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Why Is There a Picture of Me on Snapchat?: Educational Approaches to Overposting

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Title: Why Is There a Picture of Me on Snapchat?: Educational Approaches to Overposting
Language: English
Authors: Gulhan C. Sari, Daniel G. Krutka (ORCID 0000-0003-1261-4838), Ryan M. Smits
Source: TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning. 2024 68(4):682-692.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 11
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Evaluative
Descriptors: Social Media, Personal Autonomy, Participation, Self Disclosure (Individuals), Computer Mediated Communication, Bullying, Stakeholders, Sharing Behavior, Interpersonal Relationship
DOI: 10.1007/s11528-024-00970-1
ISSN: 8756-3894
1559-7075
Abstract: Social media platforms have transformed how students and educators "share" information about school experiences. In this paper, we translate Leah Plunkett's sharenting concept (a portmanteau of "share" and "parent") to address the phenomenon of "overposting" in education. Overposting (a portmanteau of "overreach" and "post") designates the digital distribution of information about others that is invasive, harmful, exploitative, or illegal. We describe instances where students or teachers post about others on social media in ways that are illegal, invasive, harmful, or exploitative. Examples of overposting range from cyberbullying to sharing photos or videos of others' without their permission, including from school accounts. We conclude by offering an educational approach to address overposting through education, conversation, and negotiation among students, teachers, and administrators.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1433220
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0178777351;ttr01jul.24;2024Aug05.04:57;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0178777351-1">Why is There a Picture of Me on Snapchat?: Educational Approaches to Overposting </title> <p>Social media platforms have transformed how students and educators "share" information about school experiences. In this paper, we translate Leah Plunkett's sharenting concept (a portmanteau of share and parent) to address the phenomenon of overposting in education. Overposting (a portmanteau of overreach and post) designates the digital distribution of information about others that is invasive, harmful, exploitative, or illegal. We describe instances where students or teachers post about others on social media in ways that are illegal, invasive, harmful, or exploitative. Examples of overposting range from cyberbullying to sharing photos or videos of others' without their permission, including from school accounts. We conclude by offering an educational approach to address overposting through education, conversation, and negotiation among students, teachers, and administrators.</p> <p>Keywords: Educational Technology; FERPA; Social media; Student privacy; Teacher privacy; Technoethics</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-2">Introduction</hd> <p>"Why is there a picture of me on your phone?!""It's not a big deal, Mrs. B.""It is a big deal, I didn't give you the right to take my photo. Why is there a picture of me on your phone?!""It's just from Snapchat.""Snapchat?! Why is there a picture of me on Snapchat?!"</p> <p>The above conversation occurred in one of our colleagues' classrooms. During a physics lesson, a student snapped a picture that was quickly uploaded to Snapchat where her friends, acquaintances, and strangers throughout a large Texas high school network were able to view it as platform algorithms nudged it into their feeds. Later the student revealed that she had shared numerous pictures and videos of her teaching—she felt violated. The zany catchphrases that she used to teach physical concepts were intended for an intimate and shared class experience, but when images and videos from her classroom were extracted and posted without context or consent, she felt like a joke to the school. Most students who viewed the Snap were not part of the class experiences and the context around that moment was stripped away. Even though Snapchat stories fade away more than posts on other platforms, her feelings about the experience have not faded.</p> <p>While it is easy to blame students for irresponsibly posting media without consent, we believe this story raises questions about whether educators—and the profession more broadly—have taken the necessary steps to enact the policies, cultures, and educational experiences needed to respond to the emerging digital ecosystem. In this paper, we highlight and clarify the problem as <emph>overposting</emph>, which we define as the digital distribution of information about others that is invasive, harmful, exploitative, or illegal. We then offer educational approaches to mitigate these social media downsides. We draw on Plunkett's ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref1">35</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref2">36</reflink>]) theoretical work concerning the problem of adults' social media <emph>sharenting</emph>—problematic sharing of images, information, and data with people and companies—and translate her categories to problems of overposting in the context of education. We conclude by offering a three-part approach intended to address policies, practices, and pedagogies for educators seeking to confront overposting problems and create healthier social media and school environments for students and educators.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-3">Theory and Literature</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0178777351-4">The Overposting Problem</hd> <p>Social media has changed what it means to <emph>share</emph>, including in the context of education. In contrast to passing notes and spoken stories, social media creates a different type of "sharing" that is often decontextualized, lacking the nuance of in-person exchanges, such as tone of voice and physical gestures. Previously, stories were shared primarily via oral means where the storyteller provided context and details which gradually faded over time in people's memories. Communication technologies from the printing press to email have changed how people exchange information, but social media is distinct in allowing everyday people to post for larger and more varied audiences with ease. Moreover, social media messages do not simply convey messages, but they also serve as data to be used by surveilers, brokers, and companies.