay (19%), and teacher's uncertainty: lack of or negative student responsivity (10%). The most frequent stressors during watching (experience) were teacher's uncertainty: teacher's mistake (21%), students' disruptive behavior: no reaction (19%), and teacher's uncertainty: lack of or negative student responsivity (14%). Finally, the most common interactional categories during watching (remembering) were students' disruptive behavior: no reaction (17%), teacher's uncertainty: lack of or negative student responsivity (16%), and teacher's time management: lesson delay (13%). We also tested the concordance of stressors across the three conditions. Results showed that the three conditions did differ significantly when the subfacets were included, <emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref124">20</reflink>) = 25.41, <emph>p</emph> =.018, <emph>φ</emph> = 0.37.</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-20">Discussion</hd> <p>The aim of this study was to explore whether video feedback is an effective method for recalling or reactivating experiences of stressful events during teaching while watching the recording of the earlier lesson. The idea of video feedback is to use these reactivated experiences to elicit a mental reflection both on and for action (Schön [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref125">74</reflink>]; van Manen [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref126">84</reflink>]). Such an experientially grounded reflection can enhance the probability of changing the original appraisal patterns that elicited the stressful feelings and creating alternative teaching routines for coping successfully with these stressful events. This could, in turn, lead to a more positive perception of potential stressors as future challenges (Blascovich and Mendes [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref127">8</reflink>]; Lazarus and Folkman [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref128">54</reflink>]).</p> <p>In this exploratory study, evidence did not support the hypothesis that teachers in the watching condition would re-experience or recall the same situations as stressful as in the teaching condition. This finding was supported by the small convergence between the stress curves and the poor time-related overlap of situations experienced or labeled as stressful. Although similarities in situational stress characteristics could be found (e.g., recalling one's own uncertainty), teachers who watched their lessons again also seemed to experience new stress when discovering unnoticed disruptions and disrespectful behavior. These new discoveries could be related to the release from the pressure to act and respond immediately (Altrichter and Posch [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref129">3</reflink>]; Wyss [<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref130">91</reflink>]). This liberation may change the attentional focus, so that the teachers as observers tend to focus more on events that are not necessarily related to their teaching actions. At the same time, experiencing a discrepancy between an actor and observer perspective may cause a different kind of shame – for example, through the perception of nonresponsiveness as a sign of failed teaching (Raymond, Dowrick, and Kleinke [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref131">67</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-21">Further directions</hd> <p>The results provide some initial evidence that video feedback is not an accurate method with which to recall or reactivate stressful events experienced while teaching in the intended way. However, watching their own lessons on video still seems to provide great potential for teachers' professional development. Indeed, the effectiveness of self-videography with subsequent video analysis has already been proven several times. For example, Sherin and van Es ([<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref132">77</reflink>]) were able to show that analyzing their own lessons in video clubs promoted teachers' professional vision. Moreover, video feedback was shown to be more effective than external observations of lessons combined with subsequent verbal feedback (Weber et al. [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref133">88</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref134">89</reflink>]). Additionally, they found that video feedback is most useful when additional expert feedback is provided (Prilop, Weber, and Kleinknecht [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref135">66</reflink>]). Because video feedback can stimulate professional development, it can promote teachers' well-being indirectly when working on specific topics such as classroom management even when teachers do not have any information about their stress levels while teaching.</p> <p>To work directly on stress while teaching in terms of a reflection on action and reflection for action (Schön [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref136">74</reflink>]; van Manen [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref137">84</reflink>]), the most promising solution seems to be to combine biofeedback (Khazan [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref138">48</reflink>]) via an EDA wristband with video feedback (Pinter, East, and Thrush [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref139">64</reflink>]; Weber et al. [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref140">88</reflink>]). When teachers can see the course of their EDA stress level while also watching their own recorded teaching, they may become able to reflect on their stress reactions by recalling the stressful events and their corresponding thoughts and feelings. One prerequisite for such a procedure would be a retrospective acceptance of one's own stress experience, especially in threatening social situations (Li et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref141">55</reflink>]), as well as a stable self-esteem (Ritchie, Sedikides, and Skowronski [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref142">69</reflink>]). Nonetheless, empirical studies still have to be conducted on the effectiveness of biofeedback combined with video feedback for treating teacher stress.</p> <p>Moreover, it would be interesting to examine which stressors can be analyzed best by a combination of bio and video feedback. At the same time, it is also necessary to consider personal characteristics (e.g., self-efficacy beliefs, personality traits such as neuroticism) that could contribute to either the experience of stressors or the coping process.</p> <hd id="AN0159023156-22">Limitations</hd> <p>Aside from the present findings, methodological limitations have to be kept in mind. Results are based on the stress paths of eight teachers while teaching and watching their own teaching. Therefore, future research should address a larger sample in order to replicate the different patterns of stress identified here. Such an approach could provide more information about the incidence of the stress patterns that we found.</p> <p>Additionally, the classification system of stressful events, which was created and applied in a deductive–inductive process, does not seem to cover all stressful events during teaching and watching a lesson. Although the categories covered a large part of stress events, some events were not assignable, especially in the two watching conditions. More research is still needed on the reasons why teachers are stressed while viewing their own lessons.