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A Developmental Model for International Students and Multiple Ecologies

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Title: A Developmental Model for International Students and Multiple Ecologies
Language: English
Authors: Paul M. Garton (ORCID 0000-0001-6889-0570), Adam Grimm, Sehee Kim
Source: New Directions for Higher Education. 2023 (204):35-45.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 11
Publication Date: 2023
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Descriptive
Descriptors: Foreign Students, Ecology, Models, Student Experience, Acculturation, Systems Approach, Social Justice, School Orientation, Worksheets, Decision Making
DOI: 10.1002/he.20487
ISSN: 0271-0560
1536-0741
Abstract: Traditional ecological models are promising for making sense of international student experiences, but the assumed monolithic nature of the structuring systems is inadequate for explaining development that occurs across multiple systems. We present and expand a model called the Spanning Systems Model that recognizes multiple ecologies. The model organizes ecologies in terms of home and host countries, arguing the systems are in some ways independent and in others intertwined. Student experiences are thus structured by both the systems in which the school is located as well as the systems from which the student is coming. Conceptualizing ecologies in this manner shifts the goal of a successful transition into higher education away from acculturation and towards a more complex, case-specific project of identifying areas of alignment and contradiction and tailoring experiences to each student's unique ecologies.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1413230
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0175567803;ndh01dec.23;2024Feb23.04:43;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0175567803-1">A developmental model for international students and multiple ecologies </title> <sbt id="AN0175567803-2">INTRODUCTION</sbt> <p>Traditional ecological models are promising for making sense of international student experiences, but the assumed monolithic nature of the structuring systems is inadequate for explaining development that occurs across multiple systems. We present and expand a model called the Spanning Systems Model that recognizes multiple ecologies. The model organizes ecologies in terms of home and host countries, arguing the systems are in some ways independent and in others intertwined. Student experiences are thus structured by both the systems in which the school is located as well as the systems from which the student is coming. Conceptualizing ecologies in this manner shifts the goal of a successful transition into higher education away from acculturation and towards a more complex, case‐specific project of identifying areas of alignment and contradiction and tailoring experiences to each student's unique ecologies. Practical Takeaways: This expanded ecological model is intended to theoretically explain development for students whose experiences cross multiple ecologies, for example, multiple countries. While originally designed for international students, the model is applicable to any student with formative experiences in different macrosystems, like study abroad, or some first‐generation students.Academic, faculty, and career advisors who regularly work with international students should make a concerted effort to understand the different ecologies of each student. Rather than presenting an ideal model for acculturation into US higher education, advisors can use this model to identify alignments and contradictions and plan accordingly.New student orientations for international students can use this model as an organizing device. For example, potential contradictions between ecologies, like academic integrity and intellectual property rights, can be presented to students in the context of a holistic discussion around the rights‐based justice system in the United States.The model can be given directly to students as a worksheet to help make sense of their experiences and frame their thinking. Students can fill in directly the different systems in which they are situated and can begin to make decisions about how they can make changes.</p> <p>Macro forces fundamentally shape enrollment patterns and direct experiences of international students. In a world defined by both interconnectivity and spatial inequality (Florida, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref1">12</reflink>]), students often feel compelled to cross national borders to pursue postsecondary education. The number of international students enrolled in the United States is just under 1 million, a 3.8% increase from 2021 to 2022 (Institute of International Education, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref2">17</reflink>]). The growth in enrollments, while consistent over the last 20 years relative to overall enrollments, has not been as rapid recently, and some years even saw decreases in the number of enrolled international students. The reasons for the shifts in enrollment trends are well‐documented, including US political regimes (Bicak & Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref3">4</reflink>]) and COVID‐19 (Buckner et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref4">8</reflink>]), both macro forces.</p> <p>Societal level factors affect not only initial enrollments but the student experience as well (Koo & Nyunt, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref5">21</reflink>]; Quinton, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref6">29</reflink>]). Many studies examine initial enrollments and student experiences as separate questions using separate theoretical frameworks. An ecological framework can explain these changes in totality, offering a holistic picture of a student's postsecondary experience so that educators can best serve international students in ways that are applicable and validating. We present such a model here, called the Spanning Systems Model, building off previous work (Garton et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref7">14</reflink>]) that in turn was revising Bronfenbrenner's ([[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref8">5</reflink>]]) seminal ecological model. This work was initiated by an attempt to create a model appropriate for international students, but we believe it to have explanatory power for any student who exists across multiple systems of home and school communities.