</p> <p>However, people do not "share" information online so much as they post information for imagined—both intended and unintended—audiences (boyd & Marwick, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>]). danah boyd ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref4">2</reflink>]) identified four features that create new affordances and constraints for posting online:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> persistence: the durability of online expressions and content;</item> <p></p> <item> visibility: the potential audience who can bear witness;</item> <p></p> <item> spreadability: the ease with which content can be shared; and</item> <p></p> <item> searchability: the ability to find content (p. 11).</item> </ulist> <p>While people tend to appreciate these affordances for what they do, they also undo things (Postman, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref5">37</reflink>]) like how cars—over time—have undone dense, walkable cities (Speck, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref6">44</reflink>]). The affordances of persistence and searchability are also constraints when, for example, people lose the right for some things to be forgotten. The affordance of visibility is also a constraint when people share images and videos without the consent of the recorded. The affordance of spreadability is also a constraint when content is spread without consent or in an attempt to mock, bully, or harm. Moreover, as new ways to spread information arise, new ways to capture attention for commercial interests also arise. With each invention, advertisers have invaded the public, private, and interpersonal spheres of people's lives (Wu, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref7">58</reflink>]). With smartphones and social media, the exchange of information online is ripe for exploitation and surveillance.</p> <p>In a networked world, companies often place the onus "on the individual to understand and adjust their settings and practices accordingly" (Marwick & boyd, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref8">31</reflink>], p. 1062). Madrigal ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref9">29</reflink>]) calculated that if a user were to read all of the terms and conditions they encounter in a year "it would take you 76 work days to complete the task" (para. 4). Rodesiler's ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref10">40</reflink>]) study of public school districts found that 19 of 30 districts in his sample had some form of social media policy, but many were ambiguous and often failed to clarify what constituted educational versus personal use. For example, several districts permitted social media for educational purposes in their policies but also had a contradictory statement later in the policy such as, "Staff members shall not access social media from the [districts]'s network for either personal or educational use" (p. 298).</p> <p>"Sharing" on social media has regularly been framed positively in education literature (Greenhow et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref11">17</reflink>]), but it can also result in harm such as unwanted exposure (Dowell et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref12">10</reflink>]). Due to the misframing, we find the term <emph>posting</emph> to be more accurate. In this paper, we detail examples of overposting in educational contexts where parents/guardians, administrators, teachers, and students digitally post and distribute information about others that is invasive, harmful, exploitative, or illegal. When people overpost, they violate the privacy, trust, respect, or autonomy of others. We contend that the problem of overposting often lies as much with the digital ecosystem created by technologists, legislators, and other adults as with the individual poster. The rapid shift to online digital communication has left many educators unaware of the problems or how to address them.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-5">From Parental Sharenting to Educational Overposting</hd> <p>Technologists design platforms that shape the spaces in which posting and overposting are encouraged and amplified (Hari, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref13">19</reflink>]). In schools and society, the boundaries for posting information are often defined by the practices, policies, and laws that are in place. While legislators and administrators often develop laws for society or policies for schools, parents and teachers often share information about their children or students without consent or consideration of downstream consequences (Fox & Hoy, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref14">13</reflink>]; Plunkett, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref15">35</reflink>]; Rosenberg et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref16">41</reflink>]).</p> <p>To address this complex and emerging digital ecosystem, we turn to Plunkett's ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref17">35</reflink>]) problems of <emph>sharenting</emph>—a portmanteau of <emph>share</emph> and <emph>parent</emph>. Plunkett uses the term <emph>sharenting</emph> to focus on the role of adults, often starting with parents or guardians, in sharing images, information, and data with people and companies. While she includes educators in her discussion, we will primarily focus on the role of educators, students, and school contexts for overposting.</p> <p>Without considering how posting on social media is different from previous eras, adults can disseminate information about children without their consent or knowledge. These patterns can begin before birth with the posting of ultrasound images and continue with images of birthdays and other personal details. Leah Plunkett ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref18">35</reflink>]) contended that such posting by and about young people stifles the space adolescents need to mature, make mistakes, and develop in ways afforded to previous generations. Additionally, youth overpost information about themselves and others as their adolescent identities emerge in exploitative digital spaces (Anderson & Jiang, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref19">1</reflink>]; Kahne et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref20">23</reflink>]; Mark, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref21">30</reflink>]; Plunkett, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref22">35</reflink>]/b). Unfortunately, this also includes the cyberbullying of vulnerable or marginalized students who can be subject to racist, sexist, or other bigoted posts by classmates (Schermele, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref23">42</reflink>]). Sometimes, hypocritically, the very adults who seek to control the social media posting of young people can then be the ones who post personal information about those they claim to protect (Rosenberg et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref24">41</reflink>]). Some parents even engage in <emph>commercial sharenting</emph>—a practice whereby parents seek income or notoriety by broadcasting their families' private or everyday experiences to the public through digital platforms, especially on social media.