</p> <p>Finally, we did not assess individual covariates that could moderate the relationship between the teaching and watching condition. For example, teachers who have an increased desire for positive impression management (Preves and Stephenson [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref143">65</reflink>]) may pay more attention to their own appearance and mistakes than others while watching their own lesson. Additionally, teachers who have a greater self-awareness (Sun et al. [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref144">80</reflink>]) may be more likely than others to have experienced that their stress level was increased in certain situations while teaching. Disregarding these covariates may have lowered the correlation between the teaching and watching conditions. Furthermore, we cannot safely rule out that the task of the teachers – namely, to assess their original stress level with the joystick – could have distracted them from the emotional experience of the video. Nonetheless, both the high fit between the classification and the EDA peaks of stressful events in the teaching condition as well as the discrepancies between the two watching conditions are evidence of an independent stress experience while watching the video compared to teaching.</p> <p>In summary, this article presents some first results on the practical use of video feedback for re-experiencing and recalling stressful events while observing previous teaching. Further research is needed to validate and differentiate our findings. 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Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1367499
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Teaching versus Watching? Using Video Feedback to Counter Teacher Stress
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Junker%2C+Robin%22">Junker, Robin</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8558-2131">0000-0001-8558-2131</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Holodynski%2C+Manfr%22">Holodynski, Manfr</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4791-4948">0000-0002-4791-4948</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Teacher+Development%22"><i>Teacher Development</i></searchLink>. 2022 26(4):472-491.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 20
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2022
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Junior+High+Schools%22">Junior High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Middle+Schools%22">Middle Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Feedback+%28Response%29%22">Feedback (Response)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Variables%22">Stress Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Video+Technology%22">Video Technology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Conditions%22">Teaching Conditions</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Recall+%28Psychology%29%22">Recall (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Measurement+Techniques%22">Measurement Techniques</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Peripherals%22">Computer Peripherals</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Coping%22">Coping</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Student+Relationship%22">Teacher Student Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Identification%22">Identification</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Faculty+Development%22">Faculty Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Middle+School+Teachers%22">Middle School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Teachers%22">Elementary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Vocational+Education+Teachers%22">Vocational Education Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physiology%22">Physiology</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Germany%22">Germany</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/13664530.2022.2089221
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1366-4530<br />1747-5120
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The stressors of teaching can be individual and hard to identify. Merely recalling stressful events after a lesson can be biased by neglect, modification, or extenuation of memories. Therefore, the present study explores how video data can be used to reactivate or relive stressor memory. Eight teachers' lessons were recorded while their stress was assessed through electrodermal activity (EDA). Teachers then watched their recorded lessons retrospectively while EDA was measured once more but they were additionally asked to use a joystick to indicate when they recalled being stressed during their lesson. Results show that teachers in the watching condition did not re-experience or recall the same situations as stressful as in the teaching condition. They indicate that video feedback can be used as a tool for coping with stressful teaching events only if teachers are also provided with information about their actual stress level during teaching. The implications of these results are discussed.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2023
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1367499
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1367499
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/13664530.2022.2089221
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 20
        StartPage: 472
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Feedback (Response)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Stress Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Video Technology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teaching Conditions
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Recall (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Measurement Techniques
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Computer Peripherals
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Coping
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Student Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Identification
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Faculty Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Middle School Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Vocational Education Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Physiology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Germany
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Teaching versus Watching? Using Video Feedback to Counter Teacher Stress
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Junker, Robin
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Holodynski, Manfr
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2022
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1366-4530
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1747-5120
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 26
            – Type: issue
              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Teacher Development
              Type: main
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