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NDH/01dec23/he20487-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMMvl7ESepq84yOvsOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="he20487-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 Spanning systems model—context." /> </p> <p></p> <p>Bronfenbrenner ([[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref9">5</reflink>]]) posited four components that shape development: context, process, person, and time. <emph>Context</emph> is the most recognizable component of the theory, well known for its nested systems (see Chapter 1). The student is located at the center, creating an egocentric model. Around the student is a variety of <emph>microsystems</emph>, comprised of those people and organizations the student interacts with directly. The <emph>mesosystem</emph> is made up of interactions between the different microsystems that do not involve direct interactions with the student. For example, if a student's older sibling attends a university, that student is more likely to attend that same university, even though the sibling's interaction with the university largely did not involve the student. Next is the <emph>exosystem</emph>, which encompasses and structures the mesosystem. The exosystem is made up of the overarching organizations and policies that do not directly involve the student, like state and federal policies or higher education system offices. Finally, the <emph>macrosystem</emph> structures all the systems within and includes the values, norms, and mores of the culture.</p> <p>An ecological framework like Bronfenbrenner's offers a powerful tool to make sense of international student development and to organize support and educational experiences in such a way as to be connected to the student's prior knowledge and goals and to validate cultural values and ways of knowing. The model as written, however, is insufficient for the circumstances of geographically mobile students. Using our earlier model as a point of departure, we build upon Spanning Systems through a literature review on international student development to propose an ecological model pertinent to today's students.</p> <hd id="AN0175567803-4">CRITIQUES OF CURRENT DEVELOPMENT MODELS</hd> <p>Existing student development models are inadequate for international students for three main reasons. First, most of the historically popular models like Chickering and Reiser's seven vectors of identity ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>]) or Kohlberg's moral development theory ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref11">20</reflink>]) were created using highly selective samples, primarily white students from the United States (Patton et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref12">28</reflink>]). Our model is intended to be inclusive and malleable to align with varied student experiences, identities, and backgrounds.</p> <p>Second, international students share some experiences, like the process of applying for an F‐1 visa, but as a group is enormously diverse, thus simply crafting a model built around those limited shared experiences would be severely restrictive. There are enrolled international students in the United States from more than 200 countries representing every inhabited continent (Institute of International Education, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref13">17</reflink>]). Even within countries, students' backgrounds and experiences take on innumerably different characteristics (Heng, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref14">16</reflink>]). Prescriptive models that outline a specific path forward and suggest limited prerequisites to attain that forward momentum is therefore likely to be inappropriate to apply to all international students simply due to the vast diversity of the population. Ecological frameworks address this critique in some ways by avoiding linear conceptualizations of where students should be and how to get there, instead pointing to the types of things that matter, while allowing space for creativity in considering what that means for any particular student (see Chapter 1).</p> <p>Finally, while Bronfenbrenner's model offers some solutions to these problems, most of the formulations and revisions of Bronfenbrenner's model fail to capture how international students move both between and within different systems. The macrosystem is conceptualized as structuring all the systems below it and is comprised of the values of the culture. Many international students, however, are simultaneously existing within multiple cultures, thus multiple macrosystems. For example, the macrosystem of the United States if one treats the nation‐state as a point of delineation between systems is made up of individualistic values and a human rights‐based framework of justice. A student who has spent their entire life in a collectivist culture is coming from a macrosystem structured around and by the values associated with that collectivism. As student exists in the US higher education system, many of their experiences are shaped by interactions with people and organizations structured by the US macrosystem, which is not collectivist in nature. At the same time, however, the student is still drawing heavily from and being affected by the macrosystem of their home country. This interplay between systems and the process of existing simultaneously across multiple systems is what we call spanning systems.</p> <hd id="AN0175567803-5">SPANNING SYSTEMS MODEL</hd> <p>To address the unique challenges and opportunities faced by international students, we proposed the Spanning Systems Model (Garton et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref15">14</reflink>]) (see Figure 1). This model consists of multiple ecologies, including home and host ecologies, as well as additional contexts if applicable to the particular student. As the nation‐state construct continues to play a significant role in mediating and directing the globalization of higher education, we consider the ecology as being delineated by the nation‐state. Each ecology consists of its own microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. An international student is positioned between the ecologies, with a foot placed at the center of each microsystem. This model emphasizes that international students simultaneously exist in multiple ecologies, which are independent yet interconnected.