</p> <p>Much of what constitutes overposting involves the inclusion of personally identifiable information (PII), which the U. S Department of Education (USDOE) defines as "information that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual's identity either directly or indirectly through linkages with other information" ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref25">53</reflink>], para. 1). The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) identify PII more comprehensively as information including the name and the address of the student's parent or other family members, student's social security number or biometric record, student's date and place of birth and mother's maiden name. Although FERPA requires the student or the parent to provide written consent to disclose PII, under some conditions written consent is not required such as the disclosure is made to other school officials, including teachers within the agency or the institution, a contractor, consultant, volunteer, or other party to whom an agency or institution has outsourced institutional services and functions. Hackers can exploit PII to set up bank accounts, companies to profile and target advertisements, and schools or courts to punish youth based on behavioral predictions. Social media has made it easier for teachers and other trusted adults to easily capture, keep, and disseminate private childhood experiences for commercial purposes (Plunkett, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref26">35</reflink>]). In such an environment of overposting, are we surprised our colleagues' student (the story with which we opened this paper) thought it was okay to share images and videos of her teaching on Snapchat? We now review Plunkett's ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref27">35</reflink>]) categories of oversharing and translate them to educational contexts.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-6">Criminal, Illegal, or Dangerous Consequences</hd> <p>Adults often view social media platforms as spaces for building personal, professional, or commercial relationships. According to Plunkett ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref28">35</reflink>]), this view encourages <emph>sharenting</emph> without considering the perilous consequences of their children or students' private data. Adults posting children's private and PII can put children and their data in compromising situations. Young people can be vulnerable to misconduct from those who might use their PII and data for illegal activities. Because acts such as stalking, identity theft, and cyberbullying are illegal, victims maintain legal means for recourse. Most often, criminal or illegal acts come not from unknown people, but from people who victims may trust. Harms to young people can have devastating effects that may result in kidnapping, suicide, or sexual assault (Federal Bureau of Investigation, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref29">12</reflink>]; Fry, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref30">14</reflink>]; Gallagher, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref31">15</reflink>]; National Institutes of Health, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref32">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>Two laws directly affect educational practices: First, FERPA of [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref33">11</reflink>] (last revised in 2011) is a federal law that offers some protection when educators overpost students' PII without prior parental consent in schools that receive federal funding. FERPA was originally designed to limit access to physical educational records to parents, but now it also applies to digital records. The law is intended to prohibit teachers and other school district employees from sharing PII without prior parental or guardian consent. FERPA enforcement focuses on reducing access to disciplinary actions or grades but can also apply to other educational activities.</p> <p>According to FERPA, parents or guardians must provide schools' and teachers' consent before posting any video or images of students. To comply with this law, many school districts must provide either an opt-in or opt-out "media release" consent form at the beginning of the school year (see Appendix A for example). This document allows the school district to use any photo, video, or audio recording to "promote" the school district. Furthermore, like the example in Appendix A, these forms designate recorded media as the district's property, release them from any liabilities, and allow them and their designees to use the media perpetually. Policies like FERPA <emph>should</emph> protect students from overposting online and <emph>should</emph> prevent educators from posting about students' grades or assignments on Facebook or, if their parents or guardians opted out, pictures that include them.</p> <p>However, there are cases where FERPA is violated. For instance, a teacher's contract was terminated in a district in Texas, because the teacher shared the personally identifying information of 692 students with another colleague who did not have legitimate educational interest in the testing room rosters or student information. This colleague later shared this information with a third party without the consent of the students, parents, or guardians (Texas Classroom Teachers Association, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref34">49</reflink>]). As we detail in the next section, FERPA provides exceptions that create loopholes, permit vast sharing of student data, and work against the law's intent of protecting students.</p> <p>In response to an inquiry from the state of Louisiana about disclosing the ethnicity, gender, and economic status of students' PII, the USDOE explained that "Any release of demographic or performance information derived from students' education records, even in aggregate form, carries some level of risk of disclosure of PII, and no statistical disclosure limitation methodology can completely eliminate that risk" (Styles, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref35">47</reflink>], p. 2). Additionally, it is noted that some data elements such as variables relating to socio-economic status, disability, and discipline carry a greater risk of reidentification than others and require stronger protections than other less sensitive data elements. Cyberbullying or cyberstalking laws can provide some legal protections—albeit narrowly applied—to both students and educators in cases of overposting.