</p> <p>Developing across these ecologies shapes the trajectories of transnational persons (i.e., international students) (Shahjahan & Grimm, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref16">32</reflink>]). International students encounter developmental influences in both their home and host ecologies. As our model is based on the egocentric ecological framework championed by Bronfenbrenner and others, we posit that in the case of each person, the interplay among different systems is facilitated by the connections made by the individual at the center, whether through spatial mobility, technology connectivity, or a personal blending of cultural elements. In other words, the spanning systems approach allows scholars and practitioners to locate individual developing human beings within complex and evolving systems and processes in order to better understand how these contexts contour their trajectories. In previous work (Garton et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref17">14</reflink>]) we more fully explained the context component of our model. Here we summarize that work and expand upon Bronfenbrenner's other components of an ecological framework (process, person, and time) and elucidate how these are operationalized in the Spanning Systems Model.</p> <hd id="AN0175567803-6">Context</hd> <p>International students interact directly with various <emph>microsystems</emph> in the host country, including academic, social, and professional settings, which shape their experiences and learning. Additionally, they maintain their personal and professional relationships in their home countries (Kline & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref18">19</reflink>]; Lee & Kartika, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref19">24</reflink>]; Ye, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref20">39</reflink>]). These relationships provide important emotional and social support, as well as professional networks and opportunities.</p> <p>The m<emph>esosystem</emph>, which is formed by the relationships between microsystems, highlights how the interactions within one microsystem can influence interactions with other microsystems. In the Spanning Systems Model, experiences and influences encountered in one microsystem can extend their effects to other microsystems, even when they exist in separate ecologies. For example, an international student's engagement in the academic microsystem in the host country can have an impact on their interactions within their social or professional microsystems, whether they are in the same ecology or different ecologies. These interactions across microsystems in different ecologies create a <emph>shared mesosystem</emph> across all the ecologies, emphasizing the interdependence of the different ecologies and their impact on the development and experiences of international students.</p> <p>International students are influenced by the host and home country <emph>exosystems</emph> that do not directly involve the developing individual but still affect their day‐to‐day development trajectories such as immigration policies and workplaces of family members. Furthermore, as transnationals, international students bring their own cultural and sociohistorical backgrounds (i.e., home country <emph>macrosystem</emph>) into the host country macrosystem. Exposure to both macrosystems shapes how they make meaning of their experiences, navigate cultural differences, and develop their identities.</p> <p>The Spanning Systems Model extends Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory by introducing the concept of the <emph>chrono‐geosystem</emph>. While the chronosystem in Bronfenbrenner's theory focuses on the influence of time on development, international students' experiences encompass not only temporal changes but also transitions and mobility across diverse geographical contexts. To recognize the interplay between time and geographic space, the Spanning Systems Model incorporates the chrono‐geosystem. By acknowledging that international students navigate various transitions throughout their educational journey, encompassing both temporal and geographical dimensions, the model highlights how specific temporal and geographic contexts shape their experiences, interactions, and overall development.</p> <hd id="AN0175567803-7">Process</hd> <p>Whereas context describes the environment in which the student exists, the <emph>process</emph> component of the ecological model focuses on the interactions between the student and the environment, that is, the process of learning. A substantial amount of literature on international students' interactions with their environments during postsecondary education focuses on acculturation and adjustment. Early research on the topic adopted a medically‐oriented lens, studying the concept of culture shock as physical manifestations of stressors students experienced when fully immersed in a different system (Zhou et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref21">41</reflink>]). Current consensus tends to consider adjustment in terms of a combination of psychological and sociocultural factors (Zhou et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref22">41</reflink>]), based largely on Ward et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref23">36</reflink>]) acculturation model. Ward et al. ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref24">36</reflink>]) point to society‐level and individual‐level factors that interact in shaping outcomes as a result of intercultural contact. These factors are not static across time, instead changing in the degree they affect acculturation as the student moves through their educational experiences (Aladegbaiye et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref25">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>Our Spanning Systems Model complicates the narrative around acculturation, however. Acculturation refers to a total shift or a total process of un/becoming. This process can be either a total shift into the host culture or a shift into a unique blend of host and home cultures (Zhou, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref26">41</reflink>]). The Spanning Systems Model tells a different story. Students are not necessarily totally assimilating into the host culture, or perfectly blending two cultures into a third, unique culture. Instead, students are cutting across cultures, in some ways blended, in other ways separate. This approach recognizes students' autonomy in how they interact with their environments. Furthermore, the chrono‐geosystem offers a framework to consider how time and space play a role in a student's willingness to engage in processes of acculturation. For example, a student who is relatively close to their home country might be more interested in learning cultural nuances for the purpose of securing a job after graduation. Another student with familial obligations who is relatively far from their home country might be less likely to fully engage with the host country's systems, as they may plan on returning to their home country following graduation.</p> <p>A related strain of literature on the process of development focuses on the use of culturally relevant pedagogy when teaching international students. Similar to the Spanning Systems Model, culturally relevant pedagogy does not seek to replace a student's culture, instead finding connections between the curriculum and student experiences in a way that introduces new learning while validating existing cultural knowledge. Originally designed for K‐12 classrooms, culturally relevant pedagogy is an approach to teaching and learning in which content is made directly applicable to students' experiences, draws connections to students' communities beyond the physical classroom, and validates the cultural knowledge students' already hold (Ladson‐Billings, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref27">23</reflink>]). Culturally responsive pedagogy has great potential for improving socio‐emotional outcomes and student engagement among international students (Khoo & Huo, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref28">18</reflink>]; Yeh et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref29">40</reflink>]). Taking a spanning systems approach to development necessitates providing students with opportunities to tie the curriculum and co‐curriculum to their home systems. For example, a residence hall director could host seminars discussing current events across the world with invited faculty speakers from relevant disciplines. Students could then tie together their own disciplinary and cultural knowledge in direct applications to problems facing their home systems.</p> <hd id="AN0175567803-8">Person</hd> <p>The <emph>person</emph> component encompasses the personal characteristics that individuals bring with them to social and educational settings (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref30">6</reflink>]; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref31">7</reflink>]; Tudge et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref32">35</reflink>]). These characteristics include a wide range of attributes, such as personal identities (e.g., gender, race, and nationality), previous education and experience, knowledge and skills, as well as mental, social, and material resources. Each person possesses a unique set of characteristics, and their intersection shapes the individual's experiences and development as part of the process component (Renn, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref33">30</reflink>]).</p> <p>While the challenges faced by international students when they move and integrate into a new environment have been well‐documented (e.g., Lee & Rice, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref34">25</reflink>]; Sherry et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref35">33</reflink>]; Wu et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref36">38</reflink>]), their personal characteristics also influence their interactions with the contextual environments beyond the difficulties associated with transnational mobility. For example, systemic forces based on socially constructed identities such as race/ethnicity and nationality affect international students' daily lives in the host community. Research has shown international students from Western and English‐speaking countries have reported little or less experience of discrimination and violation compared to those from other regions (Hanassab, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref37">15</reflink>]; Lee & Rice, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref38">25</reflink>]). In addition, English fluency and foreign accents, which often intersect with racial and ethnic backgrounds, can also influence how international students are treated (Bernstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref39">3</reflink>]; Ee, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref40">11</reflink>]).</p> <p>Personal characteristics influence the process component, shaping interactions between international students and their microsystems. Previous exposure to similar contexts or transitions can facilitate the process of adaptation and make the transition smoother (Krsmanovic, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref41">22</reflink>]; Lee & Kartika, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref42">24</reflink>]). Even among students sharing similar backgrounds, individuals may cope with challenges in different ways due to variations in their propensity and attitude toward challenges. For instance, studies have found international students' willingness to seek social and institutional support, such as cultural enclaves, academic advisors, and student services, can contribute to their psychological and cultural adaptation (Li & Middlemiss, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref43">26</reflink>]; Shu et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref44">34</reflink>]; Ye, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref45">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>By acknowledging and theorizing host and home ecologies (as well as any additional related ecologies a student may be a part of) as both independent and interconnected, the Spanning Systems Model allows for proper attention to be given to the systems in the home ecology, which, despite being physically distant, still have a continuous and substantial effect on international students' experiences in the host systems. Home ecologies serve as a resource pool from which international students obtain social (e.g., personal and professional networks), cultural (e.g., social/cultural norms and values), and material resources (e.g., financial support and professional development opportunities). The resource pool differs for each individual, and access to resources and the extent to which they rely on the resource pool vary among people. Furthermore, how international students incorporate their previous experience and knowledge to navigate their new environment depends on their intellectual and emotional tendencies.