</p> <p>The second area of law concerns cyberbullying, which can be defined as "an aggressive, intentional act carried out by a group or individual, using electronic forms of contact, repeatedly and over time against a victim who cannot easily defend him or herself" (Smith et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref36">43</reflink>], p. 376). There are no federal cyberbullying laws, but all states have such laws. For example, the Texas Education Code 37.0832 ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref37">50</reflink>]) defined cyberbullying as:...bullying that is done through the use of any electronic communication device, including through the use of a cellular or other type of telephone, a computer, a camera, electronic mail, instant messaging, text messaging, a social media application, an Internet website, or any other Internet-based communication tool.</p> <p>Cyberbullying can include but is not limited to, activities such as sending hateful messages, emailing private photos or videos to public groups, making hateful or hurtful comments on social media, and unsolicited posting or forwarding of comments or pictures from others. In a survey conducted in the spring of 2022, nearly half of U.S. teens aged between 13 and 17 (46%) reported having ever experienced one type of cyberbullying behavior (Vogels, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref38">56</reflink>]). While research shows cyberbullying is prevalent among teens, it can also occur between different groups within schools including teacher-to-student, teacher-to-teacher, or student-to-teacher. Twemlow and Fonagy ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref39">51</reflink>]) conducted research in which they examined the relationship between teacher bullying and school behavioral problems in an elementary school, they described a teacher bully "as one who uses his or her power to punish, manipulate, or disparage a student beyond what would be a reasonable disciplinary procedure" (p. 2387). In another research, after extensive interviews with students, Chapel and McDermott ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref40">6</reflink>]) contended that teacher-to-student bullying is more likely to take place in the classroom than online. Both kinds of bullying have harmful effects on children's social-emotional well-being. After research in elementary schools, Zerillo and Osterman ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref41">59</reflink>]) concluded that "many of the bullying behaviors adopted by teachers and peers result in students' sense of exclusion from the classroom community" (p. 253). They also argued that "teacher bullying is a problem that, for now, is largely unrecognized and unaddressed" (p. 254). Student-to-student bullying offers a clear case of overposting that is supposed to be prevented by laws and policies like FERPA, but in practice, it has not provided the desired protections.</p> <p>There are, of course, other threats to students' PII data. For example, after several cases of cyber attacks that targeted school districts, especially, in three states, USDOE's Privacy Technical Assistance Service ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref42">38</reflink>]) published a cyber advisory to inform all school districts about this new threat in which criminals illegally asked for money from districts and educational institutions threatening them to release sensitive data of students. As Jones ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref43">22</reflink>]) reported one of these cases occurred in Montana. Hackers sent graphic threats to parents via text messages and sent a ransom note to the school district to ask for Bitcoin payments. Student Privacy Policy Office (SPPO) indicated attackers targeted districts with weaker security data.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-7">Legal—but Invasive, Opaque, and Suspect Consequences</hd> <p>Plunkett ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref44">36</reflink>]) depicted the legal risks of <emph>sharenting</emph> as "invasive, opaque, and suspect" because once parents post information online there is little way to account for what happens with the data (p. 468). This information can put youth at risk of identity theft, surveillance, and cyberbullying. Information that children did not choose to post can be collected by data brokers who can use it for many legal applications: advertising and marketing, product development, law enforcement databases, immigration enforcement, academic predictions, assessing college applications, criminal investigations, and more.</p> <p>Some laws and policies intended to protect students allow for invasive practices, often through opaque language or application, and this can result in suspect consequences. For example, many laws use a consent-based or opt-out approach to privacy that can fail to ensure consent and secure privacy. The Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) of [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref45">7</reflink>], amended in 2013, aims to protect children under the age of 13 from the collection of online personal information. Parents are empowered to protect minors by encouraging them to opt-out, but this rests on the presumption that adults always have minors' best interests in mind. This does not mean that adults always have mal-intent, but they can be ignorant of the risks of overposting. Plunkett ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref46">36</reflink>]) challenged COPPA's assumption "that parents can be the strongest protectors of their children's data privacy" (p. 475). She ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref47">35</reflink>]) detailed how many adults include, or even exploit, their children through commercial sharenting.