</p> <hd id="AN0175567803-9">Time</hd> <p>Later formations of the ecological model give significant importance to time and consider it in three different dimensions: micro, meso, and macro. Micro‐time refers to the occurrences within specific episodes of proximal processes. Meso‐time examines the duration of these processes in an individual's environment, spanning from days to years. Macro‐time, also known as the chronosystem, emphasizes the changing expectations within broader cultural contexts. It operates within and across generations, influencing proximal processes throughout a person's entire lifespan (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref46">7</reflink>]). Although Bronfenbrenner himself did not extensively discuss the chronosystem, other scholars have expanded on time as an important component within the ecological systems perspective. For example, in addition to denoting that development occurs within a particular historical context (i.e., events unfolding over time that have developmental consequences), Bühler and Nikitin ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref47">9</reflink>]) argued for disentangling contextual and age‐related influences to understand development within a <emph>sociohistorical</emph> context. This disentangling involves examining how broader social and historical factors, such as cultural shifts, social movements, or policy changes, shape individuals' experiences and developmental trajectories. Though undergoing similar sets of experiences, (i.e., attending university), cohorts engaging at different times inevitably navigate divergent trajectories relative to the sociohistorical context. These influences may extend beyond an individual's immediate context and impact entire populations. Our notion of a Chrono‐<emph>geo‐</emph>system emphasizes temporal shifts reverberate globally and highlights the shifting (nonlinear) expectations and priorities of an interconnected world, allowing us to position an individual's development journey within broader geopolitical processes. For example, COVID‐19 was a historic pandemic that restricted movement across a certain period of time, thus altering international students' experiences. Movement also came to be restricted to different degrees in different geographic locations depending upon local exosystems of politics and viral severity, for example, Whatley & Castiello‐Gutiérrez ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref48">37</reflink>]). The chrono‐geosystem structured macrosystems and exosystems at different points of time and space.</p> <p>The nature of one's developmental experiences is shaped both by previous experiences as well as presently‐held expectations for days and years to come. Aspirations for a brighter future often drive decisions to pursue education outside of one's home country (Beine et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref49">2</reflink>]; Findlay et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref50">13</reflink>]). These decisions, however, are not neutral. Shahjahan and Edwards ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref51">31</reflink>]) argued, "Present global dominance projects White institutional models as the evolutionary superior and the desirable educational future" (p. 750). Thus, (possible) study destinations are "informed by emotional and imaginative futures" (Shahjahan & Grimm, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref52">32</reflink>], p. 293), whereby some destinations are determined to be more <emph>worthy</emph> than others. Experiences and expectations change over time (micro, meso, and macro) through both distal and proximal processes before, during, and after a student's "time" in a particular study destination. The COVID‐19 pandemic, for example, affected students' daily routines and nature of their degree programs, as well as the (perceived) long‐term value of their time away as the desirability of attaining a degree in certain host countries eroded and the employment market shifted in response to pandemic policies.</p> <hd id="AN0175567803-10">PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERNATIONAL EDUCATORS</hd> <p>The Spanning Systems Model is meant to be much more than a thought exercise on the college experience. We believe it can be a valuable tool for all educators in postsecondary education who work with students crossing multiple systems. One educational role where we believe this model could be particularly useful is in advising. Academic, faculty, and career advisors can use the model on a case‐by‐case basis when working with students (see Liu & Renn, in press). The model does not prescribe where students should be but instead gives tools to make sense of experiences and find sources of tension or contradictions between systems. The student and educator can then work together to develop a plan that will set the student up for success as defined by the student and the student's unique systems, not the systems exclusively of the host country.</p> <p>International offices can also use the model to organize new student orientations. Orientations for international students are often a mix of surface‐level socio‐cultural integration and training required by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Rather than running through a checklist, educators can use this model to structure orientations in a way that takes spanning systems into consideration while still meeting the immigration requirements. For example, academic integrity sessions are common in international student orientations to present the norms associated with plagiarism in the United States. An orientation designed using the Spanning Systems Model might situate this session by first explaining ideas of intellectual property, which is tied to US values of property rights. Appropriate citation practices can then be demonstrated as a way to respect intellectual property in the US context, while acknowledging this is not the only way to share knowledge.