</p> <p>Similarly, some educators post students' pictures, schoolwork, or other information for their benefit or reputation without concern for students' wishes and privacy. Teachers have different platforms and different intentions for posting. Some educators post students' information on Twitter (Tang & Hew, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref48">48</reflink>]), Reddit (Staudt Willet & Carpenter, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref49">45</reflink>]), Instagram (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref50">5</reflink>]), Facebook (Rosenberg et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref51">41</reflink>]) TikTok (Vizcaíno-Verdú & Abidin, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref52">55</reflink>]) or other platforms. Educators have, for example, cited Twitter as a source for professional learning and support (Carpenter & Krutka, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref53">4</reflink>]). However, these posts can have negative effects even when consent is legally ascertained. A parent may, for example, want their child's picture included in a yearbook but not on a Facebook page. Catch-all consents do not allow families opportunities to select which images or videos are shared.</p> <p>The more robust Student Online Personal Information Protection Act (SOPIPA) was signed into law in California in August 2014 and went into effect in January 2016. The law prohibited advertising that specifically targeted students, and allowed for controls to be placed on third parties "when the targeting of the advertising is based upon any information, including covered information and persistent unique identifiers, that the operator has acquired" from a student's use of the website. Under the law, any third party also may not "use information, including persistent unique identifiers, created or gathered by the operator's site, service, or application, to amass a profile about a K–12 student except in furtherance of K–12 school purposes" (SOPIPA, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref54">46</reflink>]). Already limited by its restriction to youth who live in California, this law also has loopholes and lacks robust enforcement. The act prohibits companies from serving targeted ads within educational apps but still allows the collection of students' data and serving targeted ads depending on the PII of students when students navigate outside of the educational apps.</p> <p>While FERPA is intended to protect students' PII, it has regularly failed to do so in practice. FERPA allows the sharing of PII when sharing with school officials, and this group has been broadly defined to include third-party organizations and companies who perform duties for the school. Moreover, school administrators and teachers may believe that posting activities from the school that include students' faces and other PII is innocuous, but this information can be scraped from social media and the school's website for criminal, illegal, or nefarious purposes. Rosenberg and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref55">41</reflink>]) researched how Facebook posts about students that schools and districts share might risk students' privacy. They examined nearly 5 million posts with identifiable images of students. Among these posts, approximately 726,000 included students' first and last names and their approximate locations. Their research showed that although social media posts are protected under FERPA, educational institutions still regularly expose students to risk. Media release forms make such overposting legal under the rules of FERPA and have resulted in educators contributing to the failure of laws like FERPA to protect students.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-8">Identity Formation Consequences</hd> <p>Plunkett ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref56">36</reflink>]) explained that <emph>sharenting</emph> can have major consequences on children's identity formation, including their reputation, relationships, sense of self, and emotional well-being. Children may lack awareness of the content posted online about them which can result in their experiencing feelings of exposure, vulnerability, and powerlessness (Livingstone et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref57">28</reflink>]). The lack of control over who sees or learns about a child's online image can erode their sense of agency and privacy (boyd & Marwick, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref58">3</reflink>]). Plunkett ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref59">36</reflink>]) explained that "privacy is essential for play" and "play is essential for identity formation" (p. 472). The constant expectation and threat of surveillance can stifle children's capacity and freedom to play. This overprotection can restrain their abilities to develop creativity, social-emotional skills, resilience, and self-expression. An internal research study by Facebook that was leaked through the <emph>Wall Street Journal</emph> showed that Instagram negatively influenced the mental health of teenage girls by increasing anxiety and depression because of their increased focus on social comparison and lifestyles (Wells et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref60">57</reflink>]).</p> <p>There are well-documented risks to adolescent social media use that include cyberbullying, depression, and exposure to extreme content—many of these are situations exacerbated by a collapsed context. Context collapse occurs when a message intended for one audience is read by a different audience. Social media amplifies this phenomenon and can leave youth vulnerable as their messages are visible, persistent, and searchable. For instance, those who are victims of cyberbullying post their content for an intended audience, say family and friends, but, due to the visibility and searchability of online content, bullies or other unintended audiences can access the post and harm the original poster. Thus, cyberbullying can result in "more depressive symptoms than traditional bullying" (Uhls et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref61">52</reflink>], p. 569). According to Uhls and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref62">52</reflink>]), adolescents are subject to a higher number of negative comments when they engage in online posting because the "frequency of social media use played a role in the relationship between mass media and an objectified self-concept" (p. 569). These instances of overposting can be detrimental to identity development as one is unable to mediate their online and offline lives. Another potential danger could be the possible addiction to their technological devices or technical applications which will also result in low school engagement—behaviorally and emotionally (Griffiths et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref63">18</reflink>]; Qahri-Saremi & Turel, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref64">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>There is a legal gray area with consent: a person can feel personally harmed by the context or picture posted online but does not have any process by which to remove it. Currently, laws on consent refer mainly to audio recordings. Some states have one-party consent, others two-party consent, but these do not consider the ease and access people have to take photos, and videos, and upload them to public media. One such example includes our colleague's experience in her classroom with which we opened this paper. These experiences can have negative psychosocial and professional implications.</p> <p>Young people's experiences online can cause harm to their burgeoning identities in an assortment of ways. Students can suffer from bullying, and the practice can be normalized (boyd, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref65">2</reflink>]). In their survey, Anderson and Jiang ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref66">1</reflink>]) found that teens generally viewed social media favorably. On the other hand, teenagers usually find themselves disconnecting from social media due to bullying (52%), and they experience social pressure to present a positive image to others online (43%). Additionally, they conveyed that they tend to post too often (54%) in an attempt to garner more likes or comments (37%), while rarely deleting, regulating, or restricting their posts.</p> <p>People, both adults and children, often post about others without consent by justifying their intent is harmless. In doing so, they may be unaware of, or rationalize, the unintended consequences of their sharing on social media. What may seem like a harmless selfie, might capture a person in the background who does not want to be identified. This can also result in an array of downstream problems for youth. As boyd ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref67">2</reflink>]) noted, the internet is persistent, visible, spreadable, and searchable, yielding no shortage of incidents where the posts of adolescents can haunt young adults as they apply to colleges and jobs. In recent years, youth have had their character questioned when college admissions committees viewed posts intended for peers in their local community (boyd, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref68">2</reflink>]), and admission offers were rescinded for sharing racist memes in private Facebook groups (Herald, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref69">20</reflink>]; Kausch, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref70">24</reflink>]). How should adults and institutions evaluate youth posts, even when youth are clearly in the wrong such as in the latter cases? Plunkett ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref71">36</reflink>]) contended that "kids and teenagers should have room to play, to mess up, and to grow up better for having done so" (p. xvi).</p> <p>Some teens recognize the fraught nature of their relationship with smartphones and technology and are resisting the dangers to their wellness and attention. For example, high school student Logan Lane started a Luddite Club at her high school that encourages like-minded teens to ditch their smartphones and reclaim their time and attention (Vadukul, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref72">54</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-9">Educational Approaches to Overposting</hd> <p>We contend that <emph>overposting</emph> is a societal problem that schools should take seriously. While tech companies and for-profit educational platforms facilitate the problem, it is one that educators must attempt to address. Educators can address policies, reconsider practices, and encourage pedagogies that challenge overposting and seek to protect young people.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-10">Policies</hd> <p>Although FERPA, cyberbullying laws, and other federal and state laws provide some protection in schools, educators must convey which laws and policies provide meaningful protection to students. At the time of submission, there are increasing efforts from legislators to pass a range of laws aimed at offering more protection for youth online. Regardless of whether legislation is strengthened, schools should clearly explain how laws are intended to protect youth so parents/guardians can pursue legal recourse, or, more likely, incur changes by informing parties of illegal acts. More importantly, school districts need to create clearly defined policies relating to topics such as media recording. Consent must be given for the photos/videos/audio to be taken, sent to others, saved to phones, and/or uploaded to social platforms each time they are recorded. Consent should also be invoked for pictures of faculty and administrators as well as students. Catch-all consent for student photos could be applied to large group photos, but students and teachers should be able to grant informed consent before photos are uploaded to social media accounts. Educators can empower students to better understand how cyberbullying legislation provides meaningful protection.</p> <p>Social media companies design platforms to increase user activity (Neti, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref73">34</reflink>]), thus encouraging overposting. Educators must help develop policies that can serve as guardrails for posting behaviors online. Plunkett ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref74">35</reflink>]) suggested that people realign posting practices to adhere to four principles: Play, Forget, Connect, and Respect. <emph>Play</emph> with technology but within certain safety parameters. This means holding tech companies accountable for how they use data and how they market products. It means tech companies are required to receive consent from the subject of a photo before the photo is allowed to be uploaded and shared. Users also need the power to <emph>forget</emph> by allowing means for removing information, particularly of minors. Tech companies could limit spreadability on platforms, require the consent of the subject of a post, remove downloading or screen-capturing features, and delete content in a timely manner when requested. Some of these practices are already in place for child pornography/endangerment or hate speech, but these more cautious protocols could be expanded.</p> <p>To <emph>connect</emph> requires more thoughtful sharing practices. Overposting about our coworkers, our students, and ourselves can leave a digital trail and create a digital picture of ourselves that does not match our aims. Plunkett explained this is driven by our need to connect with others. We can be more mindful of what we write, photograph, and share in digital spaces, to make sure what we are sharing is the picture of ourselves. Finally, educators can also show <emph>respect</emph> for young people by including them in discussions about whether sharing certain information and data is worth the cost of using social media or educational technologies in schools. Too often, these decisions are exclusively made by technology directions in school districts without the consultation of educators and students. Participation in shaping policies could offer powerful educational experiences for young people in a digital world.