</p> <p>Finally, with some revisions based on the needs of the moment, the model can be given directly to international students as a metacognitive exercise. For example, during orientation, educators could give a blank copy of Figure 1 to students to fill out. This activity will help students make sense of their own experiences and expectations as they consider the different macrosystems they are a part of, how these macrosystems structure different exosystems, or how they want their own microsystems to interact with each other and steps they can take to ensure those interactions take place. Students can then use this framework throughout their time in postsecondary education to understand and plan their development, exerting autonomy and ensuring they remain true to the cultural values and mores they wish to uphold.</p> <hd id="AN0175567803-11">AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS</hd> <p>Paul Garton contributed through project administration, conceptualization, writing original draft, writing review, and editing. Adam Grimm contributed through conceptualization, writing original draft, writing review, and editing. Sehee Kim contributed through conceptualization, writing original draft, writing review, and editing.</p> <ref id="AN0175567803-12"> <title> REFERENCES </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref25" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Aladegbaiye, A. T., De Jong, M. D. T., & Beldad, A. (2022). How international students' acculturation motivation develops over time in an international learning environment: A longitudinal study. Journal of International Students, 12 (2), 510 – 530. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v12i2.3642</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref49" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Beine, M., Noel, R., & Ragot, L. (2014). Determinants of the international mobility of students. Economics of Education Review, 41, 40 – 54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2014.03.003</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref39" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Bernstein, K. S., Park, S. Y., Shin, J., Cho, S., & Park, Y. (2011). 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Garton; Adam Grimm and Sehee Kim</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Paul Garton is assistant professor of educational leadership and policy analysis at East Tennessee State University.</p> <p>Adam Grimm is a post‐doctoral associate at Michigan State University.</p> <p>Sehee Kim is a management research analyst principal at Arizona State University.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref51"></nolink>
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  Data: A Developmental Model for International Students and Multiple Ecologies
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Paul+M%2E+Garton%22">Paul M. Garton</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6889-0570">0000-0001-6889-0570</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Adam+Grimm%22">Adam Grimm</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sehee+Kim%22">Sehee Kim</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22New+Directions+for+Higher+Education%22"><i>New Directions for Higher Education</i></searchLink>. 2023 (204):35-45.
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  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
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  Data: 11
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  Data: 2023
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Descriptive
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Students%22">Foreign Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ecology%22">Ecology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Models%22">Models</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Experience%22">Student Experience</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Acculturation%22">Acculturation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Systems+Approach%22">Systems Approach</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Justice%22">Social Justice</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Orientation%22">School Orientation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Worksheets%22">Worksheets</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Decision+Making%22">Decision Making</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1002/he.20487
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  Data: 0271-0560<br />1536-0741
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  Data: Traditional ecological models are promising for making sense of international student experiences, but the assumed monolithic nature of the structuring systems is inadequate for explaining development that occurs across multiple systems. We present and expand a model called the Spanning Systems Model that recognizes multiple ecologies. The model organizes ecologies in terms of home and host countries, arguing the systems are in some ways independent and in others intertwined. Student experiences are thus structured by both the systems in which the school is located as well as the systems from which the student is coming. Conceptualizing ecologies in this manner shifts the goal of a successful transition into higher education away from acculturation and towards a more complex, case-specific project of identifying areas of alignment and contradiction and tailoring experiences to each student's unique ecologies.
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  Data: 2024
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      – SubjectFull: Foreign Students
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      – SubjectFull: Student Experience
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      – SubjectFull: Acculturation
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      – SubjectFull: Social Justice
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      – TitleFull: A Developmental Model for International Students and Multiple Ecologies
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            NameFull: Sehee Kim
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