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-11">Practices</hd> <p>While overposting is facilitated by laws and policies, it is also cultural. Creating a safer digital environment for youth requires a shift toward more cautious and careful online practices. Young people, in particular, are still developing executive functioning skills that help regulate their behaviors online (Mark, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref75">30</reflink>]), and also responding to a social need to connect with peers (Plunkett, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref76">35</reflink>]). Educators can model more mindful practices of what they write, photograph, and post in digital spaces, and share these practices with students. Plunkett suggested taking a "Christmas card" approach to online posting—If you wouldn't write it or share it in a holiday card, then it probably should not be posted online. This encourages both educators and youth to slow down and consider how others would interpret posts about them.</p> <p>The use of technology such as surveillance cameras or online monitoring normalizes cultural assumptions that citizens should be watched and recorded at all times. While security cameras record for limited audiences, they normalize the invasion of privacy for the sake of some other cause. While there are good reasons for surveillance cameras, at present most students have no choice in the matter. It would respect and preserve the agency of students if they participated in the decision of how surveillance cameras are used. We suspect they would agree to their use in some cases, but acting on this presumption does not model the civic process. They are in themselves a form of overposting not unlike Ring cameras (Gilliard & Golumbia, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref77">16</reflink>]) that must be problematized to promote connective, respectful communities. Educators and schools should work with students to value privacy in school spaces and question the increasing surveillance that exists outside schools. Creating new, and safer settings for digital posting can encourage cultures where privacy allows for more free, supportive, and safe online environments.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-12">Pedagogy</hd> <p>Instead of asking students or their parents to sign a catch-all consent form, educators can make digital consent a topic of study in their classes. Posting is not bad per se, but overposting carries a risk to the individual, the students, and society that should be addressed in schools. Kyriacou and Zuin ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref78">27</reflink>]) suggest that positive school ethos can combat cyberbullying, even in cases where students "bully" teachers online. Educators need to create spaces where they openly discuss with students personal sharing comfort levels, detailing when they are comfortable being captured, recorded, and shared in and out of school. These discussions should convey the message that all people, including youth, have a right to control what is posted about them online.</p> <p>A well-developed digital citizenship curriculum can form the basis of these conversations but has to be robust and continually reinforced throughout K–12 education (Hollandsworth et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref79">21</reflink>]). This means that educators must move beyond lessons about netiquette or personal protection online to focus on social issues to which citizens must respond. Digital citizenship should be grounded in participatory and justice-oriented notions of citizenship, not just personally responsible citizenship (Krutka & Carpenter, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref80">25</reflink>]). Dialogues around social problems will set the expectations around overposting. Common Sense Media ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref81">9</reflink>]) outlines six core topics of digital citizenship that might help reduce overposting: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref82">1</reflink>) media balance and well-being; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref83">2</reflink>) privacy and security; (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref84">3</reflink>) digital footprint and identity; (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref85">4</reflink>) relationships and communication; (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref86">5</reflink>) cyberbullying, digital drama, and hate speech; and (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref87">6</reflink>) news and media literacy.</p> <p>These expectations can foster critical thinking about the role of social media in students' lives and allow for conversations among students and educators about striking a balance between offline and online lives. Discussions around privacy, identity, relationships, and cyberbullying directly address the harms and problems of overposting. The first step in resisting a problem is developing an awareness of social problems. Curricula can help students develop critical consciousness concerning the overreach of technology.</p> <p>Teachers and students should learn how to mitigate harm and amplify the benefits of social media experiences. There are a variety of direct and indirect ways to address the positive aspects of posting, including identity development, self-expression, and community building, which are essential for student development (Mihailidis & Cohen, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref88">32</reflink>]). Then classes could discuss the negative aspects of overposting, such as the loss and invasion of privacy and the permanency of virtual spaces, and potentially conduct a technoethical audit (Krutka et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref89">26</reflink>]; Also <emph>see</emph> Civics of Technology, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref90">8</reflink>]). Students need to understand the importance of asking permission before posting videos and pictures to virtual spaces and what privacy rights they lose when they post.</p> <p>Finally, educators can open dialogues about the harms of cyberbullying and the real-life consequences of using virtual spaces to harass, intimidate, defame, or embarrass another. It is not realistic to think social media posting will stop, but educators can encourage a new awareness and concern for what is posted.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-13">Final Post</hd> <p>By introducing the term <emph>overposting</emph> we hope to ignite a conversation about the downsides of social media participation for youth. Teachers and students both overpost. They have different roles and expectations, so their overposting must be understood in their contexts. Educators have an ethical duty to care for and protect their students. Overposting violates this ethic. Students have an obligation to learn responsible and safe ways to interact with one another—in person and online. Digital environments can nudge both groups toward behaviors and experiences that they do not want. Therefore, educators and students should work together to ensure that online spaces are platforms where young people can play without being harmed.</p> <p>In our opening story, our colleague rightfully felt indignant upon her discovery of overposts about her. Exchanges like this happen ad nauseam in both schools and everyday life. However, we should not blame students for overposting without consent. Adults—from technologists to legislators to educators and parents/guardians—have created the digital environments and cultures that normalize such behavior. Our colleague's student might have overposted because of an affinity for their teacher, but educators need open conversations that value impact as much as intent. With a rapidly shifting digital environment, educators must be safeguards for students and society to create the digital world in which we all want to live.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-14">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0178777351-15">Human and Animal Rights</hd> <p>This theoretical paper did not include research of human participants and/or animals.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-16">Informed Consent</hd> <p>This theoretical paper did not require informed consent.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-17">Competing Interests</hd> <p>The authors have no competing interests to disclose that directly or indirectly relate to the work in this paper that is submitted for publication.</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-18">Appendix A: Example Photography and Video Release Form</hd> <p>Graph</p> <hd id="AN0178777351-19">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0178777351-20"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref19" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Anderson, M, & Jiang, J. 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  Data: Why Is There a Picture of Me on Snapchat?: Educational Approaches to Overposting
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gulhan+C%2E+Sari%22">Gulhan C. Sari</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Daniel+G%2E+Krutka%22">Daniel G. Krutka</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1261-4838">0000-0003-1261-4838</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ryan+M%2E+Smits%22">Ryan M. Smits</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22TechTrends%3A+Linking+Research+and+Practice+to+Improve+Learning%22"><i>TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning</i></searchLink>. 2024 68(4):682-692.
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
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  Data: 11
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  Data: 2024
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Evaluative
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Media%22">Social Media</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personal+Autonomy%22">Personal Autonomy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Participation%22">Participation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Disclosure+%28Individuals%29%22">Self Disclosure (Individuals)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Mediated+Communication%22">Computer Mediated Communication</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Bullying%22">Bullying</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stakeholders%22">Stakeholders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Sharing+Behavior%22">Sharing Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Relationship%22">Interpersonal Relationship</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1007/s11528-024-00970-1
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  Data: 8756-3894<br />1559-7075
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
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  Data: Social media platforms have transformed how students and educators "share" information about school experiences. In this paper, we translate Leah Plunkett's sharenting concept (a portmanteau of "share" and "parent") to address the phenomenon of "overposting" in education. Overposting (a portmanteau of "overreach" and "post") designates the digital distribution of information about others that is invasive, harmful, exploitative, or illegal. We describe instances where students or teachers post about others on social media in ways that are illegal, invasive, harmful, or exploitative. Examples of overposting range from cyberbullying to sharing photos or videos of others' without their permission, including from school accounts. We conclude by offering an educational approach to address overposting through education, conversation, and negotiation among students, teachers, and administrators.
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  Data: 2024
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        PageCount: 11
        StartPage: 682
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      – SubjectFull: Social Media
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Personal Autonomy
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      – SubjectFull: Participation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Disclosure (Individuals)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Computer Mediated Communication
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Bullying
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Stakeholders
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Sharing Behavior
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      – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Relationship
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      – TitleFull: Why Is There a Picture of Me on Snapchat?: Educational Approaches to Overposting
